Excretory Products

and Their
Elimination
 Types of Excretion
• Ammoneotelic : most of aquatic
organisms
• Ureotelic: mammals and
terrestrial organisms
• Uricotelic : birds, reptiles, snails
 Types of excretory organs
• Invertebrates: Tubular structures
• Crustaceans (Prawn) : Antennal glands
• Platyhelminthes (Liver fluke,
Flatworms): Flame cells
• Insects: Malphighion tubules
• Cephalochordates (Amphioxus) :
Protonephridia
• Earthworms: Nephridia
• Vertebrates: Kidney
 Human Excretory System
• The kidneys regulate the amount of
water, salts and other substances in
the blood and 120-170 g.
• The kidneys are fist-sized, bean
shaped structures (10-12 cm long, 5-
7 cm in width and 2-3 cm thick)
• Remove nitrogenous wastes (urine)
and excess salts from the blood.
• The ureters are tubes that carry urine
from the pelvis of the kidneys to the
urinary bladder.
• The urinary bladder temporarily
stores urine until it is released
from the body.
• The urethra is the tube that
carries urine from the urinary
bladder to the outside of the body.
• The outer end of the urethra is
controlled by a circular muscle
called a sphincter.
Excretory System
 The Kidney
• Each kidney is composed of three
sections:
• the outer (renal) cortex, the (renal) medulla
(middle part) and the hollow inner (renal)
pelvis.
• The cortex is where the blood is filtered.
• The medulla contains the collecting ducts which
carry filtrate (filtered substances) to the pelvis.
• The pelvis is a hollow cavity where urine
accumulates and drains into the ureter.
 Function of the Kidney
• The principal function of the kidney is
to filter blood in order to remove
cellular waste products from the body.
• At any given time, 20 % of blood is in
the kidneys. Humans can function
with one kidney.
• If one ceases to work, the other
increases in size to handle the
workload.
• The kidney has other functions but it
is usually associated with the
excretion of cellular waste such as :
• 1) urea (a nitrogenous waste
produced in the liver from the
breakdown of protein. It is the main
component of urine) ;
• 2) uric acid (usually produced from
breakdown of DNA or RNA) and
• 3) creatinine (waste product of
muscle action).
• All of these compounds have nitrogen as a
major component.
• The kidneys are more than excretory
organs.
• They are one of the major homeostatic
organs of the body.
• They control water pH, secrete
erythropoietin (a hormone that stimulates
red blood cell production) and activate
vitamin D production in the skin.
• That is why a doctor can tell so much
from a urine sample.
The Parts
of the
Kidney
 How blood is Filtered
• The filtering units of the kidneys are the
nephrons.
• There are approximately one million nephrons in
each kidney.
• The nephrons are located within the cortex and
medulla of each kidney.
• The tubes of the nephron are surrounded by
cells and a network of blood vessels spreads
throughout the tissue. Therefore, material that
leaves the nephron enters the surrounding cells
and returns to the bloodstream by a network of
vessels.
 Parts of the Nephron
• Each nephron consists of the following
parts:
• 1) glomerulus ;
• 2) Bowman’s capsule ;
• 3) proximal tubule ;
• 4) loop of Henle ;
• 5) distal tubule ;
• 6) collecting duct.
 Outline

• Uriniferous tubule (anatomical unit for

forming urine)
• Nephron
• Renal corpuscle (in cortex)
• Glomerulus (tuft of capillaries)
• Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
• Tubular section
• Proximal convoluted tubule
• Loop of Henle
• Distal convoluted tubule
• Collecting duct
14
Kidney action (cont)

• Only materials needed by the body are

returned to bloodstream — for example,
99 % of water, all glucose and amino acids
and many salts are reabsorbed.
• Osmosis , diffusion, and active transport
draw water , glucose , amino acids and
ions from filtrate into surrounding cells.
• Small villi like projections help in the active
transport of glucose out of the filtrate and
speed up the reabsorption process.
• From here, these components return to
the bloodstream.
Kidney action (cont)

• The filtrate reaches the end of the

proximal tubule and the fluid is isotonic
with the surrounding cells.
• Glucose and amino acids have been
removed from the filtrate.
• The filtrate then moves to the loop of
Henle whose primary function is to
remove water from the filtrate by osmosis.
Kidney action (cont)

• There is in increase in sodium

concentration in the cells of the loop of
Henle as we move from the area of the
cortex to the inner pelvis of the kidney.
• This causes water to be drawn from the
filtrate.
• These high levels of sodium are a result of
active transport and results in increased
concentration of filtrate (due to water loss).
Understand at least this much:
Filtration
a. Fluid is squeezed out of
the glomerular capillary
bed
Resorption
b. Most nutrients, water ad
essential ions are
returned to the blood of
the peritubular
capillaries
Secretion
c. Moves additional
undesirable molecules
into tubule from blood of
peritubular capillaries
18
 The nephron

