COGNITIVE THERAPY

Cognitions are thoughts, beliefs, and internal images that people have about events in their lives
(Holden, 1993, 2001). Cognitive counseling theories focus on mental processes and their influ ences on
mental health and behavior. A common premise of all cognitive approaches is that how people think
largely determines how they feel and behave (Beck & Weishaar, 2014).
As a rule, cognitive theories are successful with clients who have the following character istics (Cormier,
2015):
• They are average to above-average in intelligence.
• They have moderate to high levels of functional distress.
• They are able to identify thoughts and feelings.
• They are not psychotic or disabled by present problems.
• They are willing and able to complete systematic homework assignments.
• They possess a repertoire of behavioral skills and responses.
• They process information on a visual and auditory level.
• They frequently have inhibited mental functioning, such as depression. Three theories that have a
cognitive base, rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT), reality therapy (RT), and cognitive therapy
(CT), are discussed here under the cognitive umbrella. In practice, these theories are cognitive–
behavioral in nature because they emphasize both cognitions and behaviors. They are humanistic as
well.
Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT)
FOUNDERS/DEVELOPERS.
The founder of rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT) is Albert Ellis (1913–2007). His theory has
similarities to Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy (which was formulated independently at about the same
time) and David Burns’s new mood therapy. An interesting variation on REBT is rational behavior
therapy (RBT), which was formulated by Maxie Maultsby and is more behavioral.

VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE.

Ellis (Ellis & Ellis, 2014) believes that people have both self interest and social interest. However, REBT
also assumes that people are “inherently rational and irrational, sensible and crazy” (Weinrach, 1980, p.
154). According to Ellis, this latter duality is biologically inherent and perpetuated unless a new way of
thinking is learned (Dryden, 1994). Irrational thinking, or as Ellis defines it, irrational Beliefs (iBs), may
include the invention of upsetting and disturbing thoughts. Although Ellis does not deal with the
developmental stages of individuals, he thinks that children are more vulnerable to outside influences
and irrational thinking than adults are. By nature, he believes, human beings are gullible, highly
suggestible, and easily disturbed. Overall, people have within themselves the means to control their
thoughts, feelings, and actions, but they must first realize what they are telling themselves (self-talk) to
gain command of their lives (Ellis, 1962; Weinrach, et al., 2001). This is a matter of personal, conscious
awareness. The unconscious mind is not included in Ellis’s conception of human nature. Furthermore,
Ellis believes it is a mistake for people to evaluate or rate themselves beyond the idea that everyone is a
fallible human being.

ROLE OF THE COUNSELOR.

In the REBT approach, counselors are active and direct. They are instructors who teach and correct the
client’s cognitions. “Countering a deeply ingrained belief requires more than logic. It requires consistent
repetition” (J. Krumboltz, 1992, p. 3). Therefore, counselors must listen carefully for illogical or faulty
statements from their clients and challenge beliefs. Ellis (1980) and Walen, DiGuiseppe, and Dryden
(1992) have identified several characteristics desirable for REBT counselors. They need to be bright,
knowledgeable, empathetic, respectful, genuine, concrete, persistent, scientific, interested in helping
others, and users themselves of REBT.

GOALS.
The primary goals of REBT focus on helping people realize that they can live more rational and
productive lives. REBT helps clients stop making demands and becoming upset through
“catastrophizing.” Clients in REBT may express some negative feelings, but a major goal is to help them
avoid having more of an emotional response to an event than is warranted (Weinrach et al., 2001
Another goal of REBT is to help people change self-defeating habits of thought or behav ior. One way
this is accomplished is through teaching clients the A-B-C-D-E model of REBT: A signifies the activating
experience; B represents how the person thinks about the experience; C is the emotional reaction to B.
D is disputing irrational thoughts, usually with the help of a REBT counselor, and replacing them with E
effective thoughts and hopefully a new personal philosophy that will help clients achieve great life
satisfaction (Ellis & Ellis, 2014). Through this process, REBT helps people learn how to recognize an
emotional anatomy—that is, to learn how feelings are attached to thoughts. Thoughts about
experiences may be characterized in four ways: positive, negative, neutral, or mixed.
REBT also encourages clients to be more tolerant of themselves and others and urges them to achieve
personal goals. These goals are accomplished by having people learn to think rationally to change self-
defeating behavior and by helping them learn new ways of acting. CASE EXAMPLE Delores Gets Drunk
Delores went wild one night at a sorority party and became noticeably drunk. The president of the
sorority, Kissa, approached her, took the beer from her hand, and told her she had had too much to
drink and that she would not be allowed to have another drink that night. Being a follower of the REBT
philosophy, Delores knew she could think one of four ways. The easiest was negative: “Kissa should have
minded her own business and not taken my drink or scolded me!” What might Delores have said to
herself that was positive? What mixed message could she have given herself? How would those
messages have affected her feelings?

