LECTURE 01: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

This module will explain the basic concepts and principles of surveying, sources of
survey information, and kinds of surveys and instruments use in surveying. Includes the
concepts of mistakes, errors, and magnitude of errors and theory of probability in relations
with errors.

1.1 Definitions of Surveying

1.2 General Classification of Surveying
1.3 Types of Survey
1.4 Surveying Instruments
1.5 Surveying Measurements
1.6 The Concepts of Mistakes, Errors and Magnitudes of Errors
1.7 Theory of Probability
1.8 Illustrative Problems
1.9 Evaluation

LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

• Define surveying
• Explain the importance of surveying in different fields of specialization
• Recognize different surveying instruments
• Differentiate surveying measurements
• Demonstrate the magnitude of errors
• Apply the theories of probabilities in computations

1.1 DEFINITION of SURVEYING

✓ “Surveying is the art of determining

the positions of points on or near the
earth’s surface by means of
measurements in the three elements
of space; namely, distance, direction,
and elevation.” – Rayner and Schmidt.

✓ “Surveying is the art of measuring

horizontal and vertical distances
between objects, of measuring angles
between lines, of determining the
direction of lines, and of establishing
points by predetermined angular and
linear measurements.” – Davis, Foote,
Anderson, and Mikhail.

✓ “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points on the
surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial features may be
exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships.” – Clarke

✓ “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining area
of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines, the
contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on paper.” – Webster.

✓ “Surveying is the science or art of making such

measurements as are necessary to determine the
relative position of points above, on, or beneath the
surface of the earth, or to establish such points.” –
Breed, Hosmer, and Bone.

✓ “Surveying is the science and art of determining

relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the
surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” –
Binker and Wolf.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 1
1.2 General Classification of Surveying.
1. Plane Surveying- is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a
flat surface, and where the distances and areas involved are of limited extent that
the exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic Surveying- are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of
high precision, and related calculations involve the solving spherical trigonometry,
calculus, and some applications of the theory of the least squares.

1.3 TYPES OF SURVEYS

1. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and
rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and
boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries
of municipalities, towns, and provincial jurisdictions.
2. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and preparing
maps.
3. Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are undertaken at a construction
site to provide data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration, and the location and elevation of structures which are of concern to
engineers, architects, and builders.
4. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest management
and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
5. Hydrographic Surveys – refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors,
oceans, and other bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart
the shape of areas underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They
are general importance in connection with navigation, development of water supply
and resources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydroelectric power,
subaqueous constructions, and recreation.
6. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, layout
and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where very
accurate dimensional layouts are required.
7. Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of
mining claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and
establish lines and grades for other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of photographs taken
with specially designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in conjunction
with limited ground surveys
9. Route Surveys – involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthwork
quantities, location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning,
design, and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission
lines, and other linear projects.
10. Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the shape of the
ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it. The
features shown include such natural objects as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief
of the ground surface, etc; and works of man, such as roads, buildings, ports, towns,
municipalities, and bridges.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 2
 1.4 SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. Telescope – The invention of the

telescope in 1607 is generally
accredited to Lippershey. In 1609,
Galileo constructed a refracting
telescope for astronomical
observations. However, it was only
when cross hairs for fixing the line of
sight were introduced, that the
telescope was used in early
telescope was used in early surveying instruments.