In the cortex

In the medulla

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 The nephron
Bowman’s capsule
Branch of renal
artery Glomerulus

Branch of renal Proximal

vein convoluted tubule

Distil convoluted Capillary

tubule

Collecting duct

Loop of Henlé

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Filtration in the glomerulus
• Blood enters the glomerulus
from a branch of the renal
artery
• This blood is under high
pressure
• The capillary walls are one
cell thick
• They are pierced with
openings (fenestrations)
• The plasma filters though
the membrane under Southern Illinois School of Medicine

pressure
• Proteins do not pass
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
 Filtration in the glomerulus

Southern Illinois School of Medicine

Auer Lab Life Sci Div Lawrence Berkley National Lab
The filtration membrane is
held in place by specialised
podocytes
© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
 The Glomerulus
• The glomerulus is a mass of thin-walled
capillaries.
• The Bowman’s capsule is a double-walled,
cup-shaped structure.
• The proximal tubule leads from the Bowman’s
capsule to the Loop of Henle.
• The loop of Henle is a long loop which extends
into the medulla.
• The distal tubule connects the loop of Henle to
the collecting duct.
25
FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): PCT is lined
by simple cuboidal
• brush border epithelium which increases the surface
area for reabsorption.
• Nearly all of the essential nutrients, and 70-80 per
cent of electrolytes and water are reabsorbed by this
segment. PCT also helps to maintain the pH and ionic
balance of the body fluids by selective secretion of
• hydrogen ions, ammonia and potassium ions into the
filtrate and by absorption of HCO3 from it.
 The nephron functions

Freely permeable Impermeable Variable permeability

to water to water to water

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 The nephron osmoregulation
Active
Na+ Nareabsorption
+ Na+

H2O H2O
Passive
osmosis
Ultrafiltration
under pressure 80% of water
reabsorbed

Freely permeable Impermeable Variable permeability

to water to water to water

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 The nephron osmoregulation

Collecting
Loop

duct

More and more salty

of
Henlé
Na+
Na+ H2O H2O
H2O
Na+
H2O H2O
H2O
H2O H2O

Freely permeable Impermeable Variable permeability

to water to water to water

© 2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

 Henle’s Loop: Reabsorption
in this segment is minimum.
• This region plays a significant role in the
maintenance of high osmolarity of medullary
interstitial fluid.
• The descending limb of loop of Henle is
permeable to water but almost impermeable to
electrolytes.
• The ascending limb is impermeable to water but
allows transport of electrolytes actively or
• passively. Therefore, as the concentrated filtrate
pass upward, it gets diluted due to the passage
of electrolytes to the medullary fluid.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule
(DCT)
• Conditional re-absorption of Na+
• and water takes place in this segment.
DCT is also capable of re-absorption
• of HCO3 – and selective secretion of
hydrogen and potassium ions and
• NH3 to maintain the pH and sodium-
potassium balance in blood.
Counter current
Mechanism
 Counter current mechanism
• Vasa recta and loop of Henle play very
important role in concentrating the urine.
• Two loops of henle’s descending and
ascending loop formed the counter current.
• This counter current help in maintaining an
increase in osmolarity towards inner medulary
interstitium i.e 300 mOsmol/L in the cortex
and 1200 mOsmol/L
• This is mainly maintained by NaCl and Urea
• NaCl is transported by ascending loop of
Henle which exchanged with descending loop
of vasa recta
• Similarly small amount of urea also enteres
into ascending loop of Henle which is
transported back to the interstitium by the
collecting tubule.
• This special arrangement made by loop of
Henle and vasa recta called CCM
 Micturation
• The process by which urine is discharged
out from the body that called micturation.
• When ever bladder get filled with urine
then signal goes to CNS this signal
started by the stretching of urinary
bladder.
• An adult person discharge about 1-1.5 l
urine per day having urea 25-30g that is
yellowish colored and a having pH 6.0
 The nephron osmoregulation
• The blood concentration is monitored by
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus,
• The amount of filtrate formed by the kidney per
minute is called GFR i.e 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180
litres per day.
• If the concentration rises the hypothalamus releases
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• ADH makes the collecting duct walls more
permeable
• More water is reabsorbed from the filtrate as the
ducts pass through the salty tissues of the medulla
 Kidney reabsorption

