CFLM 2

Character Formation – Leadership, Decision Making, Management

and Administration
LEADERSHIP
 LEADERSHIP
• the art of motivating a group of people to act toward
achieving a common objective. ·

• the accomplishment of a goal through the direction of

human assistants.

• the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to

influence and guide followers or other members of an
organization.
Self-leadership

is the practice of understanding who

you are, identifying your desired
experiences, and intentionally guiding
yourself toward them.
Self-leadership is the first stage, or
leadership level.

Self-leadership is of great importance to the

staff, whether managers or ordinary
subordinates.
1. Self-leadership allows leaders or senior
officers, who undergo very little or no
supervision, to prepare and set targets on
their own, as well as to control their own self
to execute such plans.
2. For lower-level employees or subordinates,
who cannot always be sure of the kind of
governance or leaders they may face in their
careers, self- management enables them to
become effective and efficient workers under any
leadership they may encounter, be it laissez faire,
free-rule, democratic or autocratic.
3. Self-leadership helps make individual
decision- makers proactive, focused, and
autonomous. People who do not have a
strong sense of self- leadership tend to feel
that they are not in control of themselves,
frequently lose concentration and easily get
frustrated.
 SIMPLE WAYS
TO
LEAD YOURSELF
1. Know your Values and Stick to Them

The ones with real values and ethics are the most trustworthy leaders.
Find ideals that reverberate with your philosophy, temperament, and
creeds to become an effective leader. People tend to be drawn
instinctively to somebody who has a dream, intent and dignity. One
who treats people respectfully and is empathetic to their needs. Make
sure that you know what type of leader values, and the
implementation of those values help leaders become successful
2. Move Towards Purpose

You can't be a leader unless you have a

clear intention to help you through the
dark times.
3. Keep Improving Yourself

Great leaders are working hard to improve,

expand and evolve into better versions of
them. Whether you've just started leading or
you've been a veteran in your place, make it
a point to learn something new by going back
home.
4. Make Mistakes But Never Make The
Same Mistake Twice

“All leaders make mistakes. They are a part of life.

Successful leaders recognize their errors, learn
from them, and correct their faults.”
5. Lead By Example
None is easier than leading from the front. Not only is it a brave thing
to do but it is a very leading thing. Perhaps that's why they all find it
toughest. The only thing that can turn you into a leader is when you
begin to act like one.
"Your job gives you authority. Your
behavior earns you respect”

Irwin Federman
Concept of Leadership
• Leadership is a dynamic process, which deserves
study. It is a relational process involving interactions
among leaders, members and sometimes outside
constituencies.

• Good leaders are made not born.

What makes a person want to follow a leader?

•People want to be guided by those they respect

and who have a clear sense of direction.

•To gain respect, they must be ethical.

•A sense of direction is achieved by conveying a

strong vision of the future.
Types of Leadership

1. Visionary Leadership
2. Transactional Leadership
3. Charismatic Leadership
4. Transformational Leadership
5. Autocratic Leadership
6. Bureaucratic Leadership
7. Democratic Leadership
8. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Types of Leadership
1. Visionary Leadership
Visionary leaders inspire
others to work toward a
vision for the future.
 Types of Leadership
2. Transactional
Leadership
Transactional leaders use
social exchanges to influence
others to achieve their goals.
Types of Leadership
3. Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leaders inspire and motivate
others to behave in a specific way by being
enthusiastic, energetic, and charismatic.
Types of Leadership
4. Transformational Leadership

Transformational leaders transform others,

nurturing them to achieve greater success and
growth.
Types of Leadership
5. Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic leaders make decisions and give orders
without seeking input from others.
Types of Leadership
6. Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic leaders rely on established rules and
procedures to guide their leadership approach.
Types of Leadership
7. Democratic Leadership
Democratic leaders involve others in the decision-
making process and encourage collaboration.
Types of Leadership
8. Laissez-Faire Leadership( delegative leadership)

Laissez-faire leaders provide freedom and

autonomy to individuals, allowing them to make
their own decisions.
THE BE, KNOW, DO’ Concept of Leadership:
• BE a professional. Examples – Be loyal to the
organization, perform selfless service, and take
personal responsibility.

