1

Unit 5 Environmental Pollution

Dr. Urvashi Sanwal
Rajdhani College
University of Delhi

 Pollution: It is an undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, water and soil that
harmfully affect the life, property and create health hazard for any living organism.
 Pollutant: Pollution causing substances which can be gaseous, liquid, solid, present in such concentrations which
are injuries to environment. On basis of environment we have AIR, WATER, SOIL/LAND pollution

AIR POLLUTION

1. It is an atmospheric condition where chemicals are either added or those normally present are in such high
concentration causing harmful effects on living organisms or damage property.
2. AP is caused when solid, liquid, gaseous substances including noise are present in atmosphere in such
concentration which maybe/ tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or properties.

3. Causes/ sources of AP:

a) Human activities
 Domestic activity: Burning of wood, charcoal and cow dung for household cooking. To keep
houses warm using traditional stove or open fire also causes air pollution. Higher level of
indoor air pollution is generated due to inefficient cooking and heating practice. According
to WHO survey, 4.3 million people die every year due to exposure to household air
pollution.
 Burning of fossil fuels: Sulphur dioxide is produced during burning of fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum. Harmful exhaust emitted by vehicles are carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of
Sulphur (SOX), oxides of nitrogen (NOX), particulate matter, smoke, odour etc. cause
enormous amount of AP. Lethal CO is also produced during incomplete combustion of
transportation.
 Exhaust from factories and industries: Large amount of hydrocarbons (HC), CO, volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are released into air by various manufacturing industries like
petroleum refineries. Thermal power plants have become the major sources for generating
electricity in India. The main pollutants emitted are fly ash and SO2. Metallurgical plants also
 2

consume coal and produce similar pollutants. Fertilizer plants, smelters, textile mills,
tanneries, refineries, chemical industries, paper and pulp mills are other sources of air
pollution. Ash contains toxic elements which can contaminate drinking water. Thermal
power plants also cause thermal pollution (discussed later).
 Agricultural activities: Methane gas produced from rice fields. Ammonia produced from
agricultural fields by application of fertilizers.
 Mining Operations: Mining releases huge amount of dust and gases into air causing AP. It is
harmful for health of not only workers but also people living nearby.

b) Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea salt sprays, biological decay, photochemical
oxidation of terpenes, marshes, pollen grains of flowers, spores etc. Radioactive minerals present in the
earth crust are the sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere.

4. Types of sources of air pollution:

a) Point or stationary: Industries (add pollutants in air at a particular point through tall chimneys).
b) Line/ Mobile sources: Automobiles, smoking person
c) Area sources: Towns and cities, open burning, residential commercial heating (add gases and smoke
from a wide region).

5. Types of air pollutants:

a) Primary:
 emitted directly into atmosphere.
 CO, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) SOx, dust, radioactive substances, hydrocarbons etc.
b) Secondary:
 not emitted directly into atmosphere.
 formed due to chemical reactions between primary pollutants.
 ground level Ozone (O3), Peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), aerosols, photochemical smog etc.

Classes of pollutants (causes and effects)

a) Particulate matter (PM) c) Radioactive

b) Gaseous
 3

1. PM/aerosols
a) These are dispersed matter which is liquid (mist, spray, fog) or solid (dust, smoke, fly ash) range from
size 0.0001 microns to 10,000 microns. Respirable PM (RPM) have diameter smaller than 10 micron also
called as PM10. PM2.5 is referred to PM which is smaller than 2.5 micron in size released by power
plants, wood burning, industrial processes and gases like SO2, NOx are transformed in air by chemical
reaction like sulphuric acid mist. PM10: collects in upper part of respiratory system causing coughing,
wheezing, asthma attacks. PM2.5: penetrate deep into lungs and cause asthma, cancer, bronchitis,
emphysema (damage to air sacs/ alveoli lead to shortness of breath) acute and chronic respiratory
symptoms like shortness of breath, premature death in case of elderly. They are found in air as dust, dirt
soot, smoke, liquid droplets which are suspended in air for long periods of time. PM are emitted directly
into air by industries, automobiles, mining, drilling in construction site.
b) Suspended PM (SPM): term used for entire range of airborne particles like dust which remain suspended
in air for longer time

Types of PM

1. Dust: 1-100 micron smaller particles produced by grinding of larger solid material (fly ash, soot from coal
burning, metal dust containing lead, chromium, arsenic, mercury, asbestos fibre from asbestos industry, cotton
dust from textile mills). Flyash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust contains lead, mercury, zinc, arsenic;
cotton dust from textile mills, asbestosis fibres from asbestosis. The dust causes lung fibrosis in coal miners.
Asbestosis fibres when inhaled cause asbestosis that may lead to lung cancer and stone particles can cause
silicosis. Lead compounds emitted by combustion of petroleum, burning of fossil fuel and pesticide spraying
affects nervous system and system includes headache, dizziness, insomnia, anemia, miscarriage and death.

2. Mist: The pesticides sprayed on crops may remain in the air as liquid particles.
 4

3. Fume: produced by condensation of hot vapours of metals e.g. welding fume (short-term exposure can result in
nausea, dizziness, or eye, nose and throat irritation. Prolonged exposure to welding fumes can lead to cancer of
the lung, larynx and urinary tract, as well as nervous system and kidney damage)
4. Smoke: formed by very small solid and liquid particles generated by burning of incomplete combustion of fuel
5. Aerosols: They are chemicals released into the air with force as vapour including (CFC) chlorofluorocarbon,
Nitrogen and Sulphur oxides, (PCBs) polychlorinated biphenyls and tobacco smoke.
 CFC: It is present in the emissions from jet aeroplanes. It is used in refrigeration. CFC aerosol
depletes the ozone layer in the higher atmosphere. UV rays reaching earth causes sunburn,
blindness, genetic disorders. CFCs have produced a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.
 Nitrogen and Sulphur Oxides: These are present in the emissions of supersonic airplanes and have
same effect as the CFC aerosol.
 PCBs: Produced by burning of plastic. PCB reaches human body through food chain and damage
liver, nervous system, impair vision.
 Tobacco smoke: contains hydrocarbon called benzpyrene which causes lung cancer.
 Pollen, Spores, Bacteria: They normally occur in air but their number increases in certain seasons.
When inhaled the pollen spores and cysts cause allergies and respiratory diseases, commonly
referred to a hay fever. The inhaled microbes may cause diseases.

2. Radioactive Pollutants: These pollutants are released by nuclear explosions and war explosives. They cause
environmental issues and genetic disorders.
3. Gaseous Pollutants: Such pollutants are in gaseous state at ordinary temperature and pressure.

a) Carbon Monoxide (CO): odourless, colourless gas which is formed when carbon in fuel doesn’t
completely burn.
 Vehicle exhausts is the largest source of CO emission. Other sources: fuel combustion in industrial
processes and natural sources wildfire
 Common pollutant in homes from kerosene stoves, wood stoves (Chulah), coal based heater
(Angithi)
 Deaths are reported in winter season when poor people to keep themselves warm sleep in as room
with all closed doors and windows and leave Angithi on.
 On inhaling CO, enters blood stream through lungs and binds with hemoglobin (Hb) (it is a
substance in blood which carries oxygen to cells). So instead of oxygen, CO binds with hemoglobin
leading to reduction in amount of oxygen reaching the body organs and tissues which can cause
 5

impaired vision, headaches, dizziness, confusion, nausea, cardiovascular disorder and death.
Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) is formed when CO binds with hemoglobin in blood.
CO + Hb = COHb.
b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Produced due to burning of fossil fuels.
 It contributes to Greenhouse effect, which is increase in global average temperature of the Earth.
Gases that absorb radiation released by Earth are called Greenhouse gases and CO2 is one of those.
They allow sunlight to pass through but they prevent much of energy from radiating back through.

c) Ground level Ozone:

 Ozone (O3) is a pale blue glass with sweet smell. It occurs at earth’s upper atmosphere and ground
level. Ozone which occurs naturally in earth’s stratosphere and provides a protective layer to shield
us from sun’s harmful UV rays is good but near the ground level ozone is a harmful secondary air
pollutant. Ground level Ozone doesn’t reach the natural ozone in stratosphere. It is the most
harmful component of Photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone is formed due to reaction between nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons in
presence of sunlight. NOx +HC (in presence of sunlight) ground level O3
 Ozone can irritate the respiratory system, cause cough, throat irritation. Ozone can aggravate
asthma. It can reduce lung function and make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously.
 Ozone leads to premature yellowing and fall of leaves. It damages automobile tyres and rubber
insulation of electrical wiring.

