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1. What is Sociology? Characteristics (Nature) of its utility of Sociology?

Sociology: The term “Sociology” was coined by Auguste Conte, a French Philosopher in 1830
& he is considered “The Father of Sociology''. The word ‘Sociology’ is derived from Latin word
“Sociotus” meaning “Society” & a Greek term “logos”, meaning ‘Study’ or ‘Science’. The
etymological (Historical study) meaning of sociology is thus the “Science of Society.”

Definitions: Different Sociologists have been trying to define Sociology as given below:

Auguste Conte “Sociology is the science of social order and progress”.

Ginsberg “Sociology is the study of human interactions and human inter-relations, their
condition and consequences.”

Ogburn “Sociology is concerned with the study of the social life of man & its relationship to
the factors of culture, “Natural environment heredity & group.”

H.M. Johnson “Sociology is the science that deals with social groups, that is, their internal
forms of organization, the process that tends to maintain or change these forms of
organization & the relations between groups.

Characteristics (Nature) of Sociology:

1) Sociology is a Social Science & not a natural science: Its claim to be a science is
based on procedures & methods used in the collection of data and theories. It involves
objective and systematic methods of investigation & evaluation of social reality in the light
of empirical evidence & interpretation. The subject matter of sociology is flexible and
dynamic, whereas the subject matter of Natural Science is relatively static & unchanging.
Sociology studies man as a member of society, but Natural Science studies the natural
phenomena that are inanimate (to describe) such as plants, gases, animals etc.
2) Sociology is a pure science as well as an applied science: The pure science studies
the existing principles in the light of new problems. It is theoretical. On the other hand,
applied science is more concerned with practical application. Sociology which provides
scientific study & understanding of contemporary societies is a must for solving our
practical problems and for improvement of society. A scientific understanding of our society
enables us to modify the social institutions such as home & family, school, education etc.
for better service.
3) Sociology is a Rational Empirical Science: Empiricism means understanding based on
experience. Sociology is an empirical science relying solely on observation & experiment,
not theory. As an empirical science, sociology attempts to discover the truths about human
beings & their relations on the basis of precise knowledge. As sociology is an empirical
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science, a sociological theory offers an explanation or relationship between observable

facts i.e., explain social phenomena with the help of data.
4) Sociology is a science of generalization: In sociological studies, data is collected,
organized and interpreted in a scientific way. Social phenomena are studied by testing the
hypothesis, and analyzing data to produce new explanations. These generalizations
become theories which purport to explain casual relationships.

Utility of sociology:

1) Sociology makes a scientific study of society.

2) It studies the role of restitutions in the development of the individual such as house &
family, the school & education, community etc.
3) It is of great importance in the balance of community problems.
4) It helps us in understanding the social evils, criminals & the problems of crime better.
5) It contributes to making good citizens.
6) It helps in social reconstruction to set the society in order. It helps in conciliation.
7) It helps in assessment of resources.
8) It defines standards for constructive society.
—oo0oo—

2. What is the relationship of sociology with other social sciences?

Sociology is the mother of all Social Sciences: Science may broadly be defined as
systematic knowledge of the world and nature. Science is divided into two large areas. One is
physical sciences that deal with the Physical Universe including Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry,
Ecology, and Biology. Another is Social Sciences that deal with the Social Universe such as
History, Economic, Political Science & Sociology, and Psychology. All the social sciences are a
closely related group of disciplines that stand on different aspects of human activities in
societies.

Sociology is the science of society which means the study of the entire social life. Social
life is a complex one with many aspects. So, Sociology could present a comprehensive picture
of society. As sociology has a wider scope & deals with human behavior in society, it is an
“inclusive” or “envelop” science of other sciences.”

R.N. Gilchrist states, “The various sciences dealing with man as a social entity are called
social sciences & most fundamental of them all is sociology. It is a general science. It deals
with fundamental facts of social life.” hence, sociology is the mother science. Sociology has
both definite & positive relationships with other social sciences like Economics, History etc.
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Relationship between Sociology & History:

G.E. Howard remarks, “History is past sociology & sociology is present History”. History gives
information about development & growth of social institutions. It provides a detailed account
of patterns of human behavior. It is the record of the life of societies of men, of the changes
which they have gone through. Sociology is concerned with the study of historical
development of societies. Sociology has depended upon History for its material. My Sociology
gives the social background for the study of History.

Differences:

HISTORY SOCIOLOGY

1. It gives a descriptive account of events. It analyses those events.

2. This is concrete science. This is abstract science of human nature.

3. It studies incidents which are peculiar and This studies the incidents that are frequently
unusual. repeated.

4. It would deal with events in all their It would study then from the viewpoint of
aspects. social relationships involved.

Relationship between Sociology and Political Science:

Catlin remarks that “Political Science & Sociology are two facets of the same figure”.

According to Ginsberg, “Historically, Sociology has its main root in Politics &
Philosophy of History”. They have been closely related to each other. Political Science is the
science of state, the study of organizations of man as civilized beings & their relationship with
government. Sociology deals with the society which precedes state, but is controlled by the
latter through laws. While political behavior of the society, sociology studies all forms of
societies, structures and their relationships. Political Science deals with organized society.
Political Institutions are very much the product of social forces. It shall therefore be quite
correct to say that without Sociological background, the study of Political Science will be
incomplete. Political Science & Sociology are close to each other in respect of their methods,
subject matter & it is difficult to separate them.

