Materials and Corrosion 54, 229–234 (2003)
Development of corrosion sensors for monitoring
steel-corroding agents in reinforced concrete
structures
Entwicklung von Korrosionssensoren zur Überwachung von stahlangreifenden
Substanzen in Stahlbetonbauwerken
Corrosion sensors were devised to develop a system whereby the
depth of chloride permeation from concrete surfaces can be mon-
itored non-destructively on a real-time basis using such sensors em-
bedded in cover concrete of reinforced concrete structures. The pro-
posed corrosion sensors were subjected to accelerated corrosion in
NaCl solutions, mortar specimens intrinsically containing chlor-
ides, and mortar specimens impregnated with chloride solutions,
while recording the changes in the resistance readings. The resis-
tance of sensors increased as the degree of corrosion increased. The
time to the first change in the resistance decreased and the corrosion
degree and resistance increased as the chloride concentration in-
creased and as the distance from mortar surfaces decreased. It
was therefore confirmed that the corrosion sensors are capable
of monitoring the depth of chloride permeation with sufficient ac-
curacy.
1 Introduction
Being an economical structure with high seismic resistance,
fire resistance, and durability, reinforced concrete (RC) con-
struction is widely applied to building structures, such as
houses, hospitals, and power plants, as well as civil structures,
such as dams, bridges, airports, and nuclear facilities. Dete-
rioration of reinforced concrete structures greatly depends
on environmental conditions, such as carbonation and chlor-
ide attack, and materializes as reinforcement corrosion [1 – 4].
For this reason, methods to prevent or repair reinforcement
corrosion are widely practiced at construction sites. However,
repair of a reinforced concrete structure with corroded rein-
forcement requires tremendous cost, yet the original perform-
ance is hardly restorable[5]. If permeation of CO2 and chloride
* H. S. Lee,
Hanyang University, Department of Architectural Design,
1271, Sa-1 dong, Ansan-City, Kyunggi-do, 425-791 (Korea)
S. W. Shin, J. M. Ahn
Hanyang University, STRESS, Department of Architecture En-
gineering,
Sa-dong, Ansan-City, Kyunggi-do, 425-791 (Korea)
Y. C. Kim, Y. T. Kho
Korea Gas Corporation R&D, Pipeline Research Center,
638-1, 2-Dong, Ansan-City, Kyunggi-Do, 425-150 (Korea)
F 2003 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Corrosion sensors for reinforced concrete structures 229
H. S. Lee*, S. W. Shin, J. M. Ahn, Y. C. Kim
and Y. T. Kho
Korrosionssensoren wurden entworfen, um ein System zu ent-
wickeln, mit dem die Tiefe des Chlorideindringens von der Beton-
oberfläche aus mittels solcher in die Betonüberdeckung von Stahl-
betonbauwerken eingebauter Sensoren zerstörungsfrei in Echtzeit
überwacht werden kann. Die vorgeschlagenen Sensoren wurden ei-
ner beschleunigten Korrosion in NaCl-Lösungen, in Mörtelproben
mit eingemischten Chloriden und in Mörtelproben mit externer
Chloridbeaufschlagung unterzogen, wobei die Veränderungen der
Widerstandswerte aufgezeichnet wurden. Mit zunehmendem
Grad an Korrosion stieg der Widerstand der Sensoren an. Mit stei-
gender Chloridkonzentration und abnehmender Entfernung von der
Mörteloberfläche nahm die Zeit bis zur ersten Veränderung des Wi-
derstandes ab und der Korrosionsgrad und der Widerstand stiegen
an. Es wurde damit bestätigt, dass es mit den Korrosionssensoren
möglich ist, die Tiefe des Chlorideindringens mit ausreichender Ge-
nauigkeit zu überwachen.
ions, which are major causes of reinforcement corrosion, in
cover concrete can be monitored on a real-time basis, then
degradation of the durability of important structures can be
prevented before corrosion onset [6].
With this as a background, the authors developed corrosion
sensors to monitor chloride permeation, a major cause of steel
corrosion of reinforced concrete structures. These were em-
bedded in concrete to evaluate their responses to chlorides
in fundamental experiments, thereby investigating their prac-
tical feasibility.
2 Outline of sensors for corrosion monitoring
2.1 Shape and mechanism of corrosion sensors
Fig. 1 shows a photograph and sketch of the proposed cor-
rosion sensor. The corrosion sensor comprises an alumina sub-
strate measuring 13 by 15 by 0.5 mm, on which wires are
printed to configure a circuit.
Table 1 gives the initial resistances of corrosion sensors
ranging between 1 and 6 X. The initial resistance changes
when iron on the substrate is corroded by a corrosive agent.
One single wire cut by corrosion is designed to change the
resistance by 100 X. A change of approximately 1,000 X in-
dicates that all the wires are broken.
0947-5117/03/0404-0229$17.50þ.50/0
230 Lee, Shin, Ahn, Kim and Kho Materials and Corrosion 54, 229–234 (2003)