TECHNIQUES.
REBT encompasses a number of diverse techniques. Two primary ones are teaching and disputing.
Teaching involves having clients learn the basic ideas of REBT and understand how thoughts are linked
with emotions and behaviors. This procedure is didactic and directive and is generally known as rational
emotive education (REE). Disputing thoughts and beliefs takes one of three forms: cognitive, imaginal,
and behavioral. The process is most effective when all three forms are used (Walen et al., 1992).
Cognitive disputation involves the use of direct questions, logical reasoning, and persuasion. Imaginal
disputation uses a client’s ability to imagine and employs a technique known as rational emotive
imagery (REI) (Maultsby, 1984). Behavioral disputation involves behaving in a way that is the opposite
of the client’s usual way, including role-playing and the completion of a homework assignment in which
a client actually does activities previously thought impossible to do. Sometimes behavioral disputation
may take the form of bibliotherapy, in which clients read self help books such as A Guide to Rational
Living or Staying Rational in an Irrational World. REBT techniques are confrontation and encouragement.
REBT counselors explicitly encourage clients to abandon thought processes that are not working and try
REBT. Counselors will also challenge a client who claims to be thinking rationally but in truth is not.
Cognitive Methods ( from other book)
 Disputing Irrational Beliefs: Therapists actively dispute clients' irrational beliefs, teaching them
to challenge statements like "I must succeed" or "It would be awful if I fail" (Dryden, 2002).
 Cognitive Homework: Clients make lists of problems, identify absolutist beliefs, and dispute
them using the A-B-C model. For instance, an actor afraid of failure might be asked to
 participate in a play, replacing thoughts like "I will fail" with "I can stand it if I fail" (Corey,
2009b).
 Changing Language: Clients replace "musts" and "shoulds" with preferences, learning to use
more precise language to change thinking patterns.
 Psychoeducational Methods: Therapists use educational materials to help clients understand
their problems and the therapy process (Ledley et al., 2005).
Emotive Techniques
 Rational Emotive Imagery: Clients practice imagining themselves thinking, feeling, and behaving
differently to change their emotional patterns (Ellis, 2001a, 2001b).
 Using Humor: Humor helps clients see the absurdity of their irrational beliefs and take
themselves less seriously (Wolfe, 2007).
 Role Playing: Clients rehearse behaviors and challenge underlying irrational beliefs. For example,
someone fearful of rejection can role-play an interview to address beliefs about incompetence.
 Shame-Attacking Exercises: Clients engage in activities that might attract disapproval to reduce
feelings of shame and increase self-acceptance (Ellis, 1999, 2000).
 Use of Force and Vigor: Therapists encourage clients to engage in forceful dialogues to transition
from intellectual to emotional insight.
Behavioral Techniques
REBT practitioners use standard behavior therapy techniques, including operant conditioning,
systematic desensitization, relaxation, and modeling. Behavioral homework assignments, like
desensitizing oneself to elevators by repeated use, help clients practice new skills and integrate
functional beliefs in real-life situations (Ledley et al., 2005). Doing homework may involve
desensitization and live exposure in daily life situations. Clients can be encouraged to desensitize
themselves gradually but also, at times, to perform the very things they dread doing implosively. For
example, a person with a fear of elevators may decrease this fear by going up and down in an elevator
20 or 30 times in a day. Clients actually do new and difficult things, and in this way they put their insights
to use in the form of concrete action. By acting differently, they also tend to incorporate functional
beliefs.

STRENGTHS AND CONTRIBUTIONS.