Differences:
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POLITICAL SCIENCE SOCIOLOGY

1) It studies State & Government only. It studies all social Institutions.

2) It studies organized communities. This studies both organized and disorganized

communities.

3) It treats only conscious activities of also It treats the unconscious activities of man
also.

4) It is more specialized science than. It is a general science.

Relationship between Sociology and Economics:

Economics is the branch of comprehensive science of Sociology.” The fact that society is
influenced by economic factors while economic processes are largely determined by the social
environments clearly proves that the relation between them is intimate. Economics is the study
of man’s activities devoted to obtaining the material means for the satisfaction of his wants.
The area of economic activity can’t be separated from social activity. Sociology studies
economic action and not the economic process. It is the study of general methods by which
men cooperate to meet their material needs. Economics can’t go far ahead without the help of
sociology. Many of the problems of sociology & economics are common. The common
problems of them are poverty, population, economic planning etc.

Differences:

Economics Sociology

1. The field of economics is restricted to It is concerned with all social relationships.

economic activities of man.

2. It studies the matters related to increase of Sociology deals with social aspects economic
material happiness of man, directly (or) activities.
indirectly.

3. The unit of this is an individual. It studies society as a whole and Its unit is
a group.

4. This is much older science than sociology. It is not much older than economics
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Relationship between Sociology and Psychology:

Psychology is the science of human behavior. It deals with the mental processes of the
individual, his memory, his hopes & fears. Social psychology is a branch of psychology. It is an
interdisciplinary branch of knowledge between them. As it deals with the mental processes of
man as a social being. It takes the help of sociology in understanding of human behavior &
nature. Sociology drew help from social psychology for the contribution of psychological
factors for transforming social structure. Thus, the contribution of sociology to social
psychology is significant. There are certain areas like public opinion, political & religious
movement etc. which are studied both by sociology & social psychology.

Differences:

PSYCHOLOGY SOCIOLOGY

1. It deals with individuals as a unit. It deals with groups as a unit.

2. This analyses mental processes. It analyses social processes.

3. It studies individual behavior from It studies individual behavior from society’s

psychological point of view. point of view.

—oo0oo—

HUMAN SOCIETY

3. What is society? Write its characteristics & what are the types of society?

Society has been defined by

A.W. Green: “A society is the largest group to which any individual belongs & is made of a
population organization, time, place & interest”.

John Fi Caber: “A society may be defined as a group of people who have lived together long
enough to become organized to consider themselves & be considered as a unit more or less
distinct from other human units.

Characteristics of Society:

1) Social organization: Members of society are socially organized. Organization is

maintained through institutional networks. Society is a web of social relationships. Social
organization is the social fabric which implies human relations are closely interwoven & that
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the study of social structure refers to the patterns of interrelationships between individuals.
Thus social organization is the system which meaningfully relates the part of society to
each other and to the whole society.
2) Interdependence & cooperation: Society involves interdependence & cooperation
among its members. No one is independent in society. Everyone must depend upon every
other member. In society, problems are found to arise which can be solved only through
the cooperation of all. Family, the first society with which we all are closely associated is
based on biological interdependencies of sexes. This fact of interdependence is very much
visible in the present world. Cooperation is an essential constituent of society. Without
cooperation of members, no state can exist. Unless people cooperate with each other, they
can’t live a happy life.
3) Abstract Organization: Society is an Organization which is abstract. It embodied social
relationships among individuals, customs & laws. We find that social relationships are the
basis of society but what is social relationship is with which we can feel and imagine but
which can’t be seen. These relationships are abstract feelings. Which finds fellow human
beings together? We move daily in society but we can only feel about it.
4) Likeness & difference: Each society has a likeness. The sense of likeness was focused in
early society on kinship, i.e. real or supposed blood relationships. In modern societies, the
conditions of social likeness have broadened out in the principle of nationality or one world.
In society, all members are not alike. They differ on various grounds. There is sex different
necessary for continuation of society. There are differences in the roles & status of
different classes in the society. There are rulers & ruled, teachers & students, doctors etc.
all these differences are there in society.
5) Types of society: There are two types of society:
a) Simple or primitive society b) Complex or modern society.

1) Simple society: The primitive men lived on roots and fruits. They later fished and hunted.
Along with farming & herding, artisans like weavers, potters & blacksmiths were there.
Later other occupations developed. The structure of society is through customs & traditions,
religion. The status of society is by birth. There was no Science & Technological
Development. Primitive society is homogeneous. A striking feature of primitive society is
the great importance of family. There were thick relationships among the members of the
family. There was uniform social control. The status of women was limited household
activities & childcare. Life was simple, uniform & static.
2) Complex Society: Modern society is industrialized. It has undergone great change. It is
marked by the institutions of private property, division of labor, competition Trade Unions
developed. There is extreme division of labor. There is social mobility. The structure of
society is not through the traditions & customs, religion and is through Law. Birth or caste
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does not determine status. It depends on individual ability. Science & Technology is very
much developed. There are more opportunities open to women. They have entered into
work in shops & factories. Modern society has diversified and evolved into a complex
society with dynamic characteristics.

—oo0oo—

FAMILY

4: What is a family and write its characteristics?

Ans: The word “family” has been taken from the Roman word “famulus” meaning a servant
and a Latin word “familia”, meaning household. Family is the first & foremost institution. It is
the oldest among the other institutions. It is the backbone of our social structure.’

Definitions:

Elliott & Merrill: “Family is a biological social unit composed of husband, wife & children.”
Clare: “Family is a system of relationships existing between parents & children.”

Biesanz: “The family may be described as a woman with a child and a man to look after
them.” Bureau of Census:- The family is a group of 2 or more persons related to blood,
marriage or adoption & residing together.

Characteristics of Family:

1) Universality: Family has existed in a society according to the Age is in every society.
Every individual is a member of our family or the other.
2) Fixed habitation: Every family has a fixed place of habitation. In order to perform certain
basic functions, every family has to have a home where the essential functions of the
family can be carried out.
3) Financial provision: There is some kind of financial provision made in every family so
that all the basic requirements of the family can be met. In a family, the head of the family
is supposed to meet the economic needs of the members.
4) Limited size & nuclear: The family is the nucleus of other social groups & is limited in
size. It is considered to be the smallest kinship group.
5) Sense of responsibility among the members: Every member of the family bears
responsibility towards other members. The family provides full security to every member
including the young and the old.
6) Closed group: Family is not open to every individual. Its membership is open only to a
few selected blood relatives.
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7) Permanency & temporariness: The nature of the family is both permanent & temporary.
It is permanent as an institution but its organizational aspect is relatively transitory.
8) Persistence & change: The family as an institution is the most permanent & universal
one in human societies, whereas an association is subject to constant change in
composition & structure, even within the same society.
9) A mating relationship: A family comes into existence where a man and a woman
establish mating relations between them.
10) A form of marriage: A family pre-supposes restitution of marriage. Mating relationships
are established through the restitution of marriage.

—oo0oo—

5. What are the Merits & Demerits of Joint Family?

Ans. Merits of Joint Family:

1) Economic Progress: The Joint Family provides for the food, shelter & clothes of its
members, which is the basic conditions of economic progress. It supports agricultural
activities with a larger workforce. It prevents fragmentation of land holding.
2) Division of Labor: In the Joint family, the work is distributed among the members
according to the age & sex. Members cooperate with one another as they hold the
property together. This is especially seen in the Agricultural operations.
3) Economy: It secures the economy of expenditure. In Joint families commodities (a
product that can be brought to obtain it) are consumed in larger quantities, they are
procured at cheaper prices.
4) Provision for recreation: It provides leisure to all the members. The female members
divide the household work & finish it quickly, so that they have free time for recreation.
5) Social Insurance: The joint family provides social security to the weak, aged, sick,
invalid & such needy persons. Life from cradle to cremation is looked after by a joint
family.
6) Social virtues: Joint family provides or promotes virtues like cooperation, affection,
sacrifice, self help, tolerance, discipline & obedience among its members. Such virtues
inculcate the socialistic spirits.
7) Psychological security: The joint family provides psychological security by creating
farm onions (friendly & peaceful) atmosphere in the family. It prevents the growth of
excessive individualism among the family members.
8) Social control: The joint family acts as an agency of social control by exercising control
over the behavior of its members.
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Demerits of Joint family:

1) Idlers Abode: Joint family promotes idleness. Since all the members are assured of their
basic requirements, no one takes much interest in productive activities.
2) Set back to the development of personality: In a joint family there is very little
scope for the promotion of individual autonomy (the sight of …………….) because the
elders take too many responsibilities.
3) Encourage litigation: It encourages litigation. Disputes surface at the time of partition
of common property.
4) Centre of Quarrels: It is a hot bed of quarrels & bickering especially among the female
members as they enter into the family from different backgrounds & find it difficult to
adjust properly in the family.
5) Denial of privacy: Privacy is denied to the newly married couple in the joint family as it
is always overcrowded.
6) Uncontrolled reproduction: It promotes high birth rates. Members don’t take birth
control measures since the joint family directly assumes responsibility for the new
members.
7) Status of women undermined: In patriarchal joint families, women have only
secondary roles to play. They don’t enjoy sufficient freedom. Their feelings are not
recognized. They are treated as non-entity & work like servants. Hence, sons are
preferred to daughters.
8) Improper socialization of children: The absence of privacy between husband & wife
adversely affects the socialization of children. Children generally pick up age-old ideas &
idle habits in the company of grandparents.
The foregoing analysis concludes that the joint family system has both the weak &
strong points. However, the joint family system is breaking down in urban areas, but it is
still found in rural areas.

Disintegration of joint family: The traditional joint family system of India has undergone
gigantic changes which have affected its structure & function as well as stability.

The factors affecting the family most are:

1) Education: The introduction of Modern Education by the British government affected the
joint family system variously. It changed the attitudes, beliefs, values of people.
Education opened new avenues of employment opportunities to both men & women.
Economic independence of women led to the change in relations within the family. It is
directly promoting the modern family system especially in the cities.
2) Impact of Industrialization: The joint family system is suitable for agricultural families.
Today India is experiencing a fast pace of Industrialization. Workforces from the rural
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areas make people migrate to the urban centers to work in the factories. This migration
of people from villages to cities breaks down the joint family.
3) Impact of urbanization: Urbanization is widespread & city life is more suitable to small
nuclear families than to big joint families. Employed & educated women try to break away
more and more from her husband’s family of orientation.
4) Changes in marriage system: Changes in the age of marriage, freedom in male
selection & changes in the attitudes towards marriage have affected the family system.
Modern marriage doesn’t symbolize supreme authority of family lead over other members.
5) Social Legislation: Legislation measures have also affected the family system.
Prohibition of child marriage & fixing of minimum age of marriage have increased the
period of education. Other legislations such as Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, the Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955 & the Hindu Succession Act, 1956 have modified interpersonal
relations within the family, the composition of family & the stability of the joint family.
6) Western Impact: The western values pertaining to modern science, rationalism,
equality, free life, democracy etc. have tremendously influenced the Hindu family system.
Increasing levels of employment opportunities among women created awareness among
them & hence they sought freedom from the authoritarian hold of joint family.

—oo0oo—

6. What are the features of Modern Family?

1) Changing face of marriage: Family begins with marriage. Traditionally arranged

marriage prevailed on the principle of male dominance or female obedience. But today’s
modern family prefers mate selection by individual choice based on love & attraction.
2) Changing face of relationship between man & woman: In modern times, women
are an equal partner in life with equal rights with their husbands. Now, a wife can also
divorce her husband. They stand on an equal footing with men.
3) Openness in sex relation: The traditional rigidity with respect to sexual relationship
between wife & husband is no longer a mark of the modern family. In modern families,
the instances of extra-marital sex relations are becoming common.
4) Economic Independence: On the basis of employment opportunities provided women
are working in offices, factories, banks, shops, colleges for earning. This has heightened
their standard in the family. She is not a slave of man. Such a feature was not associated
with traditional joint families.
5) Smaller family: The modern family is smaller in size. The tendency is to have a smaller
size and methods of family planning help in keeping the size of family smaller.
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6) Declining importance of religion: The modern family is secular in its attitude. Morality
& religious practices are losing importance because marriage has become a civil contract
rather than a religious sacrament (contract). Authority of religion over marriage has
declined. Divorce is quite frequent in modern families.
7) Separation at non-essential functions: The modern family no longer performs many
functions of traditional joint family. These non-essential functions have been taken by the
hospitals, creche, the kindergartens, play schools etc. even for food, modern families rely
more on restaurants & fast food chairs.
8) Phallocentrism: The modern family is a phallocentric family wherein the wishes of
children are given prime importance. The choices of children with respect to the
Educational Institutions, clothes, food, and entertainment are given priorities in the
modern family.

—oo0oo—

MARRIAGE

7. What is marriage? What are the types of it?

Marriage is a Universal Social Institution. It brings men and women into family life.
Definitions:

1) Edward Westermarck: “Marriage is a relation of one or more men to one or more

women which is recognized by custom or law and involves certain rights & duties both in
the case of parties entering the union and in the children born to it.
2) H.T. Mazumdar: “Marriage is a socially sanctioned union of male and female.

Forms of Marriage:

A) Monogamy: It is the form of marriage in which one man marries one women. It is the
most popular form of marriage found in all societies. Aristotle recommended only
monogamous marriage. Ancient Jesus, Christians, Hindus practiced monogamy.

Advantages: It produces the most sincere love, affection & devotion. Parents look after
their children most earnestly. Affection between parents and children themselves is
healthier under monogamy. In monogamy the older parents receive more care & attention
by their children. This is of two types.

i) Serial monogamy: In this type, an individual will have a life mate one after the
another. But at any particular time, an individual can have only one life mate. ex: If
the wife of a husband dies, he will again marry one woman.
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ii) Non-serial monogamy: In this type, an individual lives only with one life mate
until death. ex: If the husband of a woman dies, she wouldn't marry again.

B) Polygamy: It refers to a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one wife
at a time. It was practiced in most of the ancient civilization. It is more frequent among
Muslims. This is of two types.
i) Sorel Polygamy: In this type of polygamy, all the wives of a man are sisters.
ii) Non-Sorel Polygamy: in this type of polygamy, the wives of a man are not sisters
belong to different families.

Causes of Polygamy:

1) Among some tribes men marry several times due to the belief that women get older soon.
2) The desire for more children also favors polygamy. - Desire to have children.
3) In some tribes, the headman marries more women to show his supremacy where a single
wife is taken as a sign of poverty. (Symbol of social status)
4) Men marry several times as they have a taste for variety.
5) It is the natural result of imbalance in sex ratio in favor of women resulting in an excess
of females over the males. (Male & female ratio)
6) Void marriage: The Government of India has declared polygamy an offence under Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955.

C) Polyandry: This is one of the forms of marriage in which one woman marries more than
one man at a given time. It is rare compared to polygamy. This is of two types.
i) Fraternal Polyandry: In this, a woman marries all the brothers of her husband.
The elder brother is the head of the family.
ii) Non-fraternal Polyandry: In this, one woman marries more men (husbands) who
are not brothers.

Causes of polyandry:

1) The scarcity of women in society leads to polyandry.

2) This is also practiced due to poverty where poor men are not able to maintain a wife
independently.
3) It is found in remote areas unseen in culture.
4) This may take place in societies where women are quite larger in numbers. ex: Tibet, Sikkim.

—oo0oo—

8. What are void & voidable marriages? What are their grounds?
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1) Void Marriage: A void marriage is, in fact, a misnomer, a contradiction. It is called a

marriage on account of the fact that two persons having no capacity to marry have, in
fact, undergone the requisite rites and ceremonies of marriage. This marriage is no
marriage. So, a decree of nullity is not necessary for void marriage.

Grounds: Under Hindu Law, the grounds of void marriage are:

i) If at the time of marriage either party has a spouse living. (If the first marriage is void,
the second marriage will be valid & vice-versa)
ii) If parties are Sapindas to each other unless such a marriage is permitted by custom.
iii) If parties are within the prohibited degree of relationship.

2) Voidable marriage: A voidable marriage, on the other hand, is a valid marriage till it is
avoided and a voidable marriage can be avoided only on a petition by either part to the
marriage. So long as a voidable marriage is not avoided, parties have the status of
husband and wife; the children have the status of legitimate children.

Grounds: Under the Hindu Marriage Act, a marriage is voidable on the following grounds.

i) Failure of respondent to consume rate the marriage on account of impotency.

ii) Incapacity of the respondent to give a valid consent in consequence of unsoundness
of mind or suffering from mental disorder.
iii) Respondent’s pregnancy at the time of marriage of which the petitioner was not the
cause of which petitioner was ignorant at the time of marriage.
iv) Petitioner’s consent was obtained by force or fraud, provided that the petitioner didn’t
live with the respondent as husband or wife after the discovery of fraud.

Grounds for valid marriage:

i) The marriage will be valid, if it is of the type of monogamy.

ii) At the time of marriage, both parties should have mental fitness and age.
iii) If parties are not within the prohibited degree.

Difference:
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Void marriage Voidable marriage

1. This marriage is no marriage. It doesn’t This marriage is a valid marriage. It is not avoided
alter the status of parties and children till a decree of courts annuls it. So long as this
of the marriage. marriage was avoided, the status of parties
(husband & wife) & children didn't change.

2. This marriage being no marriage, no Any part of a voidable marriage may not perform a
judicial declaration of its invalidity is second one without getting it annulled
essential.

3. Any part of a void marriage may A wife of voidable marriage can claim
perform a second marriage without maintenance.
getting it annulled.

4. A wife of void marriage can’t claim Under Matrimonial Causes Act 1950, children of
maintenance under section 125, voidable marriage continued to remain legitimate
Criminal Procedure Code even after the nullification of marriage.

5. Children of annulled void marriage are legitimate but they will resist the property of their
parents alone & of none of else.

—oo0oo—

9. What are the Grounds for Divorce?

Under the Indian Statutes relating to marriage & divorce, fault grounds of divorce are
recognized. Thus Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Special Marriage Act 1954, Dissolution of Muslim
Marriage Act 1939 & The Indian Divorce Act 1869 recognize divorce on fault grounds.

Grounds of Divorce:

a) Adultery: Under the Hindu Marriage Act & Special Marriage Act, the ground is worded
thus; respondent “has after the solemnization of marriage, had voluntary sexual
intercourse with any person other than his/her spouse.” One of the essential elements of
Adultery is sexual intercourse. The second essential element is that the act of sexual
intercourse must be consensual. In modern law, this can be proved by preponderance of
evidence. No direct evidence of adultery is required & probably it is very difficult to adduce
direct evident,
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b) Cruelty: Under Hindu Marriage Act and the Special Marriage Act, the ground is worded
thus: the respondent “has after the solemnization of marriage, treated the petitioner with
cruelty.” It is a conduct of such a character as to have caused danger to life or health,
bodily or mentally. This may be 1) Physical or 2) Mental.
1) Physical Cruelty: Acts of physical violence or the part of one spouse against the other
resulting in injury to body or health has been traditionally considered to amount to
cruelty.
2) Mental cruelty: This is an important and the largest aspect of cruelty in the modern
matrimonial law. Although intention is no longer an essential ingredient of cruelty, the
mental state of the respondent can’t be ignored altogether.
c) Desertion: Traditionally, desertion has been defined as abandonment of one spouse by
the other without any reasonable cause & without the consent of the other. This is of two
types. 1) Actual Desertion. 2) Constructive Desertion.
1) Actual Desertion: In this type, abandonment of matrimonial home as a fact situation
is essential.
2) Constructive Desertion: In this, the party truly guilty of disrupting the home is not
necessarily or in all the cases the party who first leaves it. Factum of separation has to
be established in this type. It is established law that the burden of proving desertion is
on the petitioner.
d) Conversion or Apostasy: This means: the respondent ‘has caused to be religion of
petitioner” Special Marriage Act stipulates for inter-religious marriages. It is for petitioner to
exercise his right to divorce & the respondent can’t do anything if he doesn’t want to
exercise it.
e) Renunciation of world: This is a ground for divorce only under Hindu Law. The ground
runs: respondent “has renounced the word by entering into any religious order. The
requirements of this ground are:
1) Remuneration of world by the respondent.
2) Entering into a holy order by him.
f) Insanity: Under Hindu Marriage Act & Special Marriage Act, the clause relating to insanity,
by the amendment of 1976, runs as “respondent has been incurably of unsound mind or
has been suffering continuously from mental disorder & that the petitioner can’t reasonably
be expected to live with respondent.” “It is pedantic rigmarole meaning nothing except
unsoundness of mind.”
g) Leprosy: This is a ground for divorce under most matrimonial laws. Under the Hindu
Marriage Act the ground runs: respondent “has been suffering from virulent & incurable
form of leprosy. “The leprosy to be a ground for divorce must be 1.incurable 2.virulence
under Special Marriage Act, any type of leprosy will be a ground for divorce.
h) Venereal Diseases: Under the Hindu Marriage Act & Special Marriage Act, the ground
runs: the respondent “has been suffering from venereal disease in a communicable form”.
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The duration of the disease is not mentioned in any of the statutes. If the disease is
contracted from the petitioner, under Hindu Marriage Act, Sec 23 (1)(a), the decree of
divorce can’t be passed.
i) Presumption of Death: Under the formal statute the ground runs thus: respondent “has
not been heard of as being alive for a period of seven years or more by those persons who
would naturally have heard of it, had that party been alive”. Once a marriage is dissolved,
the spouse is free to remarry & even if the missing spouse reappears the next day, he can
do nothing.
j) Non-Resumption of cohabitation after a decree for Judicial separation: “Under
the Parsi Marriage & Divorce Act 1936, the clause runs: “That a decree for judicial
separation has been passed against the defendant by a magistrate awarding separate
maintenance to the plaintiff and the parties have not had marital intercourse for 3 years or
more since such decree”. Under the different statutes, it is recognized as a breakdown of
marriage-ground.
k) Non compliance with decree of Restitution of Conjugal Rights:
Under Parsi Marriage & Divorce Act, this also has been enacted as a fault ground of divorce.
The ground runs as “That the defendant has failed to comply with a decree for restitution
of conjugal rights for a year or more”. Under Hindu Marriage & Special Marriage Act, it is
recognized as a breakdown of marriage-ground.
All these above grounds for Divorce can be sued by either party. But, 1955, 1954 &
Indian Divorce Act lays down certain grounds on which the wife alone can sue for divorce.

They are:

l) Bigamy & Polygamy: This ground murder Hindu Marriage Act is the natural corollary to
the introduction of monogamy. The ground runs: “A wife may sue for divorce, if the
husband had married again before such commencement of Act or that any other wife of
the husband married before commencement was alive at the time of solemnization of
marriage of petitioner, provided that in either case the other wife is alive at the time of
presentation of the petition”. After 1955 & introduction of monogamy, this ground is no
longer practiced.
m) Rape, Sodomy (un-natural sex) & Bestiality (with animals): The ground under
1955, 1954 runs thus: “that the husband has, since the solemnization of marriage, been
guilty of rape, sodomy & Bestiality”. Rape is a criminal offence under Sec.375, Indian Penal
Code. Sodomy & Bestiality are listed as un-natural offence under Sec.377, Indian Penal
Code. In either case, the burden of proof for establishing the ground is on the wife.
n) Repudiation of Marriage: The ground under 1955 runs as: “A wife can present a
petition that her marriage was solemnized before she attained the age of 18 years”. Under
 17

Muslim Law, the right is available to both males & females whose marriage was performed
before they attained puberty.
o) Non presumption of cohabitation after a decree of maintenance: This is a new
ground added to 1955, 1954 by the Marriage Laws Act 1976. The ground runs as: “A wife
can present a petition on the ground that in a suit under section 18 of Hindu Adoptions &
Maintenance Act 1956, a decree, as the case may be, “has been passed against husband
awarding maintenance to the wife notwithstanding that she was living apart & that since
the passing of such decree, cohabitation between parties has not been resumed for one
year or more”. It is evident that this ground has been enacted as a fault ground.

—oo0oo—

3. CASTE

The English word 'caste' is derived from Spanish word “Casta” which means breed, race.
Definition of caste:

“Sir H. Risley”: “Caste is a collection of families bearing a common name which usually is
associated with ancestor, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded as a
single homogeneous community by those who are competent to give an opinion.”

Dr. V.A. Smith: “Caste is a group of families internally united by peculiar rules for the
observance of ceremonial purity, especially in the matter of diet & marriage.”

10. What are the advantages & disadvantages of the Caste System?

A) Advantages of caste system:

1) Social security: Caste provides every individual a fixed social environment. It acts as a
permanent body of associations which controls almost all his behavior & contacts.
2) Spirit of cooperation: Caste system has created the spirit of cooperation and fellowship
among the members of the same caste. It helps the poor & needy thereby minimizing
unhappiness.
3) Economic goals: Caste sets economic goals of the individual. Every caste is associated
with an occupation & this ensures the future of new members of the caste.
4) Purity of race: The caste system has preserved the racial purity of the higher castes by
forbidding indiscriminate inter-caste marriage.
5) Influences mental makeup: Caste system influences the intellectual makeup of an
individual. It is the main source of influence in the formation of attitudes, customs &
traditions.
6) National integration: Caste system develops class consciousness without creating class
struggle. It has prevented the country from splitting up into fighting racial units.
 18

7) Social Insurance: The caste system provides a means of social insurance & promoted
social service activities. It helped the poor & needy.
8) Institutionalization of functions: Caste system provides all functions necessary to life
ranging from scavenging to the government. The division of labor thus provided an
integrated social system.
9) Cultural diffusion: Caste system helps in cultural diffusion within the group i.e., caste
customs, traditions, ideas, behavior, skills are passed on from one generation to the other.
10)Separation of social life from political life: Caste system has separated the social life
from political life & has maintained its independence from political influences.

B) Disadvantages of the Caste System:

1) Labour mobility denied: Denied labour mobility leads to stagnation as one has to follow
the caste occupation.
2) Un-touchability: It develops un-touchability. It is the hateful expression of caste. It has
created other social evils like child marriage, dowry system etc.
3) Solidarity retarded: Caste system retarded the growth of solidarity & brotherhood in the
Hindu society. It resulted in disintegration of Hindu society & finally awakened it.
4) Talent denied in selection: Under caste system occupation is hereditary. But many
times, it denies the choice, talent & skills of the individuals in the matters of job selection.
It acts as an obstacle to full productivity of human resources.
5) Denies social progress: The caste system is a great obstacle to the social & economic
progress of a nation. As the caste system is based on Karma theory, people feel that their
destiny is fixed & they can’t change their economic status”.
6) Doesn’t promote National Unity: Caste system creates a feeling of detachment among
people of lower sections of people society. It is a great hurdle in the way of national unity.

—oo0oo—

11. What are the changes in the Caste System?

1) British role: The administrative & socio-economic policies of British Government brought
changes in the caste structure of Indian Society. The British Government took some special
measures to remove the disabilities of untouchables. During their rule, some social reforms
also attacked the caste system.
2) Westernization: This process had its beginning during the British rule & has been
strengthened after India got independence. British rule produced radical & lasting changes
in the caste system. The British brought with them new technology, institutions, knowledge,
beliefs & values. As a result, the impact of caste has declined.
 19

3) Industrialization: The growth of industries destroyed the village arts & crafts & provided
new ways of earning livelihood. The influence of caste Panchayat was broken in cities. The
bases of the caste system began to lose their importance.
4) Social reform movements: Modern Education inspired people to remove social evils &
as the caste system was the source of all evils, it became the main target of attack at all
social reform movements.
5) Urbanization: After world war, the migration of people from rural to urban areas leading
to urbanization. Occupational mobility & migration to cities broke down caste norms.
6) Role of Education: Mahatma Gandhi & his associates worked against the evils of the
caste system. Religious movements such as Brahma Samaj, Arya samaj & Ramakrishna
Mission together worked against un-touchability & evils of caste system.

—oo0oo—

CLASS

12. What are the differences between Caste & Class?

Caste Class

1. An individual gets his caste from his Person doesn’t inherit class but finds his place in
birth the class on the basis of his ability, qualifications.

2. This is a closed system of Class system of organization is open.

organization.

3. A person can’t change his caste. A person can change his class.

4. Caste is hereditary.

—oo0oo—

KINSHIP

13. What is Kinship? What are types of it?

Kinship means relationship of the individual with the other members due to either a
bond of marriage or through blood. Sec.2 points characteristics - Text book. Types of
Kinship: a) Affinal kinship. b) Consanguineous.
 20

a) Affinal kinship: The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship. The relatives linked by
marital bond are known as affinal kinship.

For ex: husband and wife, wife’s mother, parents-in-law, daughter’s husband, son-in-law
are all affines. After a marriage, a person becomes not only husband, but also brother-in-
law & son-in-law, a girl in marriage becomes not only a wife but also becomes daughter-
in-law, Bhabhi etc. Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place.
Every individual belongs first to his family of orientation into which he is born & then to
the family of procreation which he sets up after his marriage.
b) Consanguineal kinship: The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. A
consanguine is a relative who was born in the family and is called as one who was
adopted in the family concerned. The relatives linked by blood are known as
consanguineal kinship.

For ex: father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, father’s brother etc. Blood is not
the only determinant factor, but a more significant role is of social recognition of such
kinds. For Ex: The adopted child is also recognized as a real son. Thus, blood relationships
may be established not only on biological basis but also on the basis of social recognition.

—oo0oo—

15. What are the two types of family based on authority?

1) Patriarchal family: Under this type, the male head of the family is possessed of inclusive
powers. He is the owner & administrator of family property. In short, the family father is
the protector & rules of the family enjoying full authority.

Chief characteristics of patriarchal family: Under this type, the male head of the
family is possessed of inclusive powers. He is the owner & administrator of family property.
In short, the family father is the protector & rules of the family enjoying full authority.

i) The wife after marriage comes to live in the home of the husband.
ii) The father is the supreme lord of family property.
iii) Descent background through father.
iv) The children are known by the name of the family of their father.
v) Children can inherit the property of their father only.
vi) They have no right over the property of their mother's family.

2) Matriarchal family: In this type, the authority vests in the woman head of family with
the males being subordinate. She is the owner of property & rules over family. This type
existed in earlier stages.
 21

Chief characteristics: In this type, the authority vests in the woman head of family with
the males being subordinate. She is the owner of property & rules over family. This type
existed in earlier stages.

i) Descent is reckoned through the mother, not the father because maternity is a fact
while paternity is only an opinion.
ii) Marriage relations are transient. The children are brought up in the home of the wife’s
relatives.
iii) The authority in the family rests in the hands of the wife.
iv) Property is transferred through the mother & only females succeed to it. This type of
family is said to prevail among the primitive people.

—oo0oo—

16. How far is the legislation responsible for disintegration of a Joint Family?

The joint family system in India has been very much influenced by new social
legislations consisting of Civil Marriage Act 1872, Hindu Marriage Act 1955 & Hindu Succession
Act 1956. The Civil Marriage Act enabled the adult boys & girls to marry against the wishes of
their parents. The Hindu Marriage Act enabled the women to seek divorce under certain
conditions. The Hindu Succession Act gave the right of equal inheritance to women. All these
influenced the solidarity of the joint family. It is however, to be remembered that the joint
family system in India has not completely died out. The causes of its disintegration are mainly
social. Hindu sentiments are even today in favour of joint families. The householders consider
themselves duly found to participate in ceremonial celebrations, take marriage, birth day &
other functions. Such participation keeps the joint family feelings alive. Compromise & mutual
adjustment are keynotes of the Indian Joint Family system. The joint family is not where
indicrenanty is crowned. In it, we have a synthesis of individual & common interest. What is
needed today is to find out the ways by which the virtues of the joint family system can be
retained.

—oo0oo—

17. What are the features of the Caste System in India?

It is noted that though the influence of the caste system is slowly decreasing in Indian
Society yet it continues as before & there is little change in the attitude & mentality of the
people. The caste system is a part of Hindu Religious Order. The village, the heart of Hindu
social organization is the seat of caste at its strongest. Today, many young men & women are
prepared to break through the caste of love marriage demands it. In such marriages, the
 22

female partner belongs to a caste lower than that of the male partner. The older generation
still thinks in old caste terms. The elections in India are contested very much on the basis of
casteism. The voters are asked to vote for their caste candidates. Political parties also sponsor
only that candidate from a particular constituency whose caste is the most numerous in that
area. Casteism still persists in government services. Seats are reserved for BC & Sc in
government services as well as in legislature. They are given special scholarships for
education. In the name of the minority their separate identity is maintained. Thus, the Indian
democracy has in practice encouraged rather than discouraged the caste system. The
judgment of the Supreme Court in the Mandal case has ensured a fresh lease of life to the
cancer of casteism for a long & indefinite future. The judgment would divide the nation into
two - forward & backward. It has replanted the poisonous weed of casteism. What is not
needed is to educate public opinion, denounce caste patriotism and give to Hindu religion a
new doctrinal basis in consonance with the values of liberty & fraternity. With the spread of
Education, political reforms & it is hoped that Indian people will rise to the occasion & throne
off the caste system.

—oo0oo—

18. What is the relationship between Sociology & Ethics?

Ethics is the science of morality. It is concerned with the moral righteousness &
wrongness of human action. It is a systematic study of the behavior of human beings. It is a
nominative branch of knowledge. It is the society which influences the mental & moral
development of the individual. Sociology is primarily concerned with the study of social groups
& different aspects of social life. Sociology provides a background for human conduct. Hence,
sociology and ethics are directly related. The personal good of the individual must, at the
same time, be in harmony with the social good. It is here that sociology and ethics become
similar.

Differences:

SOCIOLOGY ETHICS

1. This is a positive science. This is a normative science.

2. This studies the progress of social groups. This is concerned with the progress of
society from the viewpoint of morality

3. This studies men & their social moral It studies men individually as agents of the
relations society.
 23

4. It uses scientific methods & historical It seeks to explain human conduct with
methods in the investigation of problems. reference to an end or ideal.

5. It has no practical bearing on any field of It has some practical bearing on our
social life conduct.

Relationship between law and sociology: See in textbook.

—oo0oo—

RELIGION

Definition: Religion is one of the important social institutions. Religion has existed
throughout the history of human society. It is a part of human social life. It shapes human
behavior in a moral fashion.

Radcliffe-Brown: Defines religion as “a set of beliefs & practices concerned with powers
outside ourselves”.

MacIver & Page: Religion implies a relationship not merely between man & man but also
between man & some higher power.

- What are the characteristics & social functions of religion?

See in the textbook.

19. Write a note on Animism?

E.B. Tyler proposed ``the theory of animism” in his book ‘Primitive culture’. According to
this theory, religion emerged from the idea of soul (anima). It is believed that all the objects
or temporarily inhabited by spirits of souls. The concept of soul first gave rise to religion and
hence the name of animism is given to this theory. There is a belief that some spirits exist in
the world of spirits & have power over the lives of men. Very commonly the view is held that
a spