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ENGLISH LANGUAGE

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LIT – IDEAS AND TECHNOLOGY WEEK-4

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Passage: 1
Is Photography Art?
This may seem a pointless question today. Surrounded as we are by thousands of photographs, most of us take for granted
that, in addition to supplying information and seducing customers, camera images also serve as decoration, afford spiritual
enrichment, and provide significant insights into the passing scene. But in the decades following the discovery of
photography, this question reflected the search for ways to fit the mechanical medium into the traditional schemes of artistic
expression.

The much-publicized pronouncement by painter Paul Delaroche that the daguerreotype* signalled the end of painting is
perplexing because this clever artist also forecast the usefulness of the medium for graphic artists in a letter written in 1839.
Nevertheless, it is symptomatic of the swing between the outright rejection and qualified acceptance of the medium that
was fairly typical of the artistic establishment. Discussion of the role of photography in art was especially spirited in France,
where the internal policies of the time had created a large pool of artists, but it was also taken up by important voices in
England. In both countries, public interest in this topic was a reflection of the belief that national stature and achievement in
the arts were related.

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From the maze of conflicting statements and heated articles on the subject, three main positions about the potential of

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camera art emerged. The simplest, entertained by many painters and a section of the public, was that photographs should
not be considered ‘art’ because they were made with a mechanical device and by physical and chemical phenomena instead

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of by human hand and spirit; to some, camera images seemed to have more in common with fabric produced by machinery
in a mill than with handmade creations fired by inspiration. The second widely held view, shared by painters, some

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photographers, and some critics, was that photographs would be useful to art but should not be considered equal in
creativeness to drawing and painting. Lastly, by assuming that the process was comparable to other techniques such as
etching and lithography, a fair number of individuals realized that camera images were or could be as significant as

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handmade works of art and that they might have a positive influence on the arts and on culture in general.

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The view that photographs might be worthwhile to artists was enunciated in considerable detail by Lacan and Francis Wey.
The latter, an art and literary critic, who eventually recognised that camera images could be inspired as well as informative,

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suggested that they would lead to greater naturalness in the graphic depiction of anatomy, clothing, likeness, expression,
and landscape. By studying photographs, true artists, he claimed, would be relieved of menial tasks and become free to
devote themselves to the more important spiritual aspects of their work.

Passage: 2
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There once was a planet that is no longer considered a planet like
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Earth, Mars, and the other 6 planets of the solar system.
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Pluto was once classified as a planet, but in 2006 tr-the International Astronomical Union (IAU) demoted Pluto to a 'dwarf
planet'. It is still thought of as a planet, but not in the same way as the other eight planets of the solar system. There are
several differences, which makes Pluto no longer one of the solar system's planets. Pluto is located about 3.5 billion miles
on average from the Sun.

According to the IAU, Pluto is no longer a regular planet because it has not cleared its neighborhood around its orbit and it
is not considered a satellite. Pluto, though, still has a special place in the solar system for a variety of reasons. It holds keys
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tr-5R3O2S3M has been thoroughly studied, the climate differences caused by its distance from the Sun
to possible life, its atmosphere
has been studied, and several other reasons make Pluto a unique planet to learn about. For many years Pluto was the
most distant large object astronomers knew anything about, which in itself was significant and important to many
astronomers.

Pluto was discovered by astronomer Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and it takes 248 years to orbit the Sun. At times, because of
the elliptical orbit of Pluto and 3K5E
the
2G3B 2J planets, it is closer to the Sun than Neptune. During those years between 1979 and
other
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1999, scientists were able to learn much more about Pluto and its very large moon, Charon, as well as its four other moons.
Pluto's temperature is about 375 degrees below zero.

Scientists still want to learn much more about Pluto and other far away areas of the solar system, so a robotic space flight
mission was launched in 2007. NASA sent an unmanned mission called New Horizons taking eight years to arrive on the
dwarf planet. It has allowed the study of Pluto and other areas in the region.

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Passage: 3
The invention of the telescope played an important role in advancing our understanding of Earth's place in the cosmos.
While there is evidence that the principals of telescopes were known in the late 16th century, the first telescopes were
created in the Netherlands in 1608. Spectacle makers Hans Lippershey & Zacharias Janssen and Jacob Metius
independently created telescopes. The telescope emerged from a tradition of craftsmanship and technical innovation around
spectacles and developments in the science of optics traced back through Roger Bacon and a series of Islamic scientists,
in particular Al-Kindi (c. 801–873), Ibn Sahl (c. 940-1000) and Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040).