REBT has a number of unique dimensions and special emphases:
• The approach is clear, easily learned, and effective. Most clients have few problems in understanding
the principles or terminology of REBT.
• The approach can easily be combined with other behavioral techniques to help clients more fully
experience what they are learning.
• The approach is relatively short term, and clients may continue to use the approach on a self-help
basis.
• The approach has generated a great deal of literature and research for clients and counsel ors. Few
other theories have developed as much bibliotherapeutic material.
• The approach has continued to evolve over the years as techniques have been refined. • The approach
has been found effective in treating major mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety
(Puterbaugh, 2006).

LIMITATIONS.
The limitations of the REBT approach are few but significant:
• The approach cannot be used effectively with individuals who have mental problems or limitations,
such as schizophrenics and those with severe thought disorders.
• The approach may be too closely associated with its founder, Albert Ellis. Many individuals have
difficulty separating the theory from Ellis’s eccentricities.
• The approach is direct, and the potential for the counselor being overzealous and not as therapeutic as
would be ideal is a real possibility (James & Gilliland, 2013).
• The approach’s emphasis on changing thinking may not be the simplest way of helping clients change
their emotions.
Reality Therapy (RT)
FOUNDERS/DEVELOPERS.
William Glasser (1925–2013) developed reality therapy in the mid 1960s. Robert Wubbolding has
advanced this approach both through his explanation of it and his research into it.

VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE.

Reality therapy does not include a comprehensive explanation of human development, as Freud’s
system does. Yet it offers practitioners a focused view of some important aspects of human life and
human nature. A major tenet of reality therapy is its focus on consciousness: Human beings operate on
a conscious level; they are not driven by unconscious forces or instincts (Glasser, 1965, 1988, 2005). A
second belief about human nature is that everyone has a health/growth force (Glasser & Wubbolding,
1995; Wubbolding, 2011) manifested on two levels: the physical and the psychological. Physically, there
is the need to obtain life-sustaining necessities such as food, water, and shelter and use them. According
to Glasser, human behavior was once controlled by the physical need for survival (e.g., behaviors such as
breathing, digesting, and sweating). He associates these behaviors with physical, or old-brain, needs
because they are automatically controlled by the body. In modern times, most important behavior is
associated with psychological, or new-brain, needs. The four primary psychological needs are the
following:
1. Belonging—the need for friends, family, and love
2. Power—the need for self-esteem, recognition, and competition
3. Freedom—the need to make choices and decisions
4. Fun—the need for play, laughter, learning, and recreation
Associated with meeting psychological needs is the need for identity—that is, the development of a
psychologically healthy sense of self. Identity needs are met by being accepted as a person by others.
Reality therapy proposes that human learning is a life-long process based on choice. When people
realize this fact, they are more likely to choose to focus on controlling those things they have power
over, such as themselves, than to center on something or someone they cannot control, such as their
partner (Oliver, 2010). If individuals do not learn they have choices early in life, such as how to relate to
others, they can choose to learn it later. In the process they may change their identity and the way they
behave (Glasser, 2000, 2005; Glasser & Wubbolding, 1995).

ROLE OF THE COUNSELOR.

The counselor serves primarily as a teacher and model, accepting the client in a warm, involved way and
creating an environment in which counseling can take place. The counselor immediately seeks to build a
relationship with the client by developing trust through friendliness, firmness, and fairness (Wubbolding,
1998). Counselors use -ing verbs, such as angering or bullying, to describe client thoughts and actions.
Thus, there is an emphasis on choice, on what the client chooses to do (internal control, personal
responsibility) (Wubbolding, 2015). Counselor–client interaction focuses on behaviors that the client
would like to change and ways to go about making these desires a reality. It emphasizes positive, con
structive actions (Glasser, 1988, 2005). Special attention is paid to metaphors and themes clients
verbalize.
GOALS.
The primary goal of reality therapy is to help clients become psychologically strong and rational and
realize they have choices in the ways they treat themselves and others.

Related to this first goal is a second one: to help clients clarify what they want in life. It is vital for
persons to be aware of life goals if they are to act responsibly. In assessing goals, reality therapists help
their clients examine personal assets as well as environmental supports and hindrances. It is the client’s
responsibility to choose behaviors that fulfill personal needs.

A third goal of reality therapy is to help the client formulate a realistic plan to achieve personal needs
and wishes.