Fig. 1. Photograph and sketch of the proposed corrosion sensor

Abb. 1. Photo und Schema des vorgeschlagenen Korrosionssen-
sors

Table 1. Initial resistances of the proposed corrosion sensors

Fig. 2. Schematic drawing of a corrosion sensor monitoring system
Tabelle 1. Anfangswiderstände der vorgeschlagenen Korrosions-
for RC structures
sensoren
Abb. 2. Schematische Darstellung des Korrosionssensorüberwa-
Numbers Initial resistance of sensors chungssystems für Stahlbetonbauwerke

1 1.6 X
2 3.0 X
3 5.6 X
4 3.3 X
5 1.9 X
6 1.9 X
7 1.5 X
8 3.2 X

2.2 Applications for corrosion sensors

Fig. 2 shows a schematic drawing of a corrosion sensor

monitoring system applied to a reinforced concrete structure.
Corrosion sensors are embedded at different distances from
the concrete surface to monitor permeation of CO2 and chlor-
ide ions by the changes in their resistance values due to iron
corrosion. In the case of newly built structures, these sensors
can be used for nondestructive monitoring of deterioration
agents from the environment before such agents gain access
to steel reinforcement. In the case of existing structures, per-
meation of deterioration agents can be indirectly measured by
embedding a reference concrete/mortar with known physical
properties in which corrosion sensors are encased. The mon-
itoring system can also be used for verifying the effect of cor-
rosion-inhibiting agents coated on the surfaces of concrete or
for quantitatively measuring the resistance of reinforcing
steel, which depends on the degree of reinforcement corro-
sion, by directly connecting the sensors coated to prevent cor-
rosion to the reinforcing bars.
3 Performance evaluation of corrosion sensors
3.1 Response testing of corrosion sensors in NaCl
solutions
In order to investigate the degree of changes in the sensor
resistance due to chloride-induced corrosion, sensors were
subjected to accelerated corrosion by being repeatedly im-
mersed and dried using aqueous solutions of NaCl with con-
Fig. 3. Schematic drawing of accelerated corrosion method in
NaCl solutions
Abb. 3. Schematische Darstellung der beschleunigten Korrosions-
methode in NACl-Lösungen
centrations of 0%, 0.1%, 0.3%, and 1.0% (Table 2 and Fig. 3)
in cycles of 12-hour wetting and 12-hour drying in air. The
resistance was measured in the wetting phases.
3.2 Sensor response testing in mortar containing chlorides
Mortar specimens having different chloride ion contents
(percentage of NaCl by mass of sand) were fabricated to in-
vestigate the effect of chloride concentration in mortar on the
responses of sensors (Table 3). As shown in Fig. 4, each speci-
men, with a sensor embedded in the center, was water-cured
for 7 days and then subjected to cyclic moistening and drying
in cycles of 12 hours at 95% RH and 12 hours at 45% RH,
while maintaining the temperature fixed at 60 8C using a ther-
mohygrostat. The resistance readings of the corrosion sensors
were recorded immediately after the specified numbers of cy-
cles.
Materials and Corrosion 54, 229–234 (2003) Corrosion sensors for reinforced concrete structures 231

