ILLUMINATION TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
• Light is the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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• Light rays can be reflected, transmitted or absorbed when they strike an object
• Light can be of different colours depending on the wavelength of radiation
causing it.

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• Light from natural sources such as the sun is known as white light
and is made up from the different frequency components of the visible
spectrum.
• Artificial light from sources such as candles, tungsten filaments and
gas discharge lamps, etc., has a different mix of frequency
components which produce a different colour light

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ILLUMINATION CAN BE ACHIEVED BY

➢ ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

➢ DAY LIGHTING

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Types of illumination(artificial lighting)
• General or ambient lighting
General or ambient lighting is intended to light up a room in its entirety. It
provides a uniform level of illumination throughout the space
independently of other lighting source. Moreover, its purpose is to ensure
safe and easy traffic, as well as to create an overview of the room.

• Task lighting TRACE KTU

Task lighting illuminates the tasks a person carries out in a given space
such as reading, cooking, computer work. A brighter light is required in a
smaller focal point of the room for these sorts of tasks. For a more pleasant
illumination, it is often best to avoid harsh lights or lighting that casts
troublesome shadows. It is also practical to install a single switch for focal lighting,
independent from the room’s overall lighting switch.
• Accent lighting
Accent lighting is used mainly to focus on a specific point of interest or
to achieve a desired effect. This type of lighting gives the impression of
a larger room. It is more frequently used to highlight an architectural
feature, a plant (in outdoor layout), a sculpture, or a collection of
objects.

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As a general rule
➢ effective accent lighting requires the installation of three times more
light on the focal point than ambient lighting generally provides to
attract the viewers.
This type of lighting imparts drama and character and allow
certain features regarded of interest to be highlighted. The idea is to
draw viewers attention to the item that is lit.
DAY LIGHTING
• Practice of placing windows,other openings and reflective surfaces so that sunlight(direct or
indirect) can provide effective internal lighting

• usually considered during the design and construction of a building

• Gains importance with the concept of energy saving

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• Daylight varies with latitude, season, coastal or in land location, climate and air quality

Day light harvesting

As per the availability of day light , the artificial lighting can be reduced by simply
reducing the number of electric lights or dimming /switching off the lights in
response to the intensity of day light
 The quantity of daylight obtained within a room will be dependent
upon:
➢ The orientation, geometry and space planning of the spaces to be lit.
➢ The dimensions and orientation of the openings through which daylight will
pass.

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➢ The location and surface properties of any internal partitions which may
reflect and distribute the daylight.
➢ The location, form and dimensions of any shading devices which will
provide protection from too much light and glare
There are 3 reasons to provide daylight:
1. Healthier and more satisfactory indoor environment

2. Economic advantage in energy savings;

3. Conserves earth’s resources

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• Until the 1950’s, buildings were designed to allow natural light
reach virtually all parts of the building interior
• With fluorescent lamp development and cheap energy, taller deeper
plan buildings grew in popularity particularly in city centres where
land was extremely expensive
• In addition, air and noise pollution made it necessary to keep
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windows closed and provide air conditioning.
Daylight factor- Interior daylight is measured using a
parameter known as the Daylight Factor (DF).

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The Daylight Factor is a combination of 3 separate components:
• The sky component (SC) – the light received directly from the sky.
• The externally reflected component (ERC) - the light received directly by
reflection from buildings and obstructions outside the room.

• The internally reflected component (IRC) - the light received from surfaces

inside the room.

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DF = SC + ERC + IRC
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Advantages Utilization of day light
• It can make a significant contribution to energy efficiency.
• It is variabily more pleasing than the relatively monotonous
environment produced by artificial lighting.
• It helps to create optimum working conditions by bringing out the
natural contrast and colour of objects.
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• Windows and sky light give occupants contact with the outside world.
• The presence of natural light can bring a sense of well being and
awareness of the wider environment.
• It is also claimed that exposure to natural light can have a beneficial
effect on human health .
• However due to its uncertainity and variability day lighting cannot
provide adequate illumination of the internal environment all of the
time. Therefore artificial lighting systems must be incorporated into
buildings in order to supplement day lighting when it is required.
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Artificial lighting
• Artificial lighting enables extended activity period employing in a
planned optimized manner, minimizing the resources

• Artificial lighting should be functional and pleasant both

physiologically and psychologically

• Artificial lights are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes,

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colors of light emitted, and levels of brightness.

