“Mathematics &

Forts
 Mathematics and architecture are related, since, as with
other arts, architects use mathematics for several reasons.
Apart from the mathematics needed when engineering
buildings, architects use geometry: to define the spatial
form of a building; from the Pythagoreans of the sixth
century BC onwards, to create forms considered
harmonious, and thus to lay out buildings and their
surroundings according to mathematical, aesthetic and
sometimes religious principles; to decorate buildings with
mathematical objects such as tessellations; and to meet
environmental goals, such as to minimise wind speeds
around the bases of tall buildings.
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 Early hill forts- what’s the best
shape?
If you are living in an early hill fort then you will want to
choose the best shape to fit your needs. You will be looking
for a shape which encloses the maximum area, but has the
shortest perimeter. This will mean that lots of people can fit
in your fort, and that you don’t have as much perimeter to
defend.
Which shape has the shortest perimeter compared to area?
The isoperimetric theorem states that “among all 2D shapes
with the same perimeter, the circle has the largest area”,
which is one of the reason why many early hill forts were
made in a broadly circular shape.

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 Symmetry is important to fort design for a couple of
reasons. Firstly it makes your fort or castle look really
good. Secondly it means that you won’t have a fort
which contains a weak point – all parts of your fort
should be equally difficult to get into. Asymmetric Weak spot
shapes have weak points
A circular fort also has the advantage that it is convex.
A convex Shape means that there are no internal angles
which are greater than 180 degrees. This means that
there are no dents or bits that point inwards. In the
convex shape any two defenders are able to see each
other, whereas in the concave shape the defenders could
be stood in places where they can’t see each other.
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 Medieval Castles
According to the thinking so far, castles should all be
perfectly round. There are however a few other points to
take into consideration, affecting castle design.
Later castles had an outer wall (with turrets) and a keep,
such as at Harlech Castle.
It is much harder to build a round keep than a square
keep, meaning that it was always a trade off between
building an ideal shape and having a design which could
actually be built.
Most castles were still built in a symmetrical design, as it is
possible to see from the shapes of these four castles.

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 Line of Sight
A major consideration in medieval castles is the line of sight
for archers who are defending the castle through arrow slits.
⬗ If you have a flat wall, then there will be areas which your
defenders can and can’t reach with their arrows:

⬗ If you have multiple arrow slits then you will still have
areas which are undefended:

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 ⬗ If you have a square corner to defend you will again
have a region which is undefended:

⬗ This is why the builders of castles such as Harlech

chose to build turrets:

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 The ancient architecture entails the calculated proportions
considered while designing temples, mosques, pyramids,
mausoleums, and palaces in India, Greece, Egypt, and Islamic
culture due to various religious reasons. Mathematics in
Architecture not only reflects proportion and symmetry but also
accentuates and beautifies the whole design language with defined
scale and size of every detail.

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 Ancient India
The geometric designs of Hindu temples, such as the Virupaksha Temple and Kandariya Mahadev Temple,
integrate architecture with nature, ancient beliefs, and symmetry. Early builders may have discovered
mathematical proportions by accident, using simple tricks with string and stakes to lay out geometric shapes
like ellipses and right angles.
The mathematics of fractals has been used to
show that existing buildings have universal
appeal and are visually satisfying because they
provide a sense of scale at different viewing
distances. The tall gopuram gatehouses of
Hindu temples, such as the Virupaksha
Temple at Hampi and Kandariya Mahadev
Temple at Khajuraho, have the same character,
with fractal dimensions in the range of 1.7 to
1.8. The cluster of smaller towers represents
the endless repetition of universes in Hindu
cosmology.
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Islamic architecture
The Alhambra, like the Great Mosque of Cordoba, was
designed using the Hispano-Muslim foot or codo of
about 0.62 meters. The Court of the Lions in the palace
follows a series of surds, with a diagonal of √3, generating
squares inside circles and eight-pointed stars. There is no
evidence to support claims that the golden ratio was used
in the Alhambra. The palace is bracketed by the Hall of
Two Sisters and the Hall of the Abencerrajes, forming a
regular hexagon. The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne,
Turkey, was built by Mimar Sinan to provide a space for
the mihrab to be seen from anywhere inside the
building. The octagon is arranged as a circle, inside an
octagon, and outside by four tall minarets.
 Ancient Egypt
The pyramids of ancient Egypt were built with
mathematical proportions, but the exact design
method and whether the Pythagorean theorem was
used are debated. The Great Pyramid of Giza's slant
height to half the base length ratio is less than 1%
from the golden ratio, suggesting the use of Kepler's
triangle. However, the golden ratio was not known
until the time of the Pythagoreans. Some pyramids
may have been based on the 3:4:5 triangle, known
from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus. The
Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Turkey, was built by
Mimar Sinan to provide a space for the mihrab to be
visible from anywhere inside.
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 Mughal Architecture
The Taj Mahal is a prime example of Mughal architecture,
symbolizing paradise and showcasing Emperor Shah
Jahan's power. The complex, divided into smaller grids,
was laid out on a grid, with the main area consisting of
three 374-gaz squares. These were divided into 17-gaz
modules in areas like the bazaar and caravanserai, while the
garden and terraces were in 23 gaz modules, each 368 gaz
wide. The mausoleum, mosque, and guest house were on a
7 gaz grid. The choice of ratios in the complex may be
explained by the repeated use of an octagon with sides of 7
units.

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 Ancient Greece
The Parthenon, a 69.5-meter-long Greek temple, has a
4:9 width to length ratio and a height:width:length ratio
of 16:36:81. Its interior has a 4:9 ratio, with the inner
area (naos) and outer columns having 4:9 proportions.
The Parthenon is considered the most perfect Doric
temple ever built, with elaborate architectural
refinements such as the stylobate platform and entasis of
columns. The golden ratio, known in 300 B.C., was used
in the design of ancient Greek buildings, sculptures,
paintings, and vases. However, recent authors doubt
these claims and computer scientist George Markowsky's
experiments failed to find a preference for the golden
rectangle.
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 Ancient Rome
The Pantheon in Rome is a testament to classical Roman
structure, proportion, and decoration. It features a dome with a
circular oculus for light and a short colonnade with a triangular
pediment. The dome spans 150 Roman feet, the oculus is 30
Roman feet in diameter, and the doorway is 40 Roman feet high.
The Pantheon remains the world's largest unreinforced concrete
dome. The first Renaissance treatise on architecture was Leon
Battista Alberti's 1450 De re aedificatoria, which became the first
printed book on architecture in 1485. Alberti also documented
Filippo Brunelleschi's discovery of linear perspective, which
enabled buildings to look proportioned from a distance.

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 Chinese Architecture
In Chinese architecture, the tulou of Fujian province are
circular, communal defensive structures with mainly
blank walls and a single iron-plated wooden door, some
dating back to the sixteenth century. The walls are
topped with roofs that slope gently both outwards and
inwards, forming a ring. The center of the circle is an
open cobbled courtyard, often with a well, surrounded
by timbered galleries up to five stories high.

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 Mathematical Decoration
Islamic buildings often feature geometric patterns using
mathematical tessellations, ceramic tiles, and
symmetrical stars. These patterns are based on
Solomon's seal motif and exploit 17 possible wallpaper
groups. In the late 20th century, architects used fractal
geometry and aperiodic tiling to create interesting
coverings for buildings. Modernist architect Adolf Loos
declared ornamentation a crime in 1913, but in the 21st
century, architects are exploring ornamentation in
diverse ways. Examples include Henning Larsen's
Harpa Concert and Conference Centre, Foreign Office
Architects' Ravensbourne College, and Kazumi Kudo's
Kanazawa Umimirai Library.
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 Mathematics plays a crucial role in architecture beyond just
engineering. It is integral to shaping the spatial form of buildings by
calculating environmental factors. Architects use mathematical and
technical calculations to determine wind speeds, ensuring structural
stability and comfort within the structure. Solar radiation intake is
optimized through mathematical modeling, influencing the building's
orientation and placement of windows for energy efficiency.
Additionally, energy demands are assessed using mathematical analysis
to design sustainable, energy-efficient structures. These calculations are
essential for creating buildings that harmonize with their surroundings,
enhance occupant comfort, and reduce their environmental footprint,
exemplifying the intricate relationship between mathematics and
architecture.

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 Presentation
made by-
Parth Aggarwal
Roll no.25
X-G

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