• BE a professional who possess good character traits.

Examples – Honesty, competence, candor,
commitment, integrity, courage, straightforwardness,
imagination.
• KNOW the four elements of leadership – follower, leader, communication,
and situation.

• KNOW yourself. Examples – strengths and weakness of your character,

knowledge, and skills.

• KNOW human nature. Examples – Human needs, emotions, and how

people respond to stress.

• KNOW your job. Examples – be proficient and be able to train others in

their tasks.

• KNOW your organization. Examples – where to go for help its climate and
culture, who the unofficial leaders are.
• DO provide direction. Examples – goal setting, problem solving,
decision making, planning.

• DO implement. Examples – communicating, coordinating, supervising,

evaluating.

• DO motivate. Examples – develop moral and spirit in the organization,

train, coach, counsel.
What is Leadership – Characteristics:
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
1. There must be Followers:

A leadership cannot exist without followers. If a

leader does not have followers, he cannot
exercise his authority. Leadership exists both in
formal and informal organizations.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
2. Working Relationship between Leader and
Followers:

There must be a working relationship between the

leader and his followers. It means that the leader
should present himself in a place where the work is
actually going on. Besides, the leader should be a
dynamic person of the concerned group. If he is not so,
he cannot get things done.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
3. Personal Quality:

The character and behaviour of a man

influence the works of others.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
4. Reciprocal Relationship:

Leadership kindles a reciprocal relationship between

the leader and his followers. A leader can influence his
followers and, in turn, the followers can influence the
leader. The willingness of both the leader and the
followers is responsible for the influence and no
enforcement is adopted.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
5. Community of Interests:

There must be community of interests between the leader

and his followers. A leader has his own objectives. The
followers have their own objectives. They are moving in
different directions in the absence of community of interests.
It is not advisable. It is the leader who should try to reconcile
the different objectives and compromise the individual
interests with organization interests.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:

6. Guidance:

A leader guides his followers to achieve the goals

of the organization. A leader should take steps to
motivate his followers for this purpose.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:

7. Related to a Particular Situation:

Leadership is applicable to a particular situation

at a given point of time. It varies from time to
time.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
8. Shared Function:

Leadership is a shared function. A leader is also

working along with his followers to achieve the
objectives of the organization. Besides, the leader
shares his experience, ideas and views with his
followers.
Following are some of the characteristics of
leadership:
9. Power Relationship:

A leader has powers to exercise over his

followers. The leader derives these powers from
the organization hierarchy, superior knowledge,
experience and the like.
What is Leadership – Importance:
1. Leaders Provide Task Support:
Leaders support the followers by assembling the organizational
resources; and helping them accomplish their tasks in accordance with
standards of performance.

2. Psychological Support:
Leaders not only help the followers in accomplishing the organizational
tasks; they also help them overcome various problems they confront
while performing these tasks. They create willingness in people to work
with zeal and enthusiasm. They make the followers realize that their
work is important so that they work with confidence towards task
accomplishment.
3. Development of Individuals:
Leaders build willingness, enthusiasm and confidence in followers for
accomplishment of their individual and organizational goals. This
results in their overall growth and development.

4. Building the Team Spirit:

No individual can work alone. Leaders develop team spirit amongst
followers to work collectively and coordinate their activities with
organizational activities and goals. A leader works as captain of the
team.
Camaraderie – cooperation
Esprit de corps – common spirit
5. Motivation:
Leaders motivate the employees to take up jobs that they otherwise
may not be willing to exercise.

6. Provides Feedback:
When people work towards well-defined targets, they want constant
feedback of their performance, which helps in achieving their goals
effectively. Leaders provide them this feedback.
7. Helps in Introducing Change:
Effective leaders can convince members about the need and benefits of
organizational change. The change process can, thus, be smoothly
carried out.

8. Maintain Discipline:
Leadership is a powerful influence that enforces discipline in the
organization more than formal rules and regulations can. Members will
be committed and loyal to rules and regulations if their leaders have
confidence in them.
9. Affirming Ethical Values:

Leadership derives from trust. Ethics affirms trust of people

(employees, customers, shareholders, suppliers, regulators and
community) in a leader. Thus, a leader needs to conform to ethical
practices.