2. Transit and Theodolite. These tools are used to measure both horizontal and
vertical angles. Both tools have a minimum accuracy of one minute of angle,
though the theodolite is generally recognized as the more accurate of the
two, measuring angles to an accuracy of
one-tenth of a second angle.
3. Plane Table – used in field mapping. It
consists of a board attached to a tripod in
such a way that it can be leveled or
rotated to any desired direction
4. Vernier – a short auxiliary scale placed
alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument, by means of which refractional
parts of the smallest or least division of the
main scale can be determined precisely
without having to interpolate. It was
invented 1631 by a Frenchman name
Pierre Vernier. Surveying instrument
employ either a direct or retrograde vernier.
5. Compass – The magnetic compass came
into wide use during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It
was first introduced for use in navigation. The compass consists of a
magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle.
The needle continues to point toward magneticnorth and gives a reading
which is dependent upon the position of the graduated circle.
6. Chains and Tape. Taking accurate measurements is one of the most
important tasks a land surveyor must complete. There is a variety of tools
that can be used to take measurements including tapes, rulers, chains,
and laser devices. Pocket tapes are ideal for small-scale measurements
while measuring wheels, nylon coated steel tapes (Nyclad tapes),
and fiberglass tape measures can be used for larger distances.
7. Levels. A level can be used to read an elevation and determine differences in
elevation between two points. These tools can be handheld, optical or digital,
and are typically used in conjunction with level rods or tripods.
8. Safety Gear. Land surveyors work in all kinds of conditions and climates,
but safety is always the primary concern. High-visibility gear and safety
headwear are a must for all outdoor work crews.
9. Prism systems are used to secure control points at a comfortable and
accessible height for pinpoint accuracy. These devices can be mounted on
surveying poles and used in conjunction with electronic distance measuring
(EDM) instruments for improved accuracy.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 3
 10. Poles, Tripods and Mounts. Even the most precise of surveying instruments
can be thrown off by an unstable mount. Poles, tripods, and other mounting
accessories are essential for surveyors to ensure solid, stable readings.
These mounts can be used for all kinds of surveying equipment, including
prisms, lasers, and levels.
1.5 SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS

➢ Direct Measurement
Distances are actually measured in the surface of the earth using Chain
or Tape Measurement or Ranging.
➢ Indirect Measurement
❖ Measurement by Optical Means
-observations are taken through a telescope and distances
are determined by calculation as in tachometer and triangulation.
❖ Electronic Methods
-Distances are measured with instrument that rely on
propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio or
light waves.

ANGULAR UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

➢ Sexagesimal Units- units of angular measurement are the degree, minute, and
second. The unit of angle used in surveying is the degree which is defined as
1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes, and 1 minute equals to 60
seconds.
➢ Centesimal Units- many countries in Europe and the Middle East use the
centesimal system where grad is the angular unit. The grad is divided into 100
centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute is subdivided into 100
centesimal seconds or 0 degree 00 minute 32.4 seconds.

1.6 THE CONCEPTS OF MISTAKES, ERRORS, AND MAGNITUDES OF ERRORS.

➢ MISTAKES. Are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a
surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgment, and improper execution. Mistakes are also caused by misunderstanding of
the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is reffered to
as a blunder
➢ ERRORS. An error is defined as the difference between the true value and a measured
value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true
value and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Systematic Errors
This type of error is one which will always have the same sign and magnitude as long
as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For changing field conditions there is a
corresponding change in magnitude of error, however, the sign remains constant. A systematic
error will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will
accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a cumulative error.
2. Accidental Errors
These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence of such errors are
matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative, and may tend in part to
compensate or average out according to laws of probability. There is no absolute way of
determining or eliminating them since the error for an observation of a quantity is not likely to
be the same as for a second observation.

Magnitude of Errors

1. Discrepancy – the difference between two measured values of the same quantity.
2. ACCURACY. Indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value
of the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and
___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 4
 their expectations. The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its
actual value represents the total error in the measurement. As the measured value
approaches the actual value, the magnitude of the error becomes smaller and smaller;
and as the magnitude of the total error is decreased, the accuracy of the measurement
increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed less accurate if it deviates by a
significant amount from its expected value, and it is more accurate if the deviation is
relatively small.
3. PRECISION. Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set
of repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of observations is closely
clustered together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high precision.
Since precision relates to the expertness of manipulation on the part of the observer or
to the capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise instruments
under ideal conditions employing the best techniques.