The story of Galileo's telescopic observations illustrates how a tool for seeing and collecting evidence can dramatically
change our understanding of the cosmos.

Early telescopes were primarily used for making Earth-bound observations, such as surveying and military tactics. Galileo
Galilei (1564-1642) was part of a small group of astronomers who turned telescopes towards the heavens. After hearing
about the "Danish perspective glass" in 1609, Galileo constructed his own telescope. He subsequently demonstrated the
telescope in Venice. His demonstration of the telescope earned him a lifetime lectureship.

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After his initial success, Galileo focused on refining the instrument. The initial telescope he created (and the Dutch ones it

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was based on) magnified objects three diameters. That is, it made things look three times larger than they did with the naked
eye. Through refining the design of the telescope he developed an instrument that could magnify eight times, and eventually

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thirty times.

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This increased magnification of heavenly objects had a significant and immediate impact. These new observations were by
no means exclusive to Galileo. The story of Galileo and the telescope is a powerful example of the key role that technologies
play in enabling advances in scientific knowledge. With that said, the telescope isn't the only technology at play in this story.

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Galileo deftly used the printed book and the design of prints in his books to present his research to the learned community.

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This is not a story of a lone thinker theorizing and piecing together a new model of the cosmos. Quite the contrary, an array

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of individuals in the early 17th century took the newly created telescopes and pointed them toward the heavens. Unlike
those other observers, however, Galileo rapidly published his findings. In some cases, Galileo understood the significance

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and importance of these observations more readily than his contemporaries. It was this understanding, and foresight to
publish, that made Galileo's ideas stand the test of time.

Passage: 4

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Until the middle of the nineteenth century, surgery was not only a very gruesome trade - as there was no general anesthesia
before that time-but also a dangerous method of treatment
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which
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The patients died even after the slightest operation. All wounds suppurated, and in the hospital wards the sweetish smell of
pus everywhere prevailed. The ancient doctrine that this was 'good and laudable pus', and must therefore be regarded as
a sign of the favourable - healing of the wound, was not yet dead. In the hospitals of Lister's time, 'charpie' was used as a
dressing. Charpie was made out of old linen cloths which had become easily teased through frequent toiling, and attendants
and patients who were not very ill teased out threads of varying lengths and thicknesses; and these threads were then
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brought together againtr-5Rto3Omake soft, absorbent material. Before it was used to pack a wound or as a dressing, the charpie
was washed only with cold water without soap - and often it was not washed at all. The instruments and the sponges used
to staunch blood were likewise washed only in cold water. Like all surgeons in all countries Lister was troubled by the fact
that a compound fracture - that is, a fracture in which one or both of the broken ends of the bone has pierced the overlying
skin and soft tissues - never did well, end that in such cases amputation of the limb nearly always had to be performed.
Further in all countries the mortality rate from septic diseases after amputation varied between 30% and 50%. This was a
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dreadful state of affairs.

Lister was handicapped by the belief, widely held at that time, that putrefaction was due to oxygen in the air. He spent much
time trying to exclude the air from wounds but not unexpectedly, these efforts were unsuccessful. Then in 1865 Lister
learned for the first time about the important work of the French chemist Louis on 'that 'organised corpuscles' (i.e. living
bacteria) are every-where present in the air. This was the clue for which Lister was searching.

The hands of the surgeon and his assistants, and also all the instruments to be used, were soaked in a solution of certolic
acid. So also was the wound itself, and Lister did a lot of research in order to find suitable materials for dressings which
would give off the carbolic acid slowly into the wound. For many years also Lister had the atmosphere in the operating

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theatre sprayed with a fine mist of carbolic acid, and the spray was also used during the change of a dressing. But it was
later shown that the spraying of the atmosphere was not necessary. Lister tried out his new principle on 12 August 1865 in
the treatment of a compound fracture in a patient in his ward in the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. A perfect result was obtained.