d) Nitrogen oxides (NOX):

 Sources of NOX are automobiles, chemical industries and burning of fuel. NOX induces effects on
breathing and respiratory system, damage to lung tissue and pre-mature death. It can cause
respiratory disease such as emphysema, bronchitis and increase heart diseases. NO2 irritates eyes,
nose, bronchial tubes and lungs.
 Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water and forms nitric acid which is corrosive in nature (see acid rain).
 Nitrogen dioxide damage plants causing defoliation and necrosis (death of a part of a tissue).
 Nitrogen oxide form PAN (Peroxyacyl Nitrate) by reaction with hydrocarbons.
 They are also responsible for photochemical smog.

e) Oxides of Sulphur:
 These include Sulphur dioxide and Sulphur trioxide. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless gas with
pungent irritating smell. Oxides of Sulphur are produced by burning of fossil fuels in industries,
 6

thermal plants etc. They cause respiratory diseases in man like emphysema, bronchitis and asthma.
Brief exposure to SO2 causes narrowing of the airways (broncho constriction) further causing
wheezing, shortness of breath. Long term exposure can cause respiratory illness, alter lungs
defense mechanisms and aggravate existing cardiovascular disease.
 SO2 reacts with water to form sulphuric acid and are mainly responsible for acid rain. This acid
causes irritation of eyes, nose and throat.
 The acid rain destroys crops and plants.
 The highly corrosive sulphuric acid attacks metal surfaces such as railway tracks.
 Darkening effect of Taj Mahal: Due to acid rain the white marble of Taj Mahal got darkened. Oxides
of Sulphur released from nearby Mathura refinery combined with water and fell on earth in form of
acid rain. The acid rain reacted with marble stone (Calcium Carbonate – CaCO3) to produce Calcium
Sulphate which caused darkening and disfigurement.
 High concentration of SO2 cause chlorosis , reduced growth and death.

f) Hydrocarbons (HC):
 They are composed of Hydrogen and Carbon e.g., methane, ethylene.
 HC are formed by incomplete combustion of fuels in automobiles. They are also formed by
bacterial decomposition of organic matter. Marsh gas (methane) is produced naturally due to
decomposition of organic matter and in paddy fields.
 Many HC are carcinogenic, they cause irritation of eyes, bronchial constriction, harm plants by
causing breakdown of plant tissues. HC also give rise to secondary pollutants by reacting with
oxides of nitrogen.
g) Photochemical oxidants:
 These include PAN (Peroxyacyl Nitrate) and ground level ozone.
 These are formed by reaction of nitrogen oxides with HC in air in presence of sunlight. All
photochemicals are harmful.
 PAN causes irritation of eyes, throat, produces emphysema, bronchitis, asthma and lung cancer in
humans. It affects plants by suppressing their growth and causes silvering of leaf surfaces, necrosis.
 Ground level Ozone (see above)

h) Smog:
 It is a dark fog formed by water vapour, dust, smoke particles and gaseous pollutants such as NO 2 ,
SO2. Smog causes respiratory problems in humans. It has toxic effects on animals and plants. Smog
reduces visibility leading to accidents.
 7

 It is of 2 types:
a. Classical smog or London Smog- It was caused due to excessive burning of coal
during winter months in 20th Century (December, 1952) in London. It is dark brown
and opaque. It consisted of smoke, sulphur compounds and ash. It affected nearly
50% of the population and killed over 4000 people.
b. Photochemical smog: It is grey and yellowish-brown opaque smog. It was first noted
in Los Angeles in 1940’s and was formed by chemical reaction among the pollutants
discharged from vehicles in presence of sunlight. It is a problem in warm sunny
regions. It contains ozone and PAN (photochemicals).

Hazardous Air Pollutants

Toxic air pollutants also known as hazardous air pollutants are known or suspected to cause cancer, reproductive
effects, birth defects or adverse environmental effects for example; benzene (found in gasoline), perchlorethlyene
(emitted from dry cleaning facilities), methylene chloride (used as solvent by industries), asbestos, toluene, metals
(cadmium, lead, mercury compounds).

Viable Air Pollutants

The indoor as well as outdoor atmosphere contain viable particles as algae, fungi, yeast, molds spores, bacteria, viruses,
insects, pollen grains. Many of these are useful to man as well as these are responsible for diseases or nuisance. When
air borne these are called viable particulates. The pollen grains are responsible for allergies in humans.

Indoor Air Pollutants

The air in enclosed places such as automobiles, homes, schools, and offices may have significantly higher levels of air
pollutants than the air outdoors. The concentrations of certain indoor air pollutants may be two to five times
greater—and sometimes more than 100 times—than outdoors. Indoor pollution is of particular concern to urban
residents because they may spend as much as 90% to 95% of their time indoors. Because illnesses caused by indoor air
pollution usually resemble common ailments such as cold, influenza, or upset stomachs, they are often not recognized.
The most common contaminants of indoor air are radon (discussed shortly), cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide (from gas stoves), formaldehyde (from carpeting, fabrics, and furniture), household pesticides, lead,
cleaning solvents, ozone (from photocopiers), and asbestos. In addition, the reaction of indoor ozone, generally present
 8

at lower levels than outdoors, with volatile chemicals in air fresheners, aromatherapy candles, and cleaning agents
forms secondary air pollutants such as formaldehyde.

Viruses, bacteria, fungi (yeasts, molds, and mildews), dust mites, pollen, and other organisms or their toxic parts are
important forms of indoor air pollution often found in heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation ducts. Excessive
indoor dampness exacerbates indoor microbial growth (particularly fungal growth), dust mite populations, and
cockroach and rodent infestations. Presence of mold in a damp indoor environment is linked to upper respiratory tract
(nose and throat) symptoms, including wheezing and coughing, and to asthma.

Many houses in under-developed and developing countries including India use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood and
kerosene in their kitchens. Complete combustion of fuel produces carbon dioxide which may not be toxic. However,
incomplete combustion produces the toxic gas carbon monoxide. Coal contains varying amounts of sulphur which on
burning produces sulphur dioxide. Fossil fuel burning produces black soot. These pollutants i.e. CO, SO2, soot and many
others like formaldehyde, benzo- (a) pyrene (BAP) are toxic and harmful for health. BAP is also found in cigarette smoke
and is considered to cause cancer.

The most important indoor air pollutant is radon gas. It is a colourless, tasteless, radioactive gas produced naturally
during radioactive decay of uranium in Earth’s crust. Radon gas is responsible for a large number of lung cancer deaths
each year. Radon can be emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles etc. which are derived from soil
containing radium. Radon is also present in groundwater and natural gas and is emitted indoors while using them.
Radon seeps through the ground and enters buildings, where it sometimes accumulates to dangerous levels. Although
radon is also emitted into the atmosphere, it gets diluted and dispersed and is of little consequence outdoors. Radon
and its decay products emit alpha particles, a form of ionizing radiation that is damaging to tissue but cannot penetrate
very far into the wall and body. Consequently, radon harms the body only when it is ingested or inhaled. The
radioactive particles lodge in the tiny passages of the lungs and damage surrounding tissue. In uranium miners, who
are inhaling large amounts of radon are at higher risk of lung cancer. Other studies suggest that people who are
exposed to relatively low levels of radon over an extended time are at risk for lung cancer. Radon concentrations in
homes are minimized by sealing basement concrete floors and by ventilating crawl spaces and basements.
 9

Fig. Indoor air pollutants

Effects of Air Pollution:

On Human health:

1. Eye irritation can be caused by NOX, O3, PAN, smog, particulate matter etc.
2. Nose and throat irritation is caused by SO2, NOX, insecticides, pesticides, etc.
3. Respiratory tract irritation is caused by SO2, NOX , O3, CO, etc.
4. Asthma attacks can be initiated by a variety of particulates such as pollens.
 10

5. Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated due to SO2, NOX, SPM (suspended
particulate matter) and photochemical smog.
6. On inhaling CO, enters blood stream through lungs and binds with hemoglobin (it is a substance in blood which
carries oxygen to cells). So instead of oxygen, CO binds with hemoglobin leading to reduction in amount of
oxygen reaching the body organs and tissues which can cause impaired vision, headaches, dizziness, confusion,
nausea , cardiovascular disorder and death. Carboxyhemoglobin is formed when CO binds with hemoglobin in
blood.
7. Polycyclic organic compounds can cause cancer.
8. Dust particles can cause respiratory diseases like silicosis (caused by silica dust) and asbestosis (caused by
asbestosis dust).
9. Heavy metals like lead (emitted from vehicles) on entering body through lungs can damage liver, kidney and can
cause abnormality in fertility and pregnancy. Pb can impact mental development of children.
10. Exposure to radioactive Iodine 131, Cobalt 60, Radium 226, Phosphorous 32 can cause anaemia (iron deficiency),
leukemia (RBC deficiency), cancer and genetic defects.