1.7 THEORY of PROBABILITY.

Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the
range of possible occurences. The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of
results only in so far as they are affected by accidental errors. It does not, however, in any way
determine the magnitude of systematic errors which may also be present.

A. MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv)

The most probable value (mvp) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar
conditions is the arithmetic mean or the average. It refers to a quantity which, based on
available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.

mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

Examples
1. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance between
two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the following six

different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22 meters.

Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result from accidental
errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.

Solutions:
mpv= ΣX/n= (X1+X2+X3+.....+Xn)/ n

mpv= (250.25+ 250.15+ 249.90+ 251.04+ 250.50+ 251.22)/6

mpv= 250.51m (the most probable value of of the distance measured)

2. The angles about a point Q have the following observed values. 130°15’20”,
142°37’30”, and 87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value of each angle.

Solutions:
a) Determining the correction to be applied.
Sum= θ1+θ2+ θ3= 130°15’20”+ 142°37’30”+ 87°07’40”
= 360°00’30’’ (sum of the angles observed about point Q)
Disc = 360- 360°00’30’’
= -30” (discrepancy in the observation)
b) Determining the most probable values.
Correction = Discrepancy/ n
= -30”/3
= -10”
corrected θ1 = 130°15’20” + (-10”)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 5
 = 130°15’10’’
corrected θ2 = 142°37’30” + (-10”)
= 142°37’20’’
corrected θ3 = 87°07’40” + (-10”)
= 87°07’30”

c) Solution Check.
130°15’10’’+142°37’20’’+ 87°07’30”= 360°
B. RESIDUAL (v)
Sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference between any
measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or
𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
Where:
𝑣 = is the residual in any measurement,
𝑥 = is a measurement made of a particular quantity, and
𝑥̅ = is the most probable value of the quantity measured.

C. PROBABLE ERROR (PE)

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value
of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus sets.
∑𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = +0.6745√
𝑛−1

∑𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = +0.6745√
𝑛(𝑛−1)
Where:
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
n = number of observation

D. RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION (RP)

Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of the measured quantity in the
denominator. The relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also
written as 1:2355.

E. WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
It is usually based upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements
taken for a particular quantity, and by assuming that the weights are inversely proportional to
the square of the probable errors.

F. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
In some instances it is required to determine how the final results is affected when
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental error. Two commonly applied
principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product of errors.
F.1. Summation of Errors

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 +. . . + 𝑃𝐸𝑛 2

where:
𝑃𝐸𝑠 is the probable error of the sum
𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 + . . . + 𝑃𝐸𝑛 2 are the probable error of each measurement.

F.2. Product of Errors

𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝑄1 𝑥𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑄2 𝑥𝑃𝐸1 )2

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 6
 where:
𝑃𝐸𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑄2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸2 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

1.8 Illustrative Problems.

A. Probable Error. The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters.
Determining the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length.
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean’
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement

Solution:

a) n= 6 (number of observations)
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4 + 𝑥5 + 𝑥6
= 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000.40 + 1000.46
= 6002.70 m

Mpv or 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥 / 𝑛
= 60002.70 / 6
= 1000.45 (most probable value of the measured length)

b.) 𝑣1 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.58 + 1000.45 = +0.13

𝑣2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.40 + 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣3 = (𝑥3 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.38 + 1000.45 = −0.07
𝑣4 = (𝑥4 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.48 + 1000.45 = +0.03
𝑣5 = (𝑥5 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.40 + 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣6 = (𝑥6 − 𝑥̅ ) = 1000.46 + 1000.45 = +0.01

𝑣1 2 = (0.13)2 = 0.0169
𝑣2 2 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
𝑣3 2 = (−0.07)2 = 0.0049
𝑣4 2 = (+0.03)2 = 0.0009
𝑣5 2 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
𝑣6 2 = (−0.01)2 = 0.0001