Passage: 5
To the ordinary man, one kind of oil may be as important as another. But the politician or the engineer refers to oil, he almost
always means mineral oil, the oil that drives tanks, aeroplanes and warships, motor-cars and diesel locomotives; the oil that
is used to lubricate all kinds of machinery. This is the oil that has changed the life of the common man. When it is refined
into petrol it is used to drive the internal combustion engine. To it we owe the existence of the motor-car, which has replaced
the private carriage drawn by the horse. To it we owe the possibility of flying. It has changed the methods of war fare on
land and sea. This kind of oil comes out of the earth. Because it burns well, it is used as fuel and in some ways it is superior
to coal in this respect. Many big ships now bum oil instead of coal. Because it bums brightly, it is used for illumination;
countless homes are still illuminated with oil burning lamps. Because it is very slippery it is used for lubrication. Two metal
surfaces rubbing together cause friction and heat; but if they are separated by a thin film of oil, the friction and heat are

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reduced. No machine would work for long if it were not properly lubricated. The oil used for this purpose must be of the

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correct thickness; if it is too thick it will not reach all parts that must be lubricated. The existence of oil wells has been known
for a long time. Some of the Indians of North America used to collect and sell the oil from the wells of Pennsylvania. No one,

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however, seems to have realised the importance of this oil until it was found that paraffin-oil could be made from it; this let
to the development of the wells and to the making of enormous profits. When the internal combustion engine was invented,

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oil became of world wide importance.

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Scientists are confident about the formation of coal, but they do not seem so sure when asked about oil. They think that the
oil under the surface of the earth originated in the distant past, and was formed from living things in the sea. For these
creatures to become oil, it was necessary that they should be imprisoned between layers of rock for an enormous length of

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time. The statement that oil originated in the sea is confirmed by a glance at a map showing the chief oilfields of the world;

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very few of them are far distant from oilfields of the world; very few of them are far distant from the occens of today. A very

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common sedimentary rock is called shale, which is a soft rock and was obviously formed by being deposited on the sea
bed. And where there is shale there is likely to be oil.

Passage: 6

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A large body of research demonstrates that poor sleep quality affects a multitude of cognitive abilities. Most of this research
examines the effects of sleep restriction or deprivation on cognitive functioning; a considerably smaller amount looks at
other forms of poor sleep quality, such as daytime sleepiness or the symptoms associated with sleep disorders.
The cognitive functions impaired by a lack of sleep are numerous. 3P5UBecause
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ability due to inadequate sleep is one of the most often studied cognitive deficits. However, driving involves multiple
cognitive skills that are affected by sleep and are relevant to other activities. For example, Kim, Lee, and Kim found deficits
in motor and rhythm functions, receptive and expressive speech, memory, and complex verbal and arithmetic functions
when administering a neurological battery and selected subtests (calculation and digit-span) of the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale. Additional cognitive deficits resulting from inadequate sleep are decision making, innovation, plan
revision, concentration, and effective communication , which are important skills for many areas of life. Furthermore, Van
Dongen et al. demonstrated that restriction of sleep to six hours per night or less for several days produced cognitive deficits
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equivalent to two fulltr-nights of 3P
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sleep deprivation research may apply to the large number of individuals with restricted sleep patterns . As sleep length is
an important factor in sleep quality and most sleep disorders, research on sleep restriction may be applicable to individuals
with poor sleep quality and sleep disorders as well. These findings make research on the cognitive effects on sleep
restriction even more applicable to the general population.

Compared to many studies 3B3K5E2Jon the negative effects of sleep deprivation, the few studies focused on poor sleep
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quality have shown similar deleterious effects on occupational and educational functioning. For example, Doi et al.
discovered that poor sleep quality in Japanese workers was associated with more occupational problems related to workers‫׳‬
health, safety, and productivity. Similar results were found with a large group of Japanese nurses. Nurses who exhibited
excessive daytime sleepiness had more occupational accidents such as needlestick injuries. Further, Canadian researchers
found that college students carrying a full course load with poor sleep quality had worse performance on academic measures
than similar students with good sleep quality. Though this research is limited, measuring sleep quality, rather than just sleep
length, may be especially important. Evidencing this, Semler and Harvey found that individuals‫ ׳‬perception of how they
slept, even when based on false information, significantly impacted daytime functioning.

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Sleep disorders, such as insomnia and sleep apnea, are by definition associated with sleep restriction and/or poor sleep
quality . In a meta-analysis, it found support for a distinctive pattern of cognitive impairment in individuals with insomnia;
working memory, episodic memory, and executive functioning were negatively affected.