10. Empowering Others:

A good leader leads by empowering others. It means delegation of

power. Today’s leader is not expected to retain all power with himself,
he gives autonomy and power to others. He has to diffuse his power.
He has to command power and respect for empowering others.
11. Reviewing the Norms:
From time to time, a leader needs to review his mission and vision
statements along with clear norms and guidelines, taking into account
views and experiences of his subordinates, by interactive ways like
organizing workshops and discussions.

12. Setting the Ethical Example:

The ultimate leadership responsibility is modeling the behavior of

others. Employees constantly watch and learn from leaders. They
rightfully assume that it is okay to do whatever the leader does.
Regardless of what is written or said in the organization, leader’s
behavior is the performance standard which employees generally
follow.
What is Leadership – Approaches to
the Study of Leadership:

•Person-Oriented Approach,

•Situational Approach and

•Group-Oriented Approach
(1) Traits or Person-Oriented Approach to Leadership:

Traits Theory Says Leader should Possess Charismatic Qualities:

Under the Traits or Person-oriented approach, the emphasis is on

characteristics or qualities of leader. The Greek and Roman historians like
Herodotus and Tacitus held that the course of events is at all times shaped by
the charisma of individual leaders possessed of certain magical qualities.

Conceptually, charisma is associated more with the style of exercise of power

than authority. A charismatic leader owes his position to personal qualities
and wields power without regard to conventional rules which considerably
restrict the exercise of authority.

Leaders are Born, not Made:

(2) Situational Approach to Leadership:

Leadership Dependent on Existing Environmental Factors:

The situation-oriented approach proceeds with a framework that is
diametrically opposite to the Traits or Person-oriented approach.
According to it, leadership is widely dependent on a variety of factors,
such as, the leader himself, his followers, and the existing situation
which, on its part, will include the values and traditions of the
organization, effectiveness of the group, nature of the problem at
hand, etc.
Situational approach recognizes that leadership is based on an inter-
play between —(a) Amount of direction (task behaviour) provided by
leader; (b) Amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behaviour)
provided by leader; and (c) Readiness level or maturity level of
followers in respect of performance of a task.
(3) Group-Oriented Approach to Leadership:
Under the group-oriented approach to leadership, which only marks an
extension of the situational approach, leadership is viewed as
performance of those acts which help the group to achieve its stated
objectives, such acts being called group-roles or functions. It also seeks
to define leadership as “a role which an individual occupies at a given
point of time in a given group.”
 Management

- Deciding what to do about

resources
Management
a set of principles relating to the roles of
- planning,
- coordinating,
- directing and regulating and the
- implementation of those principles

in the efficient and effective use of physical, financial,

human and information capital to achieve
organizational objectives.
ACTIVITY MANAGEMENT

Task management

• is the practice of recording personnel's day-to-day accomplishments

in an order in which they are done. It is a key to an organization's
success, as it helps to monitor the organization's course and maximize
its work efficiency.

• It relies on the philosophy that knowledge from higher levels of

management influences any activity that takes place in the company
in a personal or group workers organization, therefore it is essential to
proper recording process and cannot take place without controlling
the activities.
Importance of Activity Management

1. It gives both the employer and the employees

information on the performance of the personnel
involved.

2. It helps to organize and emphasize the importance or

relevance of the task at hand.

3. It also helps to avoid miscommunications and

mistakes of task repetition in the workplace.
The 6M's of Management are describe by Lovelock and Wirtz (2007)is as
follow:

1) Man
2) Money
3) Material
4) Method/ Management
5) Machine
6) Market
NATURE OF MANAGEMENT
management enhances the
essential elements of authority
and responsibility exercise in
the process of organizing and
directing people at work.
Authority- legitimate exercise of power; the right to issue directives and
expend resources; related to power but narrower in scope.