Table 2. NaCl concentrations of each specimens

Tabelle 2. NaCl-Konzentrationen für jede Probe

Numbers NaCl contents

1 0% NaCl
2 0.1% NaCl
3 0.3% NaCl
4 1.3% NaCl

Table 3. Configuration of sensor response testing in mortar con-

taining chlorides
Tabelle 3. Konfiguration der Prüfung der Sensorantwort in chlo-
ridhaltigem Mörtel

No. NaCl Initial Mix proportion Fig. 5. Schematic drawing of accelerated corrosion method to
contents Resistance of mortar chloride permeation into mortar (Unit: mm)
of sensor Abb. 5. Schematische Darstellung der beschleunigten Korrosions-
methode bei Chlorideindringen in Mörtel
1 0% 1.6 X Cement : Sand
2 0.04% 3.0 X (1 : 3)
3 0.1% 5.6 X W/C ¼ 0.5 water-cured for 7 days and then coated with epoxy resin ex-
4 0.3% 3.3 X cept on the surface through which chlorides are allowed to
permeate. The specimens were then subjected to accelerated
corrosion cycles consisting of 12 hours at 95% RH, 11 hours at
Table 4. Configuration of sensor response testing to chloride per-
meation into mortar 45% RH while the temperature was fixed at 60 8C using a ther-
mohygrostat, and 1-hour immersion in an aqueous solution of
Tabelle 4. Konfiguration der Prüfung der Sensorantwort bei Chlo-
rideindringen in Mörtel 3% NaCl. The resistance readings of the sensors were re-
corded immediately after the specified numbers of cycles.
No. Distances Initial Mix proportion
from surface Resistance of mortar
of sensor 4 Results and discussion
1 5 mm 1.9 X Cement : Sand 4.1 Response of corrosion sensors in NaCl solutions
2 10 mm 1.9 X (1 : 3)
3 20 mm 1.5 X W/C ¼ 0.5
4 30 mm 3.2 X Fig. 6 shows the changes in the resistance readings of cor-
rosion sensors by different chloride concentrations of aqueous
NaCl solutions. In a solution with a NaCl concentration of
1.0%, red rust was found on half the sensors after 2 cycles.
The resistance readings of sensors also surged to 18.38 kX.
The resistance and red rust area increased thereafter as corro-

Fig. 4. Schematic drawing of accelerated corrosion method in mor-

tar containing chlorides (Unit: mm)
Abb. 4. Schematische Darstellung der beschleunigten Korrosions-
methode in chloridhaltigem Mörtel

3.3 Sensor response testing to chloride permeation into

mortar
In order to investigate the response of sensors to chloride
permeation into mortar, specimens were fabricated with cor-
rosion sensors embedded at distances of 5, 10, 20, and 30 mm
from the surface as shown in Fig. 5. The specimens were
Fig. 6. Changes in the resistance readings of corrosion sensors by
different chloride concentrations of aqueous NaCl solution
Abb. 6. Veränderungen der Widerstandswerte der Korrosionssen-
soren bei verschiedenen Chloridkonzentrationen der wässrigen
NaCl-Lösungen
232 Lee, Shin, Ahn, Kim and Kho Materials and Corrosion 54, 229–234 (2003)

sion developed. This was also the case with a 0.3% NaCl so-
lution, with the resistance surging to 15.00 kX after 4 cycles
while the red rust area increased as corrosion developed. On
the other hand, solutions with a NaCl concentration as low as
0.1% exhibited only slight increases in the resistance during
the same period with only small red rust. Since the resistance
changes earlier and to a higher level as the NaCl concentration
increases, the proposed corrosion sensors are capable of not
only responding to the presence of chlorides in solutions
but also indicating various degrees of corrosion and resistance
in response to the chloride concentrations.
sponse appears, presumably because a higher chloride con-
centration causes earlier corrosion of sensors whose thin wires
are made of iron.
As stated above, the proposed corrosion sensors not only
respond to the presence of chlorides in mortar but also
show different degrees of corrosion and response times ac-
cording to the chloride concentration in mortar. It is therefore
judged that the chloride concentration in mortar can be inver-
sely determined by quantitatively measuring the resistance
changes and response time of the corrosion sensors.