Passage: 7
Marie Curie, née Maria Sklodowska, was born in Warsaw on November 7, 1867, the daughter of a secondary-school
teacher. She received a general education in local schools and some scientific training from her father. She became involved
in a students’ revolutionary organization and found it prudent to leave Warsaw, then in the part of Poland dominated by
Russia, for Cracow, which at that time was under Austrian of 19 rule. In 1891, she went to Paris to continue her studies at
the Sorbonne where she obtained Licenciateships in Physics and the Mathematical Sciences. She met Pierre Curie,
Professor in the School of Physics in 1894 and in the following year they were married. She succeeded her husband as
Head of the Physics Laboratory at the Sorbonne, gained her Doctor of Science degree in 1903, and following the tragic
death of Pierre Curie in 1906, she took his place as Professor of General Physics in the Faculty of Sciences, the first time
a woman had held this position. She was also appointed Director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the
University of Paris, founded in 1914.

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Her early research, together with her husband, were often performed under difficult conditions, laboratory arrangements

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were poor and both had to undertake much teaching to earn a livelihood. The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel
in 1896 inspired the Curies in their brilliant researches and analyses which led to the isolation of polonium, named after the

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country of Marie’s birth, and radium. Curie developed methods for the separation of radium from radioactive residues in
sufficient quantities to allow for its characterization and the careful study of its properties, therapeutic properties in particular.

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Curie throughout her life actively promoted the use of radium to alleviate suffering and during World War I, assisted by her
daughter, Irene, she personally devoted herself to this remedial work. She retained her enthusiasm for science throughout
her life and did much to establish a radioactivity laboratory in her native city – in 1929 President Hoover of the United States

in Warsaw.

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presented her with a gift of $ 50,000, donated by American friends of science, to purchase radium for use in the laboratory

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Curie, quiet, dignified and unassuming, was held in high esteem and admiration by scientists throughout the world.

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The importance of Mme. Curie’s work is reflected in the numerous awards bestowed on her. She received many honorary
science, medicine and law degrees and honorary memberships of learned societies throughout the world. Together with
her husband, she was awarded half of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, for their study into the spontaneous radiation

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discovered by Becquerel, who was awarded the other half of the Prize. In 1911 she received a second Nobel Prize, this
time in Chemistry, in recognition of her work in radioactivity.

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The observations of the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter payloads have yielded discovery-class findings, according to the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Earlier this week, ISRO opened up its scientific discussions on Lunar Science to "the
people of the country, to engage the Indian academia, institutes, students, and people from all disciplines and walks of life",
in the form of a two-day 'Lunar Science Workshop & Release of Chandrayaan-2 Data'. The mass spectrometer CHACE-2,
in its pursuit to conduct first-ever in-situ study of the composition of the lunar neutral exosphere from a polar orbital platform,
detected and studied the variability of the Argon-40 at the middle and higher latitudes of the Moon, depicting the radiogenic
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activities in the mid tr-
and 5R3O higher of the Lunar interior, it said. The discovery of Chromium and Manganese on the
lunar surface, which are available in trace quantities, by the CLASS payload was announced.The observations of microflares
of the Sun, during the quiet-Sun period, which provide important clues on the coronal heating problem of the Sun, were
made by the XSM payload.The first-ever unambiguous detection of the hydration features of the Moon was achieved by
Chandrayaan-2 with its infra-red spectrometer payload IIRS, which captured clear signatures of Hydroxyl and water-ice on
the lunar surface, ISRO said. "The observations (of Chandrayaan-2 orbiter payloads) have been yielding intriguing scientific
results, which are being 3K2G3B3K5E
tr-5Jpublished in2Jpeer-reviewed journals and presented in international meetings," Sivan said. The TMC
2 of Chandrayaan-2, which is conducting imaging of the Moon at a global scale, has found interesting geologic signatures
of lunar crustal shortening, and identification of volcanic domes, the ISRO said. The DFRS experiment onboard
Chandrayaan-2 has studied the ionosphere of the Moon, which is generated by the solar photo-ionisation of the neutral
species of the lunar tenuous exosphere, it was noted. The science data archived in Indian Space Science Data Centre
(ISSDC) at Byalalu, near here, are being disseminated to public through its 'PRADAN' portal. The questions received from
the academia, institutes and students were addressed by the ISRO scientists during the two-day deliberations. A panel
discussion provided the opportunity to academia, institutes and students to interact with the ISRO scientists on lunar science
and Chandrayaan-2, ISRO said. Chandrayaan-2 is the second spacecraft in the Indian series of Lunar exploration satellites.
It comprised an orbiter, lander named Vikram and rover named Pragyan to explore the unexplored South Polar region of

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the Moon. Later, Vikram lander's descent was as planned and normal performance was observed up to an altitude of 2.1
km from Lunar surface on September seven, 2019. Subsequently, communication from the lander (with the six-wheeled
Pragyan rover accommodated inside it) was lost and the lander had a hard landing on the lunar surface.