An additional goal of reality therapy is to have the counselor become involved with the client in a
meaningful relationship (Glasser, 1980, 1981, 2000). This relationship is based on understanding,
acceptance, empathy, and the counselor’s willingness to express faith in the client’s ability to change.

A fifth goal of reality therapy is to focus on behavior and the pres ent. Glasser (1988) believes that
behavior (i.e., thought and action) is interrelated with feeling and physiology. Thus, a change in behavior
also brings about other positive changes. Finally, reality therapy aims to eliminate punishment and
excuses from the client’s life. Often, a client uses the excuse that he or she cannot carry out a plan
because of punishment for failure by either the counselor or people in the outside environment. Reality
therapy helps the client formulate a new plan if the old one does not work.

TECHNIQUES.
Reality therapy uses action-oriented techniques that help clients realize they have choices in how they
respond to events and people and that others do not control them any more than they control others
(Glasser, 1998; Onedera & Greenwalt, 2007). Reality therapy eschews external control psychology and
what Glasser (2000) calls its seven deadly habits (i.e., “criticizing, blaming, complaining, nagging,
threatening, punishing, and bribing”) (p. 79). Some of reality therapy’s more effective and active
techniques are teaching, employing humor, confronting, role-playing, offering feedback, formulating
specific plans, and composing contracts. Reality therapy uses the WDEP system as a way of helping
counselors and clients make progress and employ techniques. In this system the W stands for wants; at
the beginning of the counseling process counselors find out what clients want and what they have been
doing (Wubbolding, 1988, 1991). Counselors in turn share their wants for and perceptions of clients’
situations. The D in WDEP involves clients further exploring the direction of their lives. Effective and
ineffective self-talk that they use is discussed and even confronted. Basic steps strategically
incorporated in these two stages include establishing a relationship and focusing on present behavior.
The E in the WDEP procedure stands for evaluation and is the cornerstone of reality therapy. Clients
are helped to evaluate their behaviors and how responsible their personal behaviors are. Behaviors that
do not contribute to helping clients meet their needs often alienate them from self and significant
others. If clients recognize a behavior as unproductive, they may be motivated to change. If there is no
recognition, the therapeutic process may break down. It is therefore crucial that clients, not the
counselor, do the evaluation. The use of humor, role-playing, and offering feedback can help at this
juncture. After evaluation, the final letter of the WDEP system, P, for plan, comes into focus. A client
concentrates on making a plan for changing behaviors. The plan stresses actions that the client will take,
not behaviors that he or she will eliminate. The best plans are simple, attainable, measurable,
immediate, and consistent (Wubbolding, 1998). They are also controlled by clients and sometimes
committed to the form of a written contract in which responsible alternatives are spelled out. Clients
are then requested to make a commitment to the plan of action.

STRENGTHS AND CONTRIBUTIONS.

Reality therapy has a number of strengths and has made contributions to counseling as follows:
• The approach is versatile and can be applied to many different populations, such as in schools (Mason
& Duba, 2009). It is especially appropriate in the treatment of conduct disorders, substance abuse
disorders, impulse control disorders, personality disorders, and antisocial behavior. It can be employed
in individual counseling with children, adolescents, adults, and the aged and in group, marriage, and
family counseling.
• The approach is concrete. Both counselor and client are able to assess how much progress is being
made and in what areas, especially if a goal-specific contract is drawn up.
• The approach emphasizes short-term treatment. Reality therapy is usually limited to relatively few
sessions that focus on present behaviors.
• The approach has national training centers and is taught internationally.
• The approach promotes responsibility and freedom within individuals without blame or criticism or an
attempt to restructure the entire personality.
• The approach has successfully challenged the medical model of client treatment. Its rationale and
positive emphasis are refreshing alternatives to pathology-centered models (James & Gilliland, 2013). •
The approach addresses conflict resolution.
• The approach stresses the present because current behavior is most amenable to client control. Like
behaviorists, Gestaltists, and rational emotive behavior therapists, reality therapists are not interested
in the past (Wubbolding, 2000).