Power – ability to influence, command, or apply force; a measure of person’s

potential to get others to do what he or she wants them to do, as well as to avoid
being forced by others to do what he or she does not want to do

Responsibility- means the management is held accountable for the result

arising from authority.
SOURCES OF AUTHORITY:

1. law
2. tradition
3. delegation
TYPES OF AUTHORITY
1. Traditional authority: traditional grounds

• traditionally rooted in beliefs and the practices of society.

This authority is liked by many individuals because of two main
reasons: the inheritance of past generations and religiousness that
the societies have.

• Traditional authority is based on a tradition or custom that is

followed by the traditional leaders. In traditional authority, status is a
key concept. There are no requirements to serving as a traditional
leader but there are no salaries. The consequences to traditional
authority are discouragement of education and rational calculation.
•
TYPES OF AUTHORITY
2. Rational-legal authority: rational
grounds
 Acquired from law and is constructed from the reliance of
society's rules and laws. This type of authority has the confidence
to leave the right of leaders to undertake the decisions and set the
policy.

 Rational-legal authority is the basis of modern democracies.

Rational-legal authority is built on a structure of bureaucracy.

 TYPES OF AUTHORITY
3. Charismatic authority: charismatic
grounds
 Comes from individuals and their personal qualities. Certain
individuals are influential to others with their unique qualities
which help them gain followers. The span of a "charismatic"
individual’s power and authority can vary from a specific group to
an entire society.

 Examples of charismatic leaders include: Joan of Arc, Adolf Hitler,

Martin Luther King Jr, Jesus Christ.

 Charismatic authority has no clear structure; it is based on

individual influence.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT:
1. Planning- the continuous process of making present
entrepreneurial decisions systematically with best possible
knowledge of the future, organizing systematically the efforts
needed to carry out these decisions and measuring the
results of these decision against the expectations through
organized and systematic feedback

2. Organizing- the process of creating structure for the

organization that will enable the various players to work
together effectively towards its objectives.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT:
3. Staffing- also known as “Human Resource” the function
of hiring and retaining a suitable work-force for the enterprise
both at managerial as well as non-managerial levels.

4. Directing- actuates the organizational method to work

efficiently to achieve organizational goals. an aspect of
management that deals directly with influencing, guiding,
supervising, and motivating staff for the achievement of
organizational goals.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT:
5. Controlling- the measurement and correction of
performance activities of subordinates in order to
make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans
desired to obtain them as being accomplished
 Theories
of
Management
THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT
1. Scientific
2. Bureaucratic
3. Henri Fayol’s theory
4. Human Relations
Theory x
Theory y
Theory z
5. Contingengy
6. Systems
7. Chaos
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

• espoused this careful specification and measurement of all organizational

tasks.
• Tasks were standardized as much as possible.
• Workers were rewarded and punished.
• This approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and
other mechanistic, routinized activities.

• Frederick Taylor
BUREAUCRATIC MANAGEMENT
THEORY

(1930-1950)

Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory with his

bureaucratic theory. Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies,
establishing strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations
develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all
routinized tasks.
Bureaucracy is the social organization of rationalized authority. It is a form of
organizational management that has been developed to handle large
organizations and their complex administrative tasks. According to Max Weber,
the ideal type of bureaucracy is one that can be described as a machine. This
machine-like organization has three main components:

• Specialization of labor
• Authority hierarchy, and
• Impersonality
The 6 bureaucracy characteristics are:

• Task specialization (Specialization and Division of

Labor)
• Hierarchical layers of authority
• Formal selection
• Rules and requirements
• Impersonal (Impersonality and Personal Indifference)
• Career orientation
HUMAN RELATIONS
MOVEMENT
(1930-today)
Eventually, unions and government regulations reacted to the rather
dehumanizing effects of these theories.
More attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities
in the organization.
A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its
workers prospered as well.
 Theory X
states that the controlling or authoritative manager
believes that most employees don’t like to work and will only work
at the required level of productivity if they are forced to do so
under the threat of punishment
 Theory Y
In this theory of management, the democratic or participitative
manager believes that employees can be trusted to meet production targets
without being threatened and that they will often seek additional responsibilities
because they enjoy the satisfaction of being creative and increasing their own
skills.
 Theory Z of Ouchi
is Dr. William Ouchi's so-called "Japanese Management"
style popularized during the Asian economic boom of the
1980s.
focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by
providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well-
being of the employee, both on and off the job
Employee Tenure