• Some of these sources are incandescent bulbs, halogen lamps, metal

halide, fluorescent tube, compact florescent light, and LEDs.
The incorporation of daylight into Artificial / Interior lighting
design is desirable for the following reasons:
• Energy costs are reduced if good control of artificial lighting is
provided.

• A room which does not provide a view of the outside , will be

considered unsatisfactory to most building occupants.
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• Colour rendering will be improved in most interiors with good
daylight penetration.

• The natural variation of daylight provides information about the

weather and time of day which occupants will deem desirable.
Artificial lighting: physical processes
The artificial lighting takes place by any one of the following physical
processes:
➢ Incandescence
➢Luminescence
➢Fluorescence TRACE KTU
➢Phosphorescence
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Fluorescence in which case the excitation lasts only for the excited period. Phosphorescence in which
case the excitation persists even after the exciting source is removed.
Types of Artificial Light Sources
• Incandescent lamps
• Halogen lamps
• Fluorescent Lamps

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• LPSV and HPSV lamps
• Mercury vapour lamps
• Metal halide lamps
• LED lamps
INCANDASCENT LAMP
• Incandescent Lamps were first invented by Edison in 1879
• Normally Filament is mounted in a glass bulb and maintained in vacuum (type‘B’) gets heated upon
Passage of current.
• In 1911 Coolidge developed Tungsten in ductile form which could result in a Continuous uniform
Filament. It was Rugged and had very high efficiency. Langmuir introduced use of inert gases and
improved the radiation efficiency – (1913). They ware called type ‘C’.
• Inert Gases are introduced in the Glass envelope to decrease the vaporizations of Tungsten. The gases
Nitrogen and Argon are mostsuitable
• darkening of Glass bulbs occurs due to vaporization of Tungsten. Hence the lamps are called either Type B –

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Vacuum < 40 W rating or Type C – Gas > 40 W using Inert gases.
When an electric current is passed through a fine metallic wire it raises the temperature of the wire and heat
energy will be radiated at low temperatures. At high temperature heat as well as light energy will be
radiated. The higher the temperature of the wire, higher is the amount of light energy radiated.
• Tungsten is the most common material used as filament due to high melting point, low vapour pressure, very
strong and can be made ductile.
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It produces light when a thin wire called a tungsten filament is heated by electricity
running through it making it so hot that it starts to glow brightly. This releases a lot
of heat and the bulbs get hot to the touch, meaning this bulb is very inefficient

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FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Fluorescent lamp is the most widely used discharge lamp. It is an energy efficient lamp available in low and
medium wattage range making it suitable for domestic and commercial lighting purposes.

Construction

It consists of a glass tube of around 36 mm diameter and a length of 1200 mm. The inner surface of the
tube is coated with a fluorescent powder - usually phosphor coating. Tungsten wire electrodes with bi-
pin cap are provided at both ends. There is an electrode shield around each electrode to reduce the

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blackening of the tubes due to deposition of evaporated tungsten. The tube is filled with an inert gas
such as argon to a pressure of 1.5 to 5 mm of mercury. A small drop-let of mercury is also introduced into the
tube. During normal operation this mercury vaporizes and helps to maintain the discharge.
Operation

Fluorescent lamps are designed for switch start operation. The starter consists of two bimetallic contacts, housed
in a small glass bulb filled with a noble gas at low pressure. The contacts are positioned with a narrow
separation between them. When the normal voltage is applied, it creates a glow discharge between the
bimetallic contacts and due to heating they bend towards each other. The contacts touch each other for one or two
seconds and the current path is completed through the inductive ballast and the filament electrodes. This
current results in preheating the electrodes. As the bimetallic contacts touch, the glow discharge stops and now the
contacts cool down and leave apart to open the circuit. The sudden break of current will induce a high voltage
(600-1500V) in the ballast and is applied across -the tube, which in turn trigger the discharge through the
tube. The capacitor, which is connected across the starter contact, is provided to reduce the radio interference

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due to switching operations. The starter has no function once the lamp is started.