On Plants:
 11

On Animals:
Animals are exposed to pollutants in two steps:

 Accumulation of air pollutants in vegetation and forage and then;

 Poisoning of animals when they eat such contaminated vegetation.

Pollutants responsible for livestock damage are:

 Flourine: Effects wearing of teeth, lack of appetite, rapid loss of weight, muscular weakness and death.
 Lead: Causes paralysis, difficulty in breathing, loss of appetite, paralysis and diarrhea.
 Arsenic: Causes severe salivation, thirst, vomiting, diarrhea, anaemia, abortion, paralysis and death.

Economic effects:
1) Corrosion: Air pollution damage material by corrosion of metals. Especially SO2, as it reacts with moisture in air
and is converted to sulphuric acid. Deposition of this acid on metal parts of building roofs, railway tracks, metal
on bridges etc cause enormous loss due to corrosion.
2) Damage to objects of art and architecture: Acid rain causes loss to such objects for example effect on Taj Mahal
(see case study), Statue of Liberty etc.
3) Damage to building material: Acid deposition reacts with marble, limestone and other building material which
causes deterioration of building.
4) Damage to paints and protective covering: Pollutants like SO2, O3 , aerosols damage protective coating and
panes of the surface.
5) Rubber Cracking: Rubber cracking of tyres and various forms of electrical insulation is caused by ozone and PAN.
6) Damage of leather and paper: SO2 causes leather to lose its strength and ultimately disintegrate; posing a
serious problem of storage of leather bound books in libraries.
7) Expenditure due to adoption of technical measures for the reduction of smoke and other emission from
factories.

Control of Air Pollution:

Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:

1. Siting of industries after proper Environmental 3. Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with
Impact Assessment studies. the help of bacteria)
2. Using low sulphur coal in industries 4. Removing NOx during the combustion process.
 12

5. Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases
by employing electrostatic precipitators, bag-
house filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers etc.
6. Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular
tune-up of engines ; replacement of more
polluting old vehicles; installing catalytic
converters ; by engine modification to have fuel
efficient (lean) mixtures to reduce CO and
hydrocarbon emissions; and slow and cooler
burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission.
7. Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.
8. Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).
9. Using non-conventional sources of energy.
10. Use of eco-friendly fuels like CNG.
11. Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.
12. Planting more trees.
13. Reduction of pollution at source.

Reduction of Air pollution at Source:

CONTROL DEVICES FOR GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS
1. Adsorption: It involves passing of a stream of effluent gas through a porous solid material. The surface of the
porous solid material attracts and holds the gas by physical adsorption. For example, activated charcoal, silica
gel etc.

2. Absorption: The pollution control process of absorption involves bringing the effluent gas in contact with a
liquid absorbent so that constituent of the effluent gas are removed by liquid absorbent. For example, SO 2
absorbed in ammonium solution. This method is used for SO2, NOX, HCs NH3 etc.

3. Condensation: The vapour (gas) to be condensed is separated from the cooling medium (air or water) by a metal
wall. As the cooling medium flows through the metal tubes, the vapour condenses on the surface of the tubes.
The condensed vapours collect as a film of liquid and the liquid drain off to the storage.
 13

4. Combustion: The objective is to convert the air contaminants, HCs or CO to not harmful CO2 and water, in
combustion equipment in optimal conditions of O2 and temperature. The combustion equipment is designed so
that minimum of unburned compounds is left in effluent air.

CONTROL DEVICES FOR PARTICULATE CONTAMINANTS

1. Settling Chamber: It is the simplest equipment used for collection of solid particles. The settling chamber
consists of a chamber in which the polluted gas speed is reduced so that the particles settle down on the base of
chamber from the moving gas, due to gravity.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Low initial cost.
 Large space requirement.
 Simple construction.
 Large size particles (more than 10 µm)
 Low maintenance cost.
can be collected.

2. Cyclone: It consists of a cylinder with an inverted cone attached to the bottom. The gas with particles in it enters
from top of the cylinder and spins in circular motion because of which dust particles strike the wall of the
cylinder and fall due to gravity and are removed. Clean gas leaves from the top. It is efficient for removal of
larger particles and not smaller particles which pose human health problems.

Advantages:  Low maintenance cost.

 Low initial cost.
 Simple construction.
 14

Disadvantages:  Low efficiency for particles below 5 –10

µm.

3. Bag house filters: A bag house filter contains a large number of filter bags (2-10 m long) made of fabric (cloth,
wool, cellulose etc.). They are hung in several compartments of a bag house filter. Dust laden dirty gas is passed
through the filter bags and leaves the bags through their pores, whereas the dust particles get deposited on bag
filters and is removed by shaking. The device is useful for removal of very small particles and is used in many
industries. They are expensive and can’t be used for moist and corrosive gases, so different filter materials are
used depending upon the nature of the dirty gas.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Simple construction.
 Large size of equipment.
 High efficiency for smaller particles
 High maintenance and fabric cost.
which are less than 10 µm in diameter.
 15

4. Wet scrubbers: Scrubbers are devices which utilize water or any other specific liquid to assist in the removal of
particulate and gases by absorption/ adsorption. Factory fumes contain both dust and toxic gases. So it is
necessary that these pollutants are removed as much as possible before emissions are released into the
atmosphere. Dirty gases are passed through water in the chamber or water is sprayed on the gas. Particles are
made wet and are removed from the gas steam which leaves from the top of the scrubber. Wet scrubbers are
very efficient for removing particulates. The scrubbers are very useful for removal of toxic and acidic gases also.

Disadvantages:

Advantages:  High power consumptions for higher

 Low initial cost. efficiency.
 High collection efficiency for smaller  High maintenance cost due to
particles. corrosion.

5. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs): ESPs are particulate collection devices that utilize electrical energy directly to
remove particular matter even sub-microscopic particles. ESP consists of a thick cylinder, with an inlet on lower
side and an exit on the top. In the cylinder a discharged electrode in inserted from top to bottom and connected
to a high voltage cable. When the dust laden fumes enter ESP, large size particle settle down due to gravity
while the smaller charged particle settle on the oppositely charged electrode surface; and on getting
accumulated they gradually fall down and pass out of the cylinder from the bottom outlet. The clean dust- free
smoke rises through the cylinder and gets expelled out of the exit.

Advantages:
 16

 Low maintenance and operating cost.

 High collection efficiency for particles as small as 0.1 µm in diameter.

Disadvantages:

 High initial cost

 More space requirement.

Air Quality Index (AQI)

1. Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding us in the outdoors.
2. National Ambient Air Quality Standards are the standards for ambient air quality set by the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) that is applicable nationwide.
3. CPCB was constituted in September, 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and
the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
4. It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests of
the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
5. Functions of the CPCB:
 to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control and
abatement of water pollution, and
 to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
6. National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched on 17 October 2014.
7. The measurement of air quality is based on eight pollutants for which short-term (up to 24-hourly averaging
period) are prescribed:
 17

 Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or  Carbon Monoxide (CO),

(PM10),  Ozone (O3),
 Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm)  Ammonia (NH3)
or (PM2.5),  Lead (Pb)
 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2),

8. AQI has six categories of air quality. Good, Satisfactory, Moderately Polluted, Poor, Very Poor
and Severe.

9. The AQI Index values and their associated health impacts are as follows:

Air Quality Monitoring

NAAM HVS RDS
 18

NOISE POLLUTION

1. Noise is unwanted/undesirable sound that interferes significantly with comfort, health, welfare
of people.
2. Unit of measurement: Decibel (dB).
3. Noise pollution is not like air/ water pollution where contaminants accumulate but it can cause
serious health issues.