is the total length of time an employee works

for a particular employer. It is an employment
metric showing how long a person has been
employed by an organization. Employee
tenure can be also regarded as the number of
months a worker has spent in every position
occupied.
Security of tenure is a term used in political science to
describe a constitutional or legal guarantee that a political
office-holder cannot be removed from office except in
exceptional and specified circumstances.
CONTINGENCY THEORY
Basically, contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they
must take into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those
aspects that are key to the situation at hand.

Basically, it’s the approach that “it depends.”

SYSTEMS THEORY

Systems theory has had a significant effect on

management science and understanding organizations.

A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an

overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the
nature of the system is changed as well.
CHAOS THEORY

recognizes that events indeed are rarely

controlled.
THREE ESSENTIAL SKILLS OR COMPETENCIES OF
THE MANAGER
(by: Robert L. Katz)

1. Technical
2. Human and
3. Conceptual
Technical Skills

Managers must be able to work with the resources, equipment,

strategies, procedures or the technical skills First line executives as well
as many middle managers have been active in the activities of the
organization's technical aspects.
Human Skills

Managers must have the ability to work well with other people both
individually and in a group. Manager need these skills at all levels but
top managers need them the most.

The manager has interpersonal skills because he gets the best out of
the people that work with him. We are able to communicate, empower,
lead and inspire confidence and enthusiasm.
Conceptual Skills

Managers need to be able to integrate a organize the different

activities, Managers must be We to think of abstract ideas and to
contextualize the mind need to be able to see the organization as a
whole the relationships between its different subunits,and to see how
the organization fits into its wider context. Conceptual competencies
are important in decision making.
QUALITIES OF A MANAGER
1. Educational competence

A manager has to have adequate and outstanding preparation. Besides other

educational qualifications they are required to have management education
and training. Education not only widens the intellectual scope of executives
but also helps to understand and interpret things properly. Business
environment awareness is also essential to tackle the various problems that
the company can encounter.

2. Intellectual quality

Managers should have a higher level of intelligence relative to others,

because they have more roles in the organization than other men.
Intelligence can assist a manager in evaluating the organization's present an
future organizational possibilities. He must be able to predict the things in
advance and take the necessary decisions in due course.
3. Leadership ability

A manager has to be able to direct and motivate people working within the business. He shall
subordinate On self to leadership. The subordinates' skills, abilities, d potentials should be retained
and properly used to achieve organizational goals. If a manager has the leadership qualities then for
the good of the organization, he will inspire workers to improve their performance and function to
their full capacity.

4. Training

A manager must develop organizational competencies. As described in the preceding issue. these
skills consist of technical skills, human skills and logical abilities. These competencies must be
gained by schooling, training, practice etc. Such skills are important for all executive levels.

5. Technical knowledge and skills

A manager should have technical knowledge of the organization's job and other tasks. He will be
better placed to assess and direct if he has knowledge of those things himself.
6. Mental Maturity

To deal with different circumstances a manager should have mental maturity. He is supposed to be polite, good
listener and quick to respond to situations. He has to take several uncomfortable decisions that could have an
adverse effect on the job if not taken properly. When dealing with subordinates he will remain calm. All of
these attributes come with maturity of mind.

7. Positive Attitude

Positive attitude is to a manager's asset. A manager has to deal with a lot of people from both inside and
outside the company. He should be sensitive and optimistic to different suggestions and make rational choices.
He should not prejudge issues, and should not take sides. He will try and develop good relationships with
different people dealing with him. He would consider their issues and attempt to reach out a helping hand.