4.3 Response of corrosion sensors to chloride permeation

4.2 Response of corrosion sensors in mortar intrinsically
containing chlorides Fig. 9 shows the changes in the resistance readings of sen-
sors embedded at distances of 5, 10, 20, and 30 mm from the
Fig. 7 shows the time-related changes in the resistance
readings of corrosion sensors embedded in mortar containing
different percentages of chlorides. The resistance reading of
corrosion sensors embedded in mortar containing chlorides at
a NaCl-sand ratio of 0.3% by mass begins to change at 30
cycles of accelerated corrosion and increases as corrosion pro-
ceeds. Whereas no change is observed throughout the testing
in the resistance in specimens containing no chlorides, the re-
sistance begins to change at 65 and 45 cycles when the NaCl-
sand ratio is 0.04% and 0.1%, respectively. The resistance
then progressively increased as the accelerated corrosion pro-
ceeded. The resistance of specimens with 0.3% and 0.1%
chloride abruptly increases at 70 and 110 cycles, respectively.
This results from breakage of a single thin wire of sensors. In
the case of 0.3% chloride, the resistance tends to increase after
the breakage of a single wire, showing step-shaped increases.
Accordingly, it is inferred that the resistance readings of the
sensors slowly increase while light corrosion proceeds on the
surfaces of the wires but abruptly increases when the wire
cross section decreases to breakage.
Fig. 8 shows the relationship between the chloride concen-
Fig. 8. Relationship between the chloride concentration and the
tration and the time to the first response of sensors. The higher time to the first response of sensors
the chloride concentration in mortar, the earlier the first re-
Abb. 8. Beziehung zwischen der Chloridkonzentration und der
Zeit des ersten Sensoransprechens