∑ 𝑉 2 = 𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2 + 𝑣3 2 + 𝑣4 2 + 𝑣5 2 + 𝑣6 2
= 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001
= 0.0278
∑𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = +0.6745√
𝑛−1

0.0278
= + 0.6745 √
6−1
= + 0.05 𝑚 (probable error of a single measurement)
∑𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = +0.6745√
𝑛(𝑛−1)

0.0278
= +0.6745√
6(6−1)

= +0.02 𝑚 (probable error of the mean)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 7
 c.) Therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as 1000.45 + 0.02 m.
This means that there is a 50 percent chance that the true distance measured probably fails
between 1000.43 and 1000.47 m, and that its most probable value is 1000.45 m. There is also,
however; a 50 percent chance that the true distance lies outside this range.

𝑃𝐸𝑠
d.) 𝑅𝑃𝑠 =
𝑀𝑃𝑉
0.05
=
1000.45
= 1/20, 000 (the relative precision of a single measurement)
𝑃𝐸
𝑅𝑃𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑀𝑃𝑉
0.02
=
1000.45
= 1/50, 000 (the relative precision of a the mean)

B. SUMMATION OF ERRORS. The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given

by the following measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54 + 0.03
m, b = 234.26 + 0.05 m, and c = 195.70 + 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of
the sum and the most probable value of the perimeter.
Perimeter = a + b + c
= 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70
= 592.50 m

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 +. . . + 𝑃𝐸𝑛 2

= ±√(0.03)2 + (0.05)2 + (0.04)2

= ±0.07 𝑚

Note : Therefore, the perimeter would be expressed as 592.50 ± 0.07 m. This

means that the true length of the perimeter probably falls between
592.43 m and 592.57 m.

C.) PRODUCT OF ERRORS. The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with a
certain estimated probable errors as follows: W = 253.36 ± 0.06 m and
L=624.15± 0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable area in the
resulting calculation.

Area = L x W
= 624.15 (253.36)
= 158134.64 sq m
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝐿 𝑥 𝑃𝐸𝑊 )2 + (𝑊 𝑥 𝑃𝐸𝐿 )2
= ±√(624.15 𝑥 0.06)2 + (253.36 𝑥 0.08)2
= ±42.58 𝑠𝑞 𝑚
Note : Therefore, the area of the land would be expressed as 158134.64 ± 42.58
sq m. This means that the true area of the lot probably falls between 158092.06 sq m
and 158177.22 sq m.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 8
 D.) Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and
284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2 and 4, respectively. Determine the
weighted mean.

MEASURED LENGTH (X) ASSIGNED WEIGHT (W) P = X(W)

284.18 m 1 284.18

284.19 m 2 852.57

284.22 m 3 568.44

284.20 m 4 1, 136.80

SUMS ∑W = 10 ∑F= 2, 841.99

Weighted mean = ∑P / ∑W
= 2841.99/10
= 284.20 (most probable value of the distance measured)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 9
1.9 EVALUATION

Name: __________________________________________ Rating: _____

ACTIVITY NO. 1

Relate your course to your subject by giving a detailed application and importance of your
course to your field of specialization or to the field of civil engineering.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 10
Name: __________________________________________ Rating: _____

ACTIVITY NO. 2

Direction: Show all pertinent solution and box your final answer.

1. Measurement of three horizontal angles (see accompanying figure) about a point P are:
APB = 120 31’ 50”, BPC = 370 29’ 20” and CPD = 470 36’ 30”.If the measurement of the
single angle APD is 970 37’ 00”, determine the most probable values of the angles.

D C

P A

2. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and probable
error of each mean value was computed with the following results:
1st set of measurements = 1201.50± 0.02 m
2nd set of measurements= 1201.45± 0.04 m
3rd set of measurements = 1201.62± 0.05 m
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

3. It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has been measured
at different times by different observers with equal care. The values observed were as
follows: 74039’45” (in two measurements), 74039’27” (in four measurements, and
74039’35” (in six measurements).

___________________________________________________________________________________________
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING 11