8. Self-confidence

Every manager should have faith in himself. He has to take a lot of decisions every day; he should thoroughly
evaluate things before making decisions. If he makes decisions, then he should stick to them and try to put
them into practice. A manager lacking confidence in himself will always be uncertain about his decisions. This
kind of mentality creates more problems than just solving them.
9. Foresight

manager has to make a decision not just for A the present but also for
the future. The technology, marketing, consumer behavior, financial
set-up etc. are rapidly changing. The economic policy shifts would
repercussion in the future.
DEVELOPING MISSION AND VISION STATEMENTS

Roles Played by Mission and Vision

Mission and vision statements play three critical roles:
1. Communicate the organization's intent to stakeholders
2 Inform the development of Strategy and
3. Establish the tangible priorities and goals by which to measure the
success of the strategy of the company
WHAT IS A VISION STATEMENT?

Their vision is their dream. It's what your company considers to be the ideal
conditions for your community: that is, how things would look if you
absolutely beautifully addressed the issue that is important to you. It could
be a world without war, or a society where all men, regardless of gender or
racial background, are treated as equals.

Whatever the dream of your company is, one or more vision statements,
which are short phrases or sentences that express the aspirations of your
society for the future, may well communicate it. In ereating a manifesto or
statement of purpose, your organization clarifies the values and guiding
principles, first for yourself and then for the greater community.
WHAT IS A MISSION STATEMENT?

The next step in the action planning process is in practical terms to the
dream of the ground organization It is here that a mission statement comes
in to grow The mission statement of an organization explains what the
organization will do, and why it will do that.

Mission statements are similar to claims about vision, in that they also look
at the big picture. They are more practical however, and they are certainly
more "action-oriented" than statements of dream. The statement of vision
of an organization will inspire people to dream, your statement of purpose
should motivate them to take action.
Decision-making
 Decision-making
• can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is
considered to be ideal, or at least acceptable.

• Consequently, it is a mechanism that can be more or less logical or

irrational and based on overt or implicit knowledge and beliefs. In dynamic
decision-making processes, implicit information is often used to fill holes
(Brockmann,2016 Typically, all, implicit and explicit, of these forms of
information are used together in the decision-making process

• A significant part of decision-making involves evaluating a finite range of

alternatives that are defined in terms of evaluative criteria.
 •Decision

- a conclusion or resolution after

consideration
DECISION MAKING APPROACHES
1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

2. INTUITIVE DECISION-MAKING APPROACH

3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH

 DECISION MAKING APPROACHES
1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

•Exemplified by systematic decision-making.

•Defines upfront success factors.

•Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each
success factor.

•Decision-making is organized and decisions can l be taken under the

assumption of the desired solutions except for major unforeseeable or
unpredictable incidents.

•Consideration of the implications of the final decision.

 DECISION MAKING APPROACHES
2. INTUITIVE DECISION-MAKING APPROACH
 Relying on emotions and feelings.

 Careful planning is not possible or not desired.

 People will point to a "gut feeling" or "hunch" as the cause for a

choice, reflecting that explanation is not accessible through
conscious thought.
 DECISION MAKING APPROACHES
3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH
 In this approach a decision is made on impulse, without thought.

 Flipping a coin or using a "decision wheel" would be representative

of employing this approach.

 It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach

can promote denial of responsibility.
 DECISION-MAKING MODELS
Based on the perspective the researcher takes on the
role that culture plays in decision-making, one of the
following models is used to think about and forecast
behavioral trends in decision-making in a given
community:

1 The Universal Model

2. The Dispositional Model
3. The Dynamic Model
 DECISION-MAKING MODELS
1 The Universal Model.

Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a small
difference in how people from different cultures make their choices.
The findings obtained from one party are usually related to humans.
 DECISION-MAKING MODELS
2. The Dispositional Model.

The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that

decision-making differences are cross-cultural and support the
cause of cross-cultural study. They assume that the variations
found in the studies reflect the omnipresence of cultural
inclinations in individuals minds, and are expected to appear
in all situations and situational contexts.
 DECISION-MAKING MODELS
3. The Dynamic Model.
Adherents of this view often consider cross-cultural variations.
They view cultural knowledge not as a monolithic construct that
is continuously present, but as a collection of discrete
knowledge that is operational as a function of the situation. We
also promote the development and testing of complex models
reflecting the processes by which culture influences decision-
makers.
SA CHAPS REVIEW CENTER, KAMI ANG BIDA
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CRIMINOLOGIST!!!