Like other discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
This means the resistance of the tube decreases when temperature is increased, resulting in increase of current.
Therefore the ballast is essential during normal operation also to regulate the lamp current. When the ballast is
connected in series with the circuit, it regulates the lamp current. The capacitor across the supply line is for
power factor improvement.

When there is a discharge through the lamp, it produces radiations mainly in the ultraviolet region. This
radiation is converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the inner side of the glass tube.
Sodium vapor lamp
• A gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium (Na) in an exciting condition to
generate light at a 589 nm of characteristic wavelength is known as a
sodium vapor lamp. The sodium vapour lamp working principle is,
that it mainly works through vaporized sodium metal by creating an
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electric arc. Other gases & materials will help in activating the lamp
and also controlling its color. These lamps are mostly used in street
lights and industrial purposes.
Sodium Vapour Lamp Circuit
• The sodium vapor lamp circuit diagram is shown below. The construction of this lamp is similar to
a mercury vapour lamp. In this lamp, two electrodes like E1 & E2 are mounted within a G1 glass
tube including sodium with a small quantity of argon or neon gases. This G1 glass tube is placed in
a G2 evacuated external tube. In the above circuit, capacitor (C), choke (L) & a small step-down
transformer ‘T’ is connected in series with the lamp. The choke (L) is an inductor that is connected
in series with a low-power sodium vapor lamp. It functions like overload protection for stabilizing
the discharge. The transformer used in the above circuit is a leaking transformer for reducing the
voltage supply & stabilizing the arc. All these capacitors, choke & transformer is connected in
series with vapour lamp for heating the cathode electrode ‘E1’.

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• Lamp Working
When the supply is switched on, the lamp would not start as the supply
voltage is too low to start the discharge. The leak transformer
connected across the mains produces a starting voltage of about 400 V.
the neon gas starts the discharge and afterwards the sodium vapourises
and the discharge continues. The power factor is very low hence a
capacitor is used to raise it. The efficiency is about 75 lumens per watt
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and the lamp has an average life of 6000 hrs.
HPSVL
• The first developed sodium lamp is an LPS lamp or low-pressure sodium lamp.
This lamp is identified through its signature color that is monochromatic yellow.
• The HPSV lamp is the most frequently used in street lighting. An improvement of
the LPS lamp is the HPS lamp. The HPS lamp includes a narrow arc tube that is
supported through a frame within a bulb.
• The arc tube includes high pressure for higher efficiency. In this tube, xenon,
sodium, and mercury are usually used.
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• The most common method to activate the lamp is through a pulse start. There is an
ignitor within the ballast which transmits a high voltage signal throughout the arc
tube. This signal will activate an arc with the xenon gas. So the lamp will turn sky
blue like xenon lights.
• After that, the arc heats the mercury (Hg) then its vapor provides a bluish color to
the lamp. The lamp gets heat & the sodium is the final material to evaporate. The
vapor of sodium hits an arc above 240 C.
The sodium (Na) is mixed with different impurities to form white light. The
mercury helps in adding blue light to the clean yellow color of the sodium.
Mercury-vapor lamp
• A mercury-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses an electric
arc through vaporized mercury to produce light.The arc discharge is
generally confined to a small fused quartz arc tube mounted within
a borosilicate glass bulb. Inner discharge tube and outer evacuated tube. The
inner tube is provided with two main electrodes and an auxiliary electrode.

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It contains a small amount of argon and a little mercury.
• Mercury vapor lamps are more energy efficient than incandescent lamps
with luminous efficacies of 35 to 55 lumens/watt. Their other advantages
are a long bulb lifetime in the range of 24,000 hours and a high intensity,
clear white light output. For these reasons, they are used for large area
overhead lighting, such as in factories, warehouses, and sports arenas as
well as for streetlights.
• Lamp Working
When the supply is switched on, the supply voltage is applied across the
electrodes , but is not sufficient enough to cause discharge between the
two main elctrodes. But this voltage is high enough for initiating the
discharge over the very short distance between main elctrode and
auxiliary electrode. This discharge then spreads rapidly and sets up

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discharge between the main electrodes. The argon initiates the
discharge , vapourises the mercury and after some time mercury
vapour takes the place. The ionised mercury atoms decrease the
resistance across the main electrodes and cause the main arc to strike.
The efficiency is about 40 lumens per watt. A significant portion of
radiation is in the UV region resulting in a bluish light.
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Metal halide lamp
• metal-halide lamp is an electrical lamp that produces light by an electric
arc through a gaseous mixture of vaporized mercury and metal
halides(compounds of metals with bromine or iodine). It is a type of high-
intensity discharge (HID) gas discharge lamp.
• Developed in the 1960s, they are similar to mercury vapor lamps,but
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contain additional metal halide compounds in the quartz arc tube, which
improve the efficiency and color rendition of the light.
• The most common metal halide compound used is sodium iodide. Once the
arc tube reaches its running temperature, the sodium dissociates from the
iodine, adding orange and reds to the lamp's spectrum. As a result, metal-
halide lamps have high luminous efficacy of around 75–100 lumens per
watt, which is about twice that of mercury vapor lights and 3 to 5 times that
of incandescent lights and produce an intense white light. Lamp life is 6,000
to 15,000 hours.
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LED
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most efficient bulbs to date, they are not without problems.

Light-emitting diodes (LED) are semiconductors. As electrons pass through this type of
semiconductor, it turns into light. Compared to incandescent and CFL bulbs, LED
lights are more efficient at turning energy into light. Therefore, less of the energy
radiates from the bulb as heat.

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LEDs contain
of
a
which
lot of blue light, too
can have negative effects on human health
much
 Qualities of Good Lighting
Good lighting - Process of providing the right quantity of
light at the right quality
Good lighting quality criteria
➢ Visual Performance

➢
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➢ Harmonious brightness distribution

No glare, flicker and stroboscopic effects

➢ Avoid Veiling reflections

➢ Correct light colour and Appropriate colour rendering

VISUAL PERFORMANCE (Sufficient illumination level)

• One of the major aspects of the lighting practice and recommendations is to

provide adequate lighting for people to carry out their visual tasks.
• Visibility is defined by our ability to detect objects or signs of given

•
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dimensions, at given distances and with given contrasts with the background
Defined by the speed and accuracy of performing a visual task
• Visual performance is improved with increasing luminance.
Yet, there is a plateau above which further increases in luminance do not
lead to improvements in visual performance . Thus increasing luminance
levels above the optimum for visual performance may not be justified and

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can on the contrary lead to excessive use of energy

• Create comfortable and good quality luminous and visual environments

2. UNIFORMITY OF LIGHTING

➢ Uniformity of lighting can be desirable or less desirable depending on the

function of space and type of activities

➢ Non uniform lighting may cause distraction and discomfort

➢ Lighting standards and codes usually provide recommended illuminance ratios

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between the task area and its surroundings

➢ Compared to a conventional uniform office lighting installation with

fluorescent lamps, LEDs provide opportunities to concentrate light
more(non uniform) on actual working areas and to have light where it is
actually needed
3. CONTROLLING GLARE, FLICKER AND STROBOSCOPIC EFFECTS
A) GLARE
• Glare is defined as the brightness within the field of vision of such a character as to cause
annoyance, discomfort, interference with vision or eye fatigue.
• Glare is the loss of visual performance or discomfort produced by an intensity of light in the visual
field greater than the intensity of light to which the eyes are adapted.
• Glare occurs when too much light enters your eye and interferes with your eye’s ability to manage
it.
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• Glare can be distracting and even dangerous
• Glare may come directly from a light source or be reflected.
• There are four types of glare: Distracting glare, discomforting glare, disabling glare, and blinding
glare.
• In indoor lighting the main concern is about discomfort glare.
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Distracting glare – Distracting glare results from light being reflected when it
moves from one optical medium to another (e.g. from air to glass). This results in
some of the light being reflected off the surface.

• This type of glare can also be experienced at night, forming “halos” around

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headlights or streetlights. Distracting glare can represent an annoyance or
distraction to the viewer and lead to eye fatigue
• Discomforting glare – Discomforting glare may result from direct or reflected
glare and can be caused by everyday, bright sunlight conditions. Discomforting
glare occurs in varying degrees of intensity, but even the milder degrees of
discomforting glare result in visual discomfort, often shown by symptoms of
eyestrain or fatigue.

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• Depending upon one’s light sensitivity, this glare can also be discomforting
regardless of weather or time of day.

• The unprotected eye will respond to discomforting glare by squinting and

constriction of the pupil. It is common for the affected individual to try to avoid
the glare by shielding the eyes or turning another direction.
• Disabling glare – Disabling glare, also known as veiling glare, is more intense
than discomforting glare and the high level of light produces a glare that can
actually interfere with or block vision. This type of glare comes from excessive,
intense light that can occur when you face directly into the sun.

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• Disabling glare occurs because light scatters when it enters the eye, which, in turn,
reduces the sharpness of vision and raises the differential light threshold.
Disabling glare tends to become more problematic in the elderly, as the decreasing
transparency of the crystalline lens that comes with age leads to developing
cataract formation
• Blinding glare – Blinding glare results from light reflecting off of smooth, shiny
surfaces such as water, sand or snow. It can be strong enough to block vision.
When the light reflects of the surfaces, it becomes polarized and produces blinding
glare. Blinding glare can block vision to the extent that the wearer becomes

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visually compromised.

• Glare tends to be worse with older age, light colored eyes, prior eye surgery, and
certain eye conditions, including cataracts, dry eye .
 GLARE
➢ Effect – Loss of concentration ,More frequent mistakes , Fatigue
➢ Remedy – Luminaires with limited luminance levels ,Blinds on
windows, Matching luminaire to workstation (layout) ,Indirect
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lighting, Matt surfaces
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 B) Flicker
➢ Produced by very fast fluctuations of amplitude.
➢ Light sources that are operated with ac supply produce regular
fluctuations in light output
➢ Visibility of these fluctuations depends upon frequency and

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modulation of the fluctuation
➢ Hazardous to health
➢ Can be minimized by stable supply voltage or by using high
frequency electronic ballasts .
C. STROBOSCOPIC EFFECTS
The stroboscopic effect occurs when a flashing light source illuminates a moving
object.

- All discharge lamps are turned on and off 100 times per second when operated on
magnetic ballasts supplied by a 50 Hz power system
- Each time the voltage passes through the zero point the arc is extinguished and the

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lamp ceases to produce light

- A rapidly rotating object at speeds which are multiples of 60 such as an 1800 rpm
or 3600 rpm motor can appear to be motionless

- This effect is harmful to the vision and causes discomfort, visual fatigue and
headaches.
4. AVOID VEILING REFLECTIONS
▪ Specular reflections that appear on the object viewed and which
reduce the visual task contrast.
▪ Causes – Geometry of the surface ,observer and sources of high
luminance like Glossy papers, glass surfaces and computer screens are

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subject to cause veiling reflections
▪ In rooms with several computer screens inside the task area special care
has to be taken in the positioning of the luminaries to avoid luminous
reflections from the screens
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5. AVOID SHADOWS
▪ A dark area or shape produced by a body coming between rays of
light and a surface.
▪ Obstructs the visibility of certain elements

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Shadows:
• In lighting installations, formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue to eyes and, therefore, is
considered to be a shortcoming.
• Complete absence of shadows altogether again does not necessarily mean an ideal condition of lighting
installations.
• Contrary, perhaps to popular opinion, a certain amount of shadow is desirable in artificial lighting as it helps
to give shape to the solid objects and makes them easily recognised.
• Objects illuminated by shadowless light appear flat and uninteresting, contours are lost, and it is difficult for

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the eye to form a correct judgement of the shape of an object.
• There is one exception to this, where we are to see flat surfaces, shadowless light is essential otherwise
shadows will hinder the work.. Eg. drawing offices
• Hard and long shadows can be avoided by:
(i) Using large number of small luminaries mounted at a height not less than 2.5 metres and
(ii) By using wide surface sources of light using globes over filament lamps or by using indirect lighting system.
6. CORRECT LIGHT COLOUR AND APPROPRIATE COLOUR RENDERING
▪ The colour of light sources is usually described by two properties viz Correlated Colour temperature
(CCT) and colour rendering index(CRI)

▪ Colour appearance of a light source is evaluated by CCT

▪ For example, CCT of 2700 K have a yellowish colour appearance and their light is described as warm
▪ Fluorescent lamps or white leds have CCT of around 6000K with bluish appearance and light is
described as cool
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▪ The CRI measures how well a given light source renders a set of test colours relative to a
reference source of the same CCT as the light source in question

▪ colour temperature describes the color appearance of the light source and the light emitted from
it. Color rendering describes how well the light renders colours in objects.
▪ The ability of the light source to render colours of surfaces accurately
or
Colour rendering is the ability of a light source to reproduce surface colours

▪ color rendering, expressed as a rating from 0 to 100 on the Color Rendering Index (CRI), describes
how a light source makes the color of an object appear to human eyes and how well subtle
variations in color shades are revealed. The higher the CRI rating is, the better its color rendering
ability.
▪ Imagine two objects, one red, one blue, which are lighted by a cool light source with a low CRI.

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The red object appears muted while the blue object appears a rich blue. Now take out the lamp and
put in a cool light source with a high CRI. The blue object still appears a rich blue, but the red
object appears more like its true color.
▪ The best colour rendering is Ra = 100.
▪ Light sources are divided up into colour rendering levels:
• Ra > 90 very good colour rendering Ra > 80 good colour rendering
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New quality criteria
❖ Changing lighting situations

❖Personal control

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❖Energy efficiency

❖Daylight integration

❖Light as an interior design element

Lighting Systems
Classified according to proportion of light directed upward or
downward from the fittings
–Direct
–Indirect
–Semi direct
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–Semi indirect
–General diffusing
DIRECT LIGHTING
• Commonly used type of lighting
scheme
• More than 90 percent of total
light falls directly on the working
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plane with the help of deep
reflectors
• Though it is most efficient it
causes hard shadows and glare
• It is mainly used for industrial
and general out-door lighting
SEMI DIRECT LIGHTING
• 60 to 90 percent of the total light
flux is made to fall downwards
directly, remaining light is used to
illuminate the ceiling and walls

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• Best suited to rooms with high
ceilings where a high level of
uniformally distributed
illumination is desirable
• Good for stairways, corridors, and
storage areas
INDIRECT LIGHTING
• More than 90 percent of total
light flux is thrown upwards to
the ceiling
• Resulting illumination is softer
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and more diffused, the shadows
are less prominent and the
appearance of the room is much
improved
• Used for decoration purposes in
cinemas theatres and hotels
SEMI INDIRECT LIGHTING
• Most of the light produced by
the fittings is directed upwards
and a certain amount of light is
directed downwards
• Soft shadows and glare free
• Used for indoor light decoration
purposes
GENERAL DIFFUSING
• Light produced is equally
distributed upwards and
downwards
LIGHTING DISTRIBUTION
 LIGHTING SCHEME
➢ General Lighting
➢ Local /Task Lighting
General Lighting
This is probably the most commonly used artificial lighting system
General lighting produced by a regular array of luminaires with or
without an indirect component results in a specific horizontal
illuminance with acertain uniformity.
This type of system will normally provide a rather bland “shadow free”
lighting installation high energy costs because the whole area is
illuminated to the highest level of illumination required for the single
most difficult task.
Localized General Lighting
• If the location of a particular work area is known then localised lighting can be
used to raise the illuminance on this area whilst maintaining general illuminance
at a lower level.
• The average general illuminance should be at lease one third of the task
illuminance where localized lighting is provided.
• Localized lighting tends to provide a more interesting design with emphasis
placed on the work station.
• Localised lighting is more efficient with regard to energy costs because of the
more efficient use of light good maintenance of these schemes is essential.
 Local /Task Lighting
• This is the term used for lighting which illuminates a specific individual workstation
• This can be provided by additional luminaires placed at a small distance from the visual task,
which illuminate only a limited area.
• General illuminance should be at least one third of the local illuminance
• In industrial cases, this is often referred to as supplementary lighting.
• The light should be positioned to minimize shadsows, veiling reflection and glare.
• Local lighting ensures efficient use of light energy.
• Local individual control should be provided.
• Disadvantages are that low wattage lamps are normally less efficient and maintenance costs are
generally higher with local lighting
LUMINAIRES