LIMITATIONS.
Reality therapy also has limitations, among which are the following:
• The approach emphasizes the here and now of behavior so much that it sometimes ignores other
concepts, such as the unconscious and personal history.
• The approach holds that all forms of mental illness are attempts to deal with external events (Glasser,
1984).
• The approach has few theoretical constructs, although it is now tied to choice theory, which means
that it is becoming more sophisticated.
• The approach does not deal with the full complexity of human life, preferring to ignore developmental
stages.
• The approach is susceptible to becoming overly moralistic.
• The approach is dependent on establishing a good counselor–client relationship.
• The approach depends on verbal interaction and two-way communication. It has limitations in helping
clients who, for any reason, cannot adequately express their needs, options, and plans (James &
Gilliland, 2013).

Cognitive Therapy (CT)

FOUNDER/DEVELOPER. Aaron Beck (1921–), a psychiatrist, is credited as the founder of cognitive
therapy (CT). His daughter, Judith Beck, is the leading proponent of CT today. Beck’s early work began
about the same time as that of Ellis. Like Ellis, he was initially trained to be psychoanalytic and
formulated his ideas about CT only after conducting research into the effectiveness of using
psychoanalytic theories in the treatment of depression, which he found were not adequate.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE.
Beck proposes that perception and experience are “active pro cesses that involve both inspective and
introspective data” (Tursi & Cochran, 2006, p. 388). Furthermore, how a person “apprises a situation is
generally evident in his cognitions (thoughts and visual images)” (p. 388). Therefore, dysfunctional
behavior is caused by dysfunctional thinking. If beliefs do not change, there is no improvement in a
person’s behaviors or symptoms. If beliefs change, symptoms and behaviors change.

ROLE OF THE COUNSELOR.

The CT counselor is active in sessions. He or she works with the client to make covert thoughts more
overt. This process is especially important in examining cognitions that have become automatic, such as
“Everyone thinks I’m boring.”

GOALS.
The goals of CT center on examining and modifying unexamined and negative thoughts. CT counselors
especially hone in on excessive cognitive distortions, such as all-or-nothing thinking, negative prediction,
overgeneralization, labeling of oneself, self-criticism, and personal ization (i.e., taking an event unrelated
to the individual and making it meaningful to the person; “It always rains when I want to play tennis”).
Simultaneously counselors work with clients on overcoming their lack of motivation, which is often
linked with the tendency that clients have to view problems as insurmountable.

TECHNIQUES.
There are a number of techniques associated with CT:
• Challenging the way individuals process information
• Countering mistaken belief systems (i.e., faculty reasoning)
• Doing self-monitoring exercises designed to stop negative “automatic thoughts”
• Improving communication skills
• Increasing positive self-statements and exercises
• Doing homework, including disputing irrational thoughts
STRENGTHS AND CONTRIBUTIONS.
Cognitive therapy is unique in its contribution to counseling in the following ways:
• CT has been adapted to a wide range of disorders, including depression and anxiety (Puterbaugh,
2006).
• CT has spawned, in conjunction with cognitive–behavioral therapy, dialectical behavior therapy, an
intensive psychosocial treatment for individuals who are at risk for self-harm, such as people diagnosed
with borderline personality disorder (BPD). The objective is to help clients be more mindful and
accepting of things that cannot be easily changed and live lives worth living (Day, 2008).
• CT is applicable in a number of cultural settings. For instance, Beck’s model of cognitive therapy was
introduced in China in 1989 and a variation of it has been popular there since (Chang, Tong, Shi, & Zeng,
2005).
• CT is a well-researched, evidence-based therapy that has proven effective for clients from multiple
backgrounds.
• CT has spawned a number of useful and important clinical instruments including the Beck Anxiety
Inventory, the Beck Hopelessness Scale, and the Beck Depression Scale (Beck & Weishaar, 2014).
• CT has a number of training centers around the United States and Europe including the Beck Institute
in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania (Beck & Weishaar, 2014).

LIMITATIONS.
The CT approach has several limitations, among which are the following:
• CT is structured and requires clients to be active, which often means completing home work
assignments.
• CT is not an appropriate therapy for people seeking a more unstructured, insight-ori ented approach
that does not require their strong participation (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014).
• CT is primarily cognitive in nature and not usually the best approach for people who are intellectually
limited or who are unmotivated to change.
• CT is demanding. Clinicians as well as clients must be active and innovative. The approach is more
complex than it would appear on the surface