4. Rules in Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 essentially reads as follows:

a. The use of fireworks or fire crackers shall not be permitted except between 6.00 p.m.
and 10.00 p.m. No fireworks or fire crackers shall be used between 10.00 p.m. and 6.00
a.m.
b. Fire crackers shall not be used at any time in silence zones, as defined by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests. Silence Zone in an area comprising not less than 100 meters
around hospitals, educational institutions, courts, religious places or any other area
which is declared as such by the authority.
c. The management/principals of schools in all the States and Union Territories shall take
appropriate steps to educate students about the ill effects of air and noise pollution.

5. Sources of Noise Pollution: Various modes of transportation (like air, road, rail-transportation),
industrial operations, construction activities (highway, metro, buildings) and celebrations
(social/religious functions, elections etc.) and electric home appliances (food mixer, vacuum
cleaner, washing machine).
 19

6. Effect of Noise Pollution: Causes damage to central nervous system which can further cause
nausea, deafness, sleeplessness and sometimes cardiac failure.
a. Deafness due to exposure to noise which could be either of high intensity for short time
or low intensity for long duration.
b. Abortions: Unexpected or sudden sound can cause abortions in females.
c. Blood pressure: Noise increases tension level of an individual which ultimately results in
diseases like high BP and can even lead to mental illness.
d. Reduction of work efficiency of man.
e. Lack of concentration: Noise of loud speakers, traffic, industries can divert attention
and thereby affect working efficiency. Even animals lose their mental control if exposed
to loud noise for longer duration.
f. Effect on property: Loud sound wave is dangerous to bridges, buildings and
monuments. It weakens the buildings.

7. Control of Noise Pollution:

a. Noise pollution can be regulated by periodic maintenance of vehicles.
b. Noise reduction measures such as noise attenuation walls.
c. Airport should be planned away from residential areas of cities. To control aircraft traffic
noise while takeoff and landing appropriate insulation should be used.
d. For reducing industrial noises sound proofing equipment should be used and
established away from residential areas.
e. During public functions use of loudspeakers should not be permitted during night.
f. Use of fire crackers should be regulated as they cause noise and air pollution
g. Trees should be planted as they are natural noise absorber (afforestation).
h. Legal measure should be taken like The Noise Pollution Rules 2002 which lay down
terms to reduce noise pollution, permit use of loud speakers during night hours (10 pm
to midnight) on or during any cultural or religious occasion.

THERMAL POLLUTION

1. Also known as Heat Pollution.

2. When heat is released into water or air it produces undesirable effects in environment.
 20

3. Sudden heat release occurs due to natural events like forest fire, volcanoes and human induced
fire, storms.
4. Causes of Thermal Pollution:
Heat producing industries i.e., thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, refineries,
steel mills etc. are the major sources of thermal pollution. Power plants utilize only 1/3
of the energy provided by fossil fuels for their operations. Remaining 2/3 is generally
lost in the form of heat to the water used for cooling. Cold water, generally, is drawn
from some nearby water-body, passed through the plant and returned to the same
water body, with temperature 10-16°C higher than the initial temperature. Excess of
heat reaching such water bodies causes thermal pollution of water.

5. Effect of Thermal Pollution:

a. The dissolved oxygen (O2) content of water is decreased as the solubility of O2 in water
is decreased at high temperature.
b. High temperature becomes a barrier for O2 penetration into deep cold waters.
c. Toxicity of pesticides, detergents and chemicals in the effluents increases with increase
in temperature.
d. The composition of flora and fauna changes because the species sensitive to increased
temperature due to thermal shock will be replaced by temperature tolerant species.
e. Metabolic activities of aquatic organisms increase at high temperature and require more
O2, whereas O2 level falls under thermal pollution.
f. Discharge of heated water near the shores can disturb or even kill young fishes.
g. Fish migration is affected due to formation of various thermal zones.

6. Methods to Control Thermal Pollution:

a. Cooling ponds: Water from condensers is stored in ponds where natural evaporation
cools the water which can then be recirculated or discharged in nearby water body
 21

b. Spray Ponds: The water from condensers is received in spray ponds. Here the water is
sprayed through nozzles where fine droplets are formed. Heat from these fine droplets
is dissipated to the atmosphere.
 22

c. Cooling towers:
i. Wet cooling tower: Hot water is sprayed over baffles. Cool air entering from
sides takes away the heat and cools the water. This cool water can be recycled
or discharged. Large amount of water is lost through evaporation and in the
vicinity of wet cooling tower extensive fog is formed which is not good for
environment and causes damage to vegetation.

ii. Dry cooling tower: The heated water flows in a system of pipes. Air is passed
over these hot pipes with fans. There is no water loss in this method but
installation and operation cost of dry cooling tower is many times higher than
wet cooling tower.
 23

SOIL POLLUTION

1. Soil is top most layer of Earth’s crust.

2. Soil supports various macro and microscopic organic.
3. Soil is composed of nutrients, minerals, organic matter, water, air trapped in pores.
4. Topmost layer is rich in more nutrients as compared to other layers.
5. Soil pollution is contamination of soil with sewage waste, industrial sludge, solid waste, agro-
chemicals, radioactive substances which reduce its productivity w.r.t quality and quantity of
crop produced.
6. Soil pollution involves increase in the persistent poisonous, slow or non-biodegradable chemical
compounds, salts, radioactive compounds that troubles flora and fauna present in soil. Soil
pollution changes physical and chemical characteristics of soil that negatively affects all living
organisms of ecosystem.

7. Sources and Effects of Soil pollution:

a. Industrial waste: Industrial wastes are the effluents discharged from chemical
industries, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, textile mills, steel industries, distilleries,
refineries, pesticides and fertilizer industries, pharmaceutical industries, food processing
industries, cement industries, thermal and nuclear power plants, mining industries etc.
Thermal power plants generate a large quantity of ‘Fly ash’. Huge quantities of these
wastes are dumped on soils, thus contaminating soil. Industrial wastes also contain
some organic and inorganic compounds that are non-biodegradable. Industrial sludge
may contain various salts, toxic substances, metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic
etc.
b. Several industries release harmful toxins and these toxins enter food chain causing
undesirable effects like several soil and water-borne diseases.
c. Metallic contaminants (mercury, zinc cadmium etc.) destroy beneficial bacteria in soil.

d. Domestic wastes include garbage, rubbish material like glass, plastics, metallic cans,
paper, fibers, cloth rags, containers, paints, varnishes etc. Leachates from dumping sites
and sewage tanks are harmful and toxic, which pollute the soil.
 24

e. Radioactive substances in soil are explosion of radioactive devices, radioactive wastes

discharged from industries and laboratories, aerial fall out etc. Isotopes of radium,
uranium, thorium, strontium, iodine, caesium and of many other elements reach the soil
and persist there for a long time and keep on emitting radiations. Some plants like
lichens and mushrooms accumulate Cs-137 (Caesium 137 is product of nuclear reaction
is deposited on soil through rain and emit radiation) which concentrate in grazing
animals thus entering food chain.

f. Biological agents: Soil also receives excreta from animals and humans. The sewage
sludge contains many pathogenic organisms, bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms
which cause pollution in the soil.
i. Pathogenic soil bacteria are transmitted from man to soil or vice versa causing
cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, polio, amoebic dysentery etc.
ii. Eggs of parasitic worms cause hook worm diseases.

g. Pollution due to heavy metals: Heavy metals are hazardous and not suitable for
biological system. Lead, mercury, arsenic, chromium and cadmium are top 5 very
common toxic heavy metals with serious impact on human health.
 25

h. Agricultural practices:
i. Fertilizers: These are chemical compounds that contain one or more plant
nutrients that is, nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K).
 Their excessive use pollute soil
 Soil retains fertilizers but nitrogen in the form of nitrate gets washed off
and enter water bodies causing Nitrate Pollution. Excess of nitrate
promotes algal growth in water body received from agricultural runoff
leading to eutrophication thereby degrading water quality. Large
concentration of nitrate in drinking water affects health of infants below
3 months causing blue baby syndrome or methemoglobinemia where
nitrate react with hemoglobin and reduce oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.

ii. Pesticides are used to kill pests that damage crops.