Component Filtrate Urine

/ mg 100cm-3 / mg 100cm-3
Urea 0.03 2.00
Glucose 0.10 0
Amino acids 0.05 0
Salts 0.72 1.50
Proteins 0 0
 Role of Hormone IN EXCRITION
• ADH: Also called vasopresin secreted by
hypothalamus facilitate water
reabsorption
• Renin-Angiotensin Mechanism: Juxta
glomerular cells Secreted renin that
convert angiostensiogen to angiotensin I
then to angiostensin II that acts as
vasocontrictor increase the blood pressure
in Glomerla and finally GFR
• Angiostensin II also secretes
Aldosterone cause reabsorption of Na
and water in DCT
• Atrial Natriuretic factor (ANF) cause
vasodilation and decrease the blood
pressure. This keep an check on
renin-angiostensin mechanism.
 Explanation of RAAS
• The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is a collection of
hormones that work together to manage inflammation
and regulate blood pressure. It’s called a system
because each component has an impact on the others,
and all are required for the whole to function properly.

• The renin-angiotensin system, which works in

conjunction with the kidneys to control blood pressure,
is a critical component of the body’s blood pressure
management system. The conventional renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) pathway is
used to do this.
• Renin Angiotensin System
• Inappropriate activation of the classical route can also have
negative consequences, such as hypertension (high blood
pressure for an extended period) and the development of vascular
disease. However, the renin-angiotensin system’s alternative renin-
angiotensin pathway supports protective, anti-inflammatory
responses.
• The classical and alternative RAS pathways work together to
create reactions that are antagonistic to one another yet balance
out their effects.
• Working on Classical RAS Pathway
• Renin
• Angiotensin I
• Angiotensin II
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme 1
• Aldosterone
• Renin
• When blood pressure falls for any reason, specific kidney cells
sense the change and release renin into the bloodstream. Renin
does not affect blood pressure on its own.
• It floats around instead, converting angiotensinogen to angiotensin
I. Angiotensinogen is a substance produced mostly by the liver that
circulates throughout the body. As a precursor molecule, it is
unable to change blood pressure. It must be converted into
angiotensin’s active form.
• Angiotensin I
• Angiotensin I has a negligible effect on blood pressure. Instead, the
majority of angiotensin I am converted to angiotensin II, a far more
powerful hormone that can cause significant blood pressure
increases.
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme 1
• This second conversion, which results in angiotensin II, occurs
primarily in the lungs and is mediated by an angiotensin-converting
enzyme. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 1 is the full name of this
enzyme (ACE1). Drugs known as ACE Inhibitors, a common type
of high blood pressure medication, can prevent this change.
• Angiotensin II
• Angiotensin II is a potent hormone that can operate directly on
blood arteries, narrowing or constricting them and raising blood
pressure. It also stimulates the release of aldosterone, which is an
important function.
• Aldosterone
• Aldosterone is a hormone that causes the kidneys to retain both
salt and water, causing the body to retain more fluid over time.
Blood pressure rises as a result of this rise.
 ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRITION
• Lungs remove CO2 (18 L/ day) and water
too
• Liver secretes bilirubin, biliverdin,
cholesterol, hormone , drugs and vitamin
that pass out through digestive waste
• Sweat and subaseous glands eliminates
NaCl, Urea, lactic acid etc
• Subaseous glands remove sterol,
hydrocarbon and waxes through sebum
 Disorders of the Excretory System
• Uremia : Accumulation of urea in blood
due to malfunctioning of kidney
• Renal failure: Non functioning of kidney
• Kidney stone: Also called renal calculi
accumulation of stone or insoluble mass
of crystallized salts e.g. oxalates that
finally formed kidney stone
• Glomerulonephritis : Inflammation of
glomeruli of kidney
 Kidney Stones
• Are also a common kidney disorder. They form when
chemicals in the urine precipitate out and form
crystals.
• The most common crystals are from calcium oxalate,
while others could be from uric acid and cystine.
• Kidney stones are more common in men than women
and can reoccur at any time.
• Factors such as recurrent urinary bladder infections,
insufficient water intake and consumption, low levels
of physical activity, and too much Vitamin C and D
intake can lead to kidney stones.
• One of the best ways to decrease the occurrence of
stones is to drink lots of water and to change your
dietary habits.
Kidney Stones (cont)

• Symptoms include severe back or abdomen

pain, blood in the urine, nausea and vomiting.
• Diagnosis involves a complete medical
examination, including X-rays.
• Treatment may vary from letting the stones
pass through the urinary tract to ultrasound
shock (or lithotripsy) to disintegrate the stones
to a small size that can be passed through the
urinary tract.
• Real large stones require surgery for removal.