Fig. 7. Time-related changes in the resistance readings of corro-
sion sensors embedded in mortar containing different percentages
of chlorides
Abb. 7. Zeitliche Veränderungen der Widerstandswerte der in
Mörtel mit verschiedenen Chloridgehalten eingebauten Korro-
sionssensoren
Fig. 9. Time-related changes in the resistance readings of corro-
sion sensors embedded in mortar (testing to chloride permeation
into mortar)
Abb. 9. Zeitliche Veränderungen der Widerstandswerte der in
Mörtel eingebauten Korrosionssensoren (Untersuchung des Chlo-
rideindringens in den Mörtel)
Materials and Corrosion 54, 229–234 (2003)
Fig. 10. Relationship between the distance from the uncoated mor-
tar surface and the first response time of corrosion sensors
Abb. 10. Beziehung zwischen dem Abstand von der unbeschich-
teten Mörteloberfläche und dem ersten Ansprechen des Korrosions-
sensors
Fig. 11. Relationship between the sensor position and the initial
response time, both nondimensionalized by dividing by the datum
values: the distance of 1 mm and the initial response time at the
distance of 5 mm, respectively
Abb. 11. Beziehung zwischen der Sensorposition und der anfäng-
lichen Ansprechzeit, beide entdimensioniert durch Division der An-
fangswerte: dem Abstand von 5 mm bzw. der Anfangsansprechzeit
bei einem Abstand von 5 mm
uncoated surface of mortar specimens subjected to accelerated
corrosion testing using 3% aqueous solution of NaCl. The re-
sistance of the sensor at a depth of 5 mm, the one closest to the
mortar surface, shows the first change at 2 cycles and surges
thereafter, reaching 1,300 kX, which means breakage of all
wires, at 12 cycles. Meanwhile, sensors deeper inward scar-
cely show changes in the resistance, presumably because the
chloride concentration varies depending on the distance from
the uncoated mortar surface. Sensors at 10 and 20 mm show
the first change in the resistance at 6 and 16 cycles, respec-
tively, of accelerated corrosion followed by stepwise increases
in the resistance. This is presumably because thin wires of cor-
Corrosion sensors for reinforced concrete structures 233
rosion sensors corroded as the chloride concentration in-
creased and broke one after another with the progress of cor-
rosion, resulting in stepwise changes in the resistance values.
Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the distance from
the uncoated mortar surface and the first response time of cor-
rosion sensors. The shorter the distance from the uncoated sur-
face, the earlier the first response, because the concentration
of chlorides permeating from the uncoated surface decreased
as the distance from the surface increased, resulting in differ-
ent levels of corrosion and response times. The proposed cor-
rosion sensor is found to sensitively respond to chloride per-
meation from mortar surfaces and judged as being capable of
nondestructively monitoring the depth of chloride permeation
from the environment.
Fig. 11 shows the relationship between the sensor position
and the initial response time, both nondimensionalized by di-
viding by the datum values: the distance of 5 mm and the in-
itial response time at the distance of 5 mm, respectively. A
strong correlation to the 1.5 power is observed between these
parameters, which means that chlorides permeating from the
mortar surface corroded the sensors, causing their resistance
to change. If sensors sensitive to chloride permeation in mor-
tar are developed and chloride concentration at the position of
each sensor is quantitatively measured, then not only the dif-
fusion coefficient of chlorides but also the time of steel corro-
sion can be quantitatively elucidated.
Accordingly, this series of study suggests a possibility of
providing methods of not only nondestructively monitoring
chloride permeation in reinforced concrete structures but
also elucidating the mechanism of chloride permeation and
reinforcement corrosion on a time axis.
5 Conclusions
Corrosion sensors that are corroded by chlorides were de-
vised, prior to developing a system of nondestructive monitor-
ing on a real-time basis using such sensors embedded in cover
concrete. These sensors were subjected to accelerated corro-
sion tests in NaCl solutions, mortar specimens containing
chlorides, and mortar specimens permeated by chlorides,
while measuring the resistance values. The following basic
findings were obtained:
(a) The proposed corrosion sensors not only exhibit corrosion-
induced changes in the resistance values but also exhibit an
earlier response to a higher chloride concentration. A higher
chloride concentration also leads to a higher degree of corro-
sion and higher resistance reading of the sensors after the same
accelerated corrosion period.
(b) When the proposed corrosion sensors are embedded in
mortar at different distances from the surface through which
chlorides permeate, the sensors closer to the surface exhibit
earlier first changes in the resistance readings and higher de-
grees of corrosion and resistance after the same accelerated
corrosion period.
(c) The results of the above fundamental experiments proved
that the proposed corrosion sensors not only respond to chlor-
ides by being corroded but also can monitor the depth of chlor-
ide permeation with sufficient accuracy. The authors intend to
proceed to concrete tests and field tests.
234 Lee, Shin, Ahn, Kim and Kho
6 Acknowledgements
This study forms a part of the results of the joint industry-
university study for 2001 titled “Development of non-destruc-
tive and real-time diagnostic systems for reinforcement cor-
rosion to maintain durability of reinforced concrete struc-
tures” supported by the Pipeline Research Center of South
Korea Gas Public Corporation and STRESS of Hanyang Uni-
versity.
Materials and Corrosion 54, 229–234 (2003)
7 References
[1] CEB: Durable Concrete Structures, Comite Euro-International
du Beton, Bulletin D-Information No. 183, May 1992.
[2] J. Rodriguez, Durability of Building Materials and Compo-
nents 1996, 7, 117.
[3] H. S. Lee, F. Tomosawa, T. Noguchi, Durability of Building
Materials and Components 1996, 7, 571.
[4] S. Morinaga, Durability of Building Materials and Components
1996 7, 127.
[5] F. Tomosawa, International Symposium on Building Materials
for the 21st Century, September 27, 2000, 40.
[6] K. Takewaka, S. Ymamoto, Proceedings of the Japan Concrete
Institute 2001, 23, 1183.
(Received: May 21, 2002) W 3656