 These pesticides ultimately reach the soil and persist there for a long
time.
 Pesticides which are persistent in nature are chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides e.g. DDT, HCH, endrin, lindane, heptachlor, endosulfan etc.
 Residues of these pesticides in the soils have long term effects.
 Agrochemicals released with the wastes of pesticide and fertilizer
factories or during agricultural practices also reach the soil and pollute
it.
 These are toxic, non-biodegradable chemicals which accumulate in
environment and pollute water, soil and food. Thus, such chemicals
enter food chain and get accumulated in fatty tissues of higher
organisms. This process of movement of chemicals in food chain is
called biomagnification.
 Pesticides even kill some bacterial predators and parasites from
agricultural field.
 26

iii. Irrigation: Irrigated water contains salts. Irrigation of farms or land in summer
or dry season, water gets evaporated and only salts are left, results in salinity of
soil that affects plant growth and seen as stunted growth and low yield in crops.

8. Effects of Soil Pollution:

9. Control of Soil Pollution:

a. Effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on the soil.
b. Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate method.
c. From the wastes, recovery of useful products should be done.
d. Biodegradable organic waste should be used for generation of biogas.
e. Cattle dung should be used for methane generation.
f. Microbial degradation of biodegradable substances is also one of the scientific
approaches for reducing soil pollution.
g. Make people aware of 3R’s: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle so that pollutants are not mixed
with soil to cause pollution.
h. Organic farming should be encouraged to reduce dependency on pesticides and
fertilizers.

RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION

WATER POLLUTION

Change in composition of water, naturally or due to human activities making it unfit for domestic,
industrial, agricultural and other uses is called water pollution.

Causes of WP:

1. Human activities: By release if industrial effluents and domestic waste, agricultural run-off
loaded with pesticides, sewage water loaded with human excreta and animal dung.
 27

2. Natural sources: By soil erosion, decaying of organic matter, leaching of metal from rocks.

Sources of WP:

1. Point Source: When pollutants discharged directly from some specific source to water bodies.
For example, releasing industrial effluents through drain pipe into water bodies, oil spills in
ocean from a point source (ship / oil rigs).
2. Non-point Source: When pollutants discharged from diffuse source (not a particular point) or
from larger area into water bodies. For example, fertilizer rich run-off from agricultural fields
mixing into lake or river water.

Effects of WP:

1. De-oxygenation of water due to organic matter: Organic matter which reaches water bodies is
decomposed by micro-organisms present in water. For this degradation, oxygen dissolved in
water is consumed. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity
of water at a particular temperature. Amount of dissolved oxygen depends on aeration,
photosynthetic activity in water, respiration of animals and plants and ambient temperature.
Lower DO may be harmful to animals especially fish population. Biological oxygen demand
(BOD) is the amount of DO required to aerobically decompose biodegradable organic matter of
a given volume of water. SO higher the amount of organic matter in water bodies higher will be
rate of decomposition which will require more DO, that is amount of DO will reduce and amount
of BOD will increase leading to poor water quality. These microbes consume DO in water
bodies, adversely affecting aquatic life.

2. Eutrophication: Agricultural run-off rich in fertilizer (nitrogen and phosphorous) coming from
nearby agricultural field gets mixed with lake or river. These nutrients increase algal growth
(also known as algal bloom) or weeds such as water hyacinth. Excessive algal or weed growth
leads to decrease in DO (oxygen deficiency) in water body. Such conditions with less DO cause
death of aquatic organisms or harm life.

3. Thermal Pollution: (see previous notes) Releasing warm/hot water with temperature above
normal range from industries increases rate of decomposition thus leading to decrease DO in
 28

water bodies. Also release of warm water can cause death of organisms or affect various stages
in life cycle of local species.

4. Pathogens: Many wastewaters especially sewage contain many pathogenic (disease causing)
and non-pathogenic micro-organisms and viruses. Water borne diseases like cholera, dysentery,
typhoid, jaundice etc. are spread by water contaminated with sewage.

5. Toxic Compounds:
A. Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides and many other organic and
inorganic compounds are harmful to aquatic organisms. The demand of DO increases
with addition of biodegradable organic matter (as discussed before) which is expressed
as biological oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is defined as the amount of DO required to
aerobically decompose biodegradable organic matter of a given volume of water over a
period of 5 days at 20°C. More BOD values of any water sample are associated with poor
water quality. The non-biodegradable toxic compounds biomagnify in the food chain
and cause toxic effects at various levels of food chain. Some of these substances like
pesticides, methyl mercury etc. move into the bodies of organisms from the medium in
which these organisms live. Substances like DDT are not water soluble but are fat
soluble thus they tend to accumulate in the organism’s body. This process is called
bioaccumulation. The concentration of these toxic substances builds up at successive
levels of food chain. This process is called biomagnification.
 29

B. Toxic substances polluting the water ultimately affect human health. Some heavy
metals like lead, mercury and cadmium cause various types of diseases.
 Mercury dumped into water is transformed into water soluble methyl mercury
by bacterial action. Methyl mercury accumulates in fish. In 1953, people in
Japan suffered from numbness of body parts, vision and hearing problems and
abnormal mental behaviour. This disease called Minamata disease occurred
due to consumption of methyl mercury contaminated fish caught from
Minamata bay in Japan. The disease claimed 50 lives and permanently paralysed
over 700 persons.
 Pollution by another heavy metal cadmium had caused the disease called Itai-
itai in the people of Japan. The disease was caused by cadmium contaminated
rice. The rice fields were irrigated with effluents of zinc smelters and drainage
water from mines. In this disease bones, liver, kidney, lungs, pancreas and
thyroid are affected.
 Arsenic pollution of ground water in Bangladesh and West Bengal is causing
various types of abnormalities (case study).
 30

 Nitrate when present in excess in drinking water causes blue baby syndrome or
methaemoglobinemia. Nitrate in stomach partly gets changed into nitrites
which can produce cancer-causing products in the stomach.
 Excess of fluoride in drinking water causes defects in teeth and bones called
fluorosis.

Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and are known to cause various health
problems. DDT, aldrin, dieldrin etc. have therefore, been banned. Recently, in Andhra Pradesh,
people suffered from various abnormalities due to consumption of endosulphan contaminated
cashew nuts.

6. Acidification: Release of effluents having toxic chemicals causes lowering of pH (makes water
acidic) which is injurious to fresh water animals causing decline in fish population thus affecting
species richness.

7. Oil spills: Oil leaks from tankers of ships forms a blanket over water surface that prevents
oxygen from mixing with water from atmosphere, which causes injury and death of aquatic
organisms. Sometimes oil contains carcinogenic compounds that poison aquatic life.

Control of WP:

1. Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their surface run-
off and leaching. Avoid use of these on sloped lands.
2. Use of nitrogen fixing plants along with use of fertilizers.
3. Adopting integrated pest management (IPM) to reduce reliance on pesticides.
4. Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement. The nutrient rich water
can be used as fertilizer in the fields.
5. Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided to prevent overflow of sewage
with rainwater.
6. Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and will also prevent soil erosion.

 For controlling water pollution from point sources, treatment of wastewaters is essential before
being discharged. Parameters which are considered for reduction in such water are: Total solids,
 31

biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrates and phosphates, oil
and grease, toxic metals etc.
 Wastewaters should be properly treated by primary and secondary treatments to reduce the
BOD, COD levels upto the permissible levels for discharge. Advanced treatment for removal of
nitrates and phosphates will prevent eutrophication. Before the discharge of wastewater, it
should be disinfected to kill the disease-causing organisms like bacteria.
 Proper chlorination should be done to prevent the formation of chlorinated hydrocarbons or
disinfection should be done by ozone or ultraviolet radiations.

Water Quality Index (WQI)

1. Drinking water is water intended for human consumption for drinking and cooking purposes
from any source. It includes water (treated or untreated) supplied by any means for human
consumption.
2. The quality standards for drinking water in India is prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS) laid down IS 10500 : 2012.
3. The various parameters covered include color, odour, pH, total dissolved solids, hardness,
alkalinity, elemental compounds such as iron, manganese, sulphate, nitrate, chloride, fluoride,
arsenic, chromium, copper, cyanide, lead, mercury, zinc and coliform bacteria.