Passage: 9
Global increases in problems of illicit drugs both reflect and contribute to international tensions. The origins of some of these
tensions are clear: rapid changes in political alignment, reduced family and community cohesiveness, increased
unemployment and underemployment, economic and social marginalization and increased crime. At a time when dramatic
improvements are taking place in some sectors, e.g. communications and technology, improvement of the quality of life for
many people has fallen far short of the potential that exists and the rising expectation of people who know life can be better.
At a time of rising social and Political tensions, the macroeconomic environment has fundamentally changed. World trade
and investment have expanded and brought to some areas of the developed and developing world substantial economic
benefits. Capital, goods and people move much more frequently and freely across national borders than was the case
previously. In many industries, multinational enterprises operate on a world scale by allocating production according to the

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comparative advantage of individual countries or regions, by selling in diverse geographical markets and by undertaking

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financial operations where it is most advantageous. One of the consequences of these developments is that financial
markets have become more transparent, with massive daily transfers of money around the world. Judging that the benefits

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of increased trade and investment outweigh a certain loss of sovereignty in controlling the entry and exit of people, goods
and money, nation States seem to have made their fundamental choice in favour of economic liberalization because of the

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expected material benefits to be gained. The same macroeconomic environment which has facilitated the growth and
development of global legitimate businesses has also provided the opportunity for drug producers and traffickers to organize

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themselves on a global scale, to produce in developing countries, to distribute and sell in all parts of the world, to move drug
cartel members easily from country to country and to place and invest their drug profits in financial centres offering secrecy
and attractive investment returns. The same deregulation that has allowed legitimate businesses to move money around

profits so that these funds appear to be legitimate.

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the world electronically with few national controls has also permitted drug producers and traffickers to launder illicit drug

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Whatever the reason in a given country, the lack of economic progress has put such countries in a financial bind and

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frequently placed severe restrictions on government services available to the most vulnerable segments of the population.
In this context, both the nation State and its individual citizens have become more vulnerable to the temptations of money
from illicit drug production and trafficking and to the acceptance of illicit drug profits by financial institutions or as direct

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investment.

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The writing of a scientific article offers a sharp divergence from the standard essay paper familiar to most students from
English Class. In marked contrast to Faulkner, punctuation and brevity are sought and clarity is a primary virtue. Supporting
documentation is embedded in the scientific prose, not footnoted along the bottom of each page. Yet not all rules of
construction are abandoned.

Paragraph begins with a topic sentence, ensuring lines build the case, and the end of the paragraph summarises and
provides transition. Nevertheless, instructing students in the art of scientific writing can be truly challenging. After years of
stockpiling adjectives and
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adverbs the writer learnt that reduction is the norm and levels of modifications are minimised.
The Thesaurus is largely forsaken and repetition of key terms preferred. Along with the alteration in style and content,
scientific writing supplies its own approach, a parallel process known as the scientific method. The similarity in structure of
these two processes, scientific writing and scientific method can facilitate the understanding of each.

The scientific method sets science apart from non-science. Unlike scientific writing, the steps and general outline of the
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scientific method are tr-understood by
children. The scientific method has four main steps that can be repeated namely observation, hypothesis, experimentation
and conclusion. Similarly most scientific articles contain four major sections generally referred to as introduction, method,
result, and discussion. The parallel structure of these two processes is strikingly similar. In some cases scientific results
are prescribed orally as well as in writing and again their presentation follows a standard format similar to the written form.
Upon occasion the outcome has no counterpart and the author may propose new ideas or new interpretations of older
ones. More often, however, the findings are but a small step down the iterative paath. Again the bottom half of the Hourglass
mirrors the top, the discussion begins with the interpretation of results in light of the objective and then broadens to fit the
current study into the theory upon which the introduction opened. By understanding the structure of scientific method

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practitioners can better convey their findings to scientific writing. With both processes as one study or article, and the final
grain of sand falls in place, yet the hourglass can be up-ended so the sands of discovery May run anew.

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