4.
 32

Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

1. IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests or
their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat
manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties.
2. IPM offers the opportunity to eliminate or drastically reduce the use of pesticides, and
to minimize the toxicity of and exposure to any products which are used.
3. A pest is any animal or plant detrimental to humans or human concerns, including crops,
livestock and forestry.

4. Approaches for managing pests are often grouped in the following categories:
a) Biological control: use of natural enemies—predators, parasites, pathogens, and
competitors to control pests and their damage. Invertebrates, plant pathogens,
nematodes, weeds, and vertebrates have many natural enemies.
b) Cultural controls: Cultural controls are practices that reduce pest establishment,
reproduction, dispersal, and survival. For example, changing irrigation practices can
reduce pest problems, since too much water can increase root disease and weeds.
 33

c) Mechanical and physical controls kill a pest directly, block pests out, or make the
environment unsuitable for it. Traps for rodents are examples of mechanical control.
Physical controls include mulches for weed management, steam sterilization of the
soil for disease management, or barriers such as screens to keep birds or insects
out.
d) Chemical control is the use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are used only when
needed and in combination with other approaches for more effective, long-term
control. Pesticides are selected and applied in a way that minimizes their possible
harm to people, nontarget organisms, and the environment. With IPM we use the
most selective pesticide that will do the job and be the safest for other organisms
and for air, soil, and water quality; use pesticides in bait stations rather than sprays;
or spot-spray a few weeds instead of an entire area.

Waste Water Treatment

There are four steps of waste water treatment:

1. Preliminary treatment
2. Primary treatment
3. Secondary/ Biological treatment
4. Tertiary treatment

Preliminary treatment: This treatment involves:

1. Screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes etc.

2. Grit chambers or tanks for removing for removing grit (grit in sewage consists of coarse particles
of sand, ash, egg shells)
3. Skimming tanks for removing oils and grease

Primary treatment: This treatment involves:

1. Removing large suspended organic solid by sedimentation in settling basins.

2. Such organic substances which are separated out in sedimentation tanks during primary
treatment undergo anaerobic (in absence of air) decomposition in a digestion tank.
3. The residue is used for landfills.
 34

Secondary or Biological treatment: It is a biological process which involves microorganisms and

reduces organic matter content in waste water. It removes up to 90% of BOD and 90% of suspended
solids. This treatment is done through biological process classified into two types:

1. Aerobic Processes: Biological processes in presence of air

i. Oxidation Pond: Oldest and simplest method of treatment. It is a shallow pond
where sewage is kept for several days and oxygen is supplied naturally through
algae in the ponds.

Advantages:

 Suitable for warm climate where land is available in abundance.

 Nil energy requirements.
 No moving parts.

Disadvantages:

 Large area requirement.

 Problem of fly and odour nuisance.

ii. Trickling filters: These consist of a bed of crushed stones/pebbles covered with
slime which consists mainly of aerobic bacteria, algae, fungi, worms etc. Sewage
is degraded by aerobic bacteria when it passes through the bed and is collected
at the bottom of the filter. Some of the treated sewage may recirculate along
the influent. It helps in better removal of organic matter and also keeps the
filter moist when the flow rate over the filter is slow.

Advantages:

 Suitable for industrial wastes.

Disadvantages:

 Compulsory requirement of primary settling tank so that settleable

solids do not clog the filter.
 35

iii. Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC): It consists of circular plastic discs which are
arranged on a rotating shaft. Circular disc have microorganisms grown on them.
The discs are contained in a waste water holding tank. About 49% area of the
disc is submerged in the tank. The disc rotates in and out of water as the RBC
rotates. The microorganisms present on disc absorb organic matter (OM) when
they are in water and obtain the required oxygen when the discs are out of
water. Thus a high degree of OM removal is achieved.

iv. Activated Sludge Process: It is the most widely used treatment. It involves
aeration of sewage in a tank called as aeration tank for 4-8 hours. The effluent
from the primary clarifier goes to aeration tank. Aeration is the process of
supplying air to sewage using machines. Oxygen is pumped into aeration tank
 36

for maintaining aerobic conditions. In this tank microbes from the sewage
decompose OM and converts it into sludge, which is removed from the sewage.
This sludge is also known as activated sludge as it is rich in microorganisms. The
sludge is produced, dewatered and disposed off. This can be used for landfills
or disposed off in ocean or used as fertilizer in crop lands, pastures etc.

Advantages:

 Better method than oxidation ponds and trickling filters.

 Less land requirement.
 No problem of odour nuisance.

2. Anaerobic Processes: Biological processes in absence of air in closed digesters.

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASBR)

 The UASBR is a single tank process in an anaerobic wastewater treatment system.
 High removal of organic pollutants.
 Wastewater enters the reactor from the bottom, and flows upward.
 A suspended sludge blanket (comprised of microorganisms which degrade organic
compound, as a result, gases (methane and carbon dioxide) are released filters and
treats the wastewater as the wastewater flows through it.
 Bacteria living in the sludge break down organic matter by anaerobic digestion,
transforming it into biogas.
 Solids are retained and are passed through the sludge blanket continuously. The up
flow regime and the motion of the gas bubbles allow mixing without mechanical
assistance. Baffles at the top of the reactor allow gases to escape and prevent an
outflow of the sludge blanket.
 As all aerobic treatments, UASB require a post-treatment to remove pathogens, but
due to a low removal of nutrients, the effluent water as well as the stabilized sludge
can be used in agriculture.
 37

Tertiary treatment: This treatment involves following steps:

1. Reverse Osmosis: This process uses a membrane allowing the fluid to be purified, to pass
through it while rejecting the contaminants. It removes bacteria, salts, sugar and proteins.
2. Activated Carbon: It adsorbs or removes taste and odour from water. It also removes organic
compounds, volatile compounds etc.
3. Disinfection of water: This is the most important step. Disinfectants are chemicals used for
killing bacteria. Disinfection involves many steps such as:
 Boiling water  Treatment with Iodine
 Treatment with Ozone (O3)  Treatment with UV rays
 Treatment with Potassium
permanganate (KMnO₄)

Chlorine is universally used for disinfecting water supplies. It is cheap, reliable and provides complete
protection against recontamination of water. Using this method has resulted in elimination of water
borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery, Hepatitis A.

Important parameters of water quality

1. Physical: solids, turbidity, temperature, 3. Biological: presence or absence of

colour, odour pathogenic microbes (fecal coliform
2. Chemical: pH, heavy metals, DO, BOD bacteria)
 38

Solid Waste Management

Solid waste is a term used for waste that originates from human activities. Depending on its origin solid waste has been
classified into: Municipal, Bio-medical, Hazardous, Plastic, E-waste.

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

 Waste from household activities, restaurants, public places, schools, like cooking, cleaning, repair, waste from
office shops etc.
 Waste like newspaper, glass bottles, wooden pipes, agricultural and sewage.
 It is non-hazardous in nature

Municipal Solid Waste Management

I. Collection: Waste should be collected in community dustbins and maintained by municipalities.

1) It is important to empty bins at regular intervals to ensure waste is not degrading within the
bins.
2) Waste should be separated into biodegradable (which can be used to make manure- rich in
nutrients and can be used in gardens and lawns) and non-biodegradable.
3) If solid waste is not disposed properly then it will give rise to unsanitary conditions, foul smell,
breeding ground for flies, mosquitoes, rats etc.
4) Plastic waste will clog drainage system and conditions will worsen during rainy season where
water will pass through unattended waste and leach to ground water thus contaminating it.
5) Many diseases like typhoid , cholera, dysentery etc. can be caused.

II. Transportation: Waste collected at community bins is taken to disposal sites by tractor trailers.
III. Processing and disposal of solid waste:
1) Composting:
 Composting is a process where organic material in solid waste is decomposed by
bacteria in anaerobic condition (absence of oxygen) and is converted to farm manures
also known as compost. Grass, dry leaves, hay, dead leaves, wood, fresh animal manure,
kitchen waste (fruits and vegetable peel, egg shells) can be added to the composting pit.
 Compost is earthy, dark substance which is excellent for adding to house plants, gardens
or used as fertilizer in agriculture fields.
 39

 It reduces volume of waste.

 This process makes solid waste free from most pathogens.
 Advantage:
a) Waste is safe and hygienic for handling
b) No foul smell
c) Doesn’t attract flies therefore reducing spread of diseases
d) Harmful pathogens are destroyed

2) Biogas generation: Organic matter in solid waste is fed in a closed reactor in absence of air and
bacteria decomposes waste to produce methane gas (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) known as
biogas. It can be used for electricity generation.
3) Incineration: It is burning of waste in high temperature (more than 800°C) in excess of air.
 Solid waste rich in paper, plastics, leather, cardboard is used.
 Heat generated from burning the waste can be used for power generation.
 Advantage: No foul smell, all pathogens and insects are destroyed
 Disadvantage: Causes air pollution.

4) Pelletization/ Densification: This process involves segregating, crushing, mixing combustible

portion of waste and solidifying it to produce fuel pellets. These pellets are stored, transported
and used as fuel for combustion and are called as Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF).

5) Sanitary Landfilling: Disposal of solid waste on land in a scientific way without creating hazard
to public health, to confine the waste to the smallest area, to take steps to prevent pollution of
surface and groundwater and to cover the waste with a layer of soil is termed as Sanitary
Landfilling.

 Site for sanitary landfilling should be at a distance of 200 m from inhabited areas.
 Bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually several layers of clay, thick plastic
and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being contaminated due to
percolation of leachate.
 Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment.
 When landfill is full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage
of water. Trees and grass can be grown on top soil.
 40

 Several wells are drilled near the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating
ground water.
 Methane gas produced by anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce
electricity or heat.
 Provide boundary around the site to restrict and regulate entry.

BIO-MEDICAL WASTE

Bio-medical wastes (BMW) are those which are generated during diagnosis or treatment of human beings/ animals/ in
research activities. The management of BMW needs special measures as they can be responsible for serious health
hazards like spread of infectious diseases as hepatitis and AIDS.

Measures for Segregation, Packing, Transportation and Storage of Bio-Medical Wastes

1. BMW shall not be mixed with other wastes.

2. BMW shall be segregated at the point of generation prior to its storage, transportation, treatment and disposal.
Colour coding of different waste categories with many treatment options shall be selected.
3. The containers shall be labelled HANDLE WITH CARE along with details including waste category, date of
generation, senders and receiver’s details.
4. Untreated BMW shall be transported only in authorized vehicles.
5. No untreated BMW shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours.
 41

6. Table: Categories of BMW

 42

7. Colour Coding for disposal of BMW

Methods of BMW Management

1. Incineration: Waste of categories 1,2,3,6 are to be incinerated.

2. Autoclaving/Microwaving/Chemical treatment: Waste of categories 3,4,6,7 can be treated with

autoclaving/microwaving/chemical treatment.
a. Autoclaving: Autoclaves are also known as steam sterilizers, and are typically used for healthcare or
industrial applications. An autoclave is a machine that uses steam under pressure to kill harmful
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores on items that are placed inside a pressure vessel. The items are
heated to an appropriate sterilization temperature for a given amount of time. The autoclave must
reach and maintain a temperature of 121° C for at least 60 minutes by using steam at least 15 psi (per
square inch) of pressure, for waste to be properly autoclaved.
b. Microwaving: The microwave should completely and consistently kill the bacteria and other pathogenic
organisms.
c. Chemical treatment: It is done using 1% hypochlorite solution (bleaching powder) or any other chemical.
 43

3. Sanitary Landfilling of BMW:

a. Ash of categories 1,2,3,6 (previously mentioned) are taken to sanitary landfill. If ash contains toxic
metals then they are taken to hazardous waste disposal site (see notes on Hazardous waste).
b. Waste of categories 3,4,6,7 are taken to sanitary landfills after treatment with
autoclaving/microwaving/chemical treatment.
c. Wastes of categories 5, 10 are directly taken to sanitary landfills.

HAZARDOUS WASTE

1. The term hazardous waste (HW) is any waste which because of its quantity, physical, chemical or infectious
characteristics causes significant hazard to human health and environment quality when improperly treated,
stored, transported or disposed.
2. Release of contaminants from HW can pollute air, land, water. Rainfall may bring hazardous waste in contact
with water and its toxic constituents may be released over soil, into surface water or pass on to ground water.
Emissions from HW dumps may release volatile compounds.
3. They can enter the body through inhalation (respiratory tract), ingestion (gastrointestinal tract- mouth) and
dermal (skin) contact.
4. The toxic effects are:
a. Carcinogenic (tumor indications called cancer)
b. Non -carcinogenic (liver or kidney damage, neurological problems etc)
 44

Characteristics of HW:

1. Corrosiveness: Waste with pH less than 2 (highly acidic) or pH more than 12.5 (highly alkaline) or are capable of
corroding steel.
2. Ignitability: Waste capable of causing fire under normal temperature and pressure. Eg., methanol, acetone,
toluene etc.
3. Reactivity: Waste which are unstable, that is, react violently with air or water and form explosive mixture which
generates toxic gases when mixed with water.
4. Toxicity: Wastes which release toxic constituents into water. Toxicity of a chemical is its ability to have harmful
effect on a living organism.

Methods of HW Management

HW can be managed by firstly reducing its production at source, secondly converting HW to nonhazardous waste and
lastly long-term careful storage.

1. Cleaner Production and Recycling: Chose such method of production which eliminates or reduces hazardous
outputs. For waste management stress on 3Rs -Reduce, reuse and recycle before destruction and safe storage of
wastes.
a. Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of raw materials will decrease the production of
waste like reduced demand for any metallic product will decrease the mining of their metal and cause
less production of waste.
b. Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers which are discarded after use can be reused. Making
rubber rings from the discarded cycle tubes which are used by the newspaper vendors instead of rubber
bands reduces the waste generation during manufacturing of rubber bands.
c. Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products.
i. Formation of some old type products e.g. old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and
recast into new cans and bottles.
ii. Formation of new products: Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, preparation of fuel
pellets from kitchen waste. Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel
cans.
The process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves money, energy, raw materials, land space and also reduces
pollution. Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of trees for making fresh paper. Reuse of metals will reduce
mining and smelting of ores for recovery of metals from ores and prevent pollution
 45

2. Treatment of HW:
a. Air Stripping: It is passing air through water and is used to remove volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
from water and soil and then an adsorbent like activated charcoal is used to remove toxic organic
compounds from waste streams. VOCs are chemicals like aerosol spray which form vapour at normal
temperature and pressure eg., benzene when inhaled can cause cancer.
b. Stabilization: It is a process where reagents are added to HW to reduce its hazardous nature by either
converting the waste and its constituents into a form which doesn’t gets released into the environment
thus contaminating it or by reducing its toxicity level. E.g., Lime is added to waste containing metals as
lime reacts with metal forming a compound insoluble in water therefore it will not migrate into
environment.
c. Solidification: It is a process where materials are added to HW to solidify it thus decreasing its chances
of coming in contact with natural resources. Eg., Cement is added to HW along with water to solidify it
into a hard rock like mass.
d. Bioremediation : (separate notes)

3. Disposal of HW: HW landfills should be located as far as possible from aquifers, wetlands, streams, residential
areas. HW landfills have special features. But before leaving for landfill, HW is incinerated at 1100°C to destroy
combustible components of the waste. HW maybe explosive, flammable, radioactive, toxic etc. like acids, heavy
metals, infectious waste, pesticide, organic solvents etc. Environmental monitoring of landfills is required to
check for leaching of waste into natural resources like ground water or surface water.
 46

Fig: HW Landfills

Role of Individual in Pollution Prevention

1. Reduce your dependency on fossil fuel especially coal or oil.

2. Save electricity by not wasting it when not required because electricity saved is electricity generated without
polluting the environment. Put on warm clothes rather than switching on a heater.
3. Adopt and popularize renewable energy sources.
4. Improve energy efficiency. This will reduce the amount of waste energy, i.e. more is achieved with less energy.
5. Promote reuse and recycling wherever possible and reduce the production of wastes.
6. Use mass transport system. For short-visits use bicycle or go on foot. Decrease the use of automobiles.
7. Use pesticides only when absolutely necessary and that too in right amounts. Wherever possible integrated pest
management, including alternate pest control methods (biological control), should be used.
 47

8. Use rechargeable batteries. Rechargeable batteries will reduce metal pollution.

9. Use less hazardous chemicals wherever their application can be afforded. Baking soda, vinegar and borax can
help in cleaning, bleaching and softening. Baking soda can replace modern deodorants.
10. The solid waste generated during one manufacturing process can be used as a raw material for some other
processes.
11. Use low phosphate, phosphate-free or biodegradable dish washing liquid, laundry detergent and shampoo. This
will reduce eutrophication of water bodies.
12. Use organic manure instead of commercial inorganic fertilizers.
13. Do not put pesticides, paints, solvents, oils or other harmful chemicals into the drain or ground water.
14. Use only the minimum required amount of water for various activities. This will prevent fresh water from
pollution.
15. When building a home, save (don’t cut) as many trees as possible in the area.
16. Plant more trees, as trees can absorb many toxic gases and can purify the air by releasing oxygen
17. Check population growth so that demand of materials is under control.

Integrated Waste Management

It involves an integration of various techniques and programmes for an effective waste management. Following steps of
waste management can be used:

 Minimization of waste production  Thermal treatment

 Waste Reuse  Landfill
 Recycling of waste and biological treatment  Incineration

POLLUTION CASE STUDIES

 The Bhopal Gas Tragedy  Fluoride pollution in ground water

 Arsenic pollution in ground water  Chernobyl Nuclear disaster (KK)

ELECTRONIC WASTE/ E-WASTE

PLASTIC WASTE

Plastic Waste Management:

1. Plastic products have become an integral part of our daily life.

 48

2. On an average, production of plastic globally crosses 150 Million tons per year.
3. Its broad range of application is in packaging films, wrapping materials, shopping and garbage bags, fluid
containers, clothing, toys, household and industrial products, and building materials.
4. Plastic waste which is either landfilled or ends up polluting streams, or groundwater resources.
5. While some kinds of plastic do not decompose at all, others could take up to 450 years to break down.
6. Once plastic is discarded after its utility is over, it is known as plastic waste.
7. Disposal of plastic waste is a serious concern due to improper collection and segregation system. Only 60% of
the plastic produced is recycled, rest is left unattended in environment causing land, air and water pollution.
8. Harmful Effects of Plastics: Natural organisms have a very difficult time breaking down the synthetic chemical
bonds in plastic, creating the tremendous problem of the material’s persistence. A very small amount of total
plastic production (less than 10%) is effectively recycled; the remaining plastic is sent to landfills, where it is
destined to remain entombed in limbo for hundreds of thousands of years, or to incinerators, where its toxic
compounds are spewed throughout the atmosphere to be accumulated in biotic forms throughout the
surrounding ecosystems.
 Groundwater and soil pollution: Plastic cannot biodegrade; it breaks down into smaller and smaller
pieces. When buried in a landfill, plastic lies untreated for years. In the process, toxic chemicals from
plastics drain out and seep into groundwater, flowing downstream into lakes and rivers. The seeping of
plastic also causes soil pollution and have now started resulting in presence of micro plastics in soil.
 Pollution in Oceans: Most of the plastic debris that reaches the ocean remains floating for years as it
does not decompose quickly, it leads to the dropping of oxygen level in the water, severely affecting the
survival of marine species. Materials like plastic are non-degradable which means they will not be
absorbed and recycled. When oceanic creatures and even birds consume plastic, they choke on it which
causes a steady decline in their population. The harmful effects of plastic on aquatic life are devastating
as plastic is ingested by smaller and smaller creatures (as it breaks down into smaller and smaller
particles) and bio accumulates in greater and greater concentrations up the food chain—with humans at
the top.
 Dangerous for human life: Burning of plastic results into harmful chemicals which are known to cause
severe health problems: cancer, neurological damage, birth defects and child developmental disorders,
reproductive damage, immune damage, asthma, and multiple organ damage.
9. Plastic Waste Generation in India: According to the reports for year 2017-18, Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) has estimated that India generates approximately 9.4 Million tons per annum plastic waste and out of
this approximately 5.6 Million tons per annum plastic waste is recycled and 3.8 Million tons per annum plastic
waste is left uncollected or littered.
 49

Plastic Waste Management (PWM Rules), 2016:

1. These rules apply to every Waste Generator, Local Body, Gram Panchayat, Manufacturer, Importer, Producer
and Brand Owner.
2. Carry bags made of virgin or recycled plastic, shall be more than 50 microns in thickness.
3. Waste Generators including institutional generators, event organizers shall not litter the plastic waste, shall
segregate waste and handover to authorized agency and shall pay fine in case of violation.
4. Local Bodies shall encourage use of plastic waste for road construction. It shall be responsible for development
and setting up of infrastructure for segregation, collection, storage, transportation, processing and disposal of
the plastic waste.
5. Gram Panchayat shall set up waste management in the rural area ensuring segregation, collection, storage,
transportation, ensuring that no damage is caused to the environment during this process; creating awareness
among all stakeholders about their responsibilities; and ensuring that open burning of plastic waste does not
take place.
6. State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)/ Pollution Control Committee (PCC) shall be the authority for
enforcement of the provisions of PWM Rules, 2016, relating to registration, manufacture of plastic products and
multi-layered packaging, processing and disposal of plastic wastes.
7. District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner shall provide the assistance to SPCBs/PCCs, Secretary-in- Charge,
Urban Development Department and Gram Panchayat under his jurisdiction, whenever required for
enforcement of provisions of PWM Rules, 2016.
8. Altogether 18 States and Union Territories have taken initiative and imposed some kind of ban on plastic
manufacture, stock, sale, or use of plastic carry bags, namely Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Chandigarh, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.

Successful Case Studies on Plastics Ban within India

Case Study: Operation Blue Mountain in Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Operation Blue Mountain campaign was led by Supriya Sahu, the district collector in 2001 to ban the use of plastic in
the district. The campaign was crucial to unclog the river sources and springs in the popular hill station of Nilgiris.
The experiment has been documented by erstwhile Planning Commission and UNDP as the best practice on
governance from Indian States. In order to make people understand, the campaign used pictures of choking animals.
They also explained how plastic clogs drains and also seeps into the lake and other water bodies.
 50

Case Study: Sikkim: First State to Ban Plastics Bottles & Disposable Foam Products

Sikkim, which is often applauded for being one of the cleanest states in India has now taken one more step to
reduce its carbon footprint; also the first state in the country to ban use of plastic bags in 1998. The Sikkim
government has decided to manage its waste in a more efficient and eco-friendly manner by banning the use of
plastic water bottles in all Government meetings and programmes. Further, it has banned the use of disposable
foam products across the entire state. A huge quantity of municipal waste is created in the form of disposable
products which are environmentally hazardous, and claim a lot of space in landfills. It was found that a lot of
disposable foam containers were being used not just in bazaar areas at food stalls, but also in rural pockets. Owing
to this, there is now a statewide ban on the use and sale of cups, plates, spoons, containers, and other foam items. It
is also stated that rampant use of packaged drinking water in departmental meetings and programmes has led to
the piling up of disposable plastic bottles that add an unnecessary burden on dump yards. Therefore, in order to
reduce creation of garbage in the form of used drinking water plastic bottles it is notified that the packaged drinking
water bottles may not be used during any government meetings or functions. The alternative proposed is to switch
to filtered water, water from large reusable dispensers or reusable water bottles at such government functions and
meetings. The government has been initiating various measures to manage the waste and maintain a clean
environment.

Case Study: Maharashtra- Ban on Plastics

Maharashtra will be the 18th state in India to ban single-use disposable plastic. Maharashtra has banned disposable
products manufactured from plastic and thermocol (polystyrene). Maharashtra plastic ban carries penalties starting
at Rs. 5,000 and goes up to Rs 25,000 and 3 months of imprisonment. The government has played a major role by
bringing in the law, mechanism of imposing it, the fines that goes with the implementation. Now, flower vendors are
sending flowers to people’s home in cloth bags. Vegetables are being sold in cloth bags. Women in self-help groups
are looking at making jute or cotton bags as a major source of income. Medicines are coming in small paper
pouches. Tea and coffee stalls, college canteens and restaurants are doing away with plastics. Also, the corporates
like Starbucks, Coca Cola and Bisleri have risen to the occasion and taken up responsibility of collecting waste
plastics from Mumbai and recycle it or up-recycle it to different use. People participation can be seen as NGOs,
schools, celebrities, industrialists have begun campaigns to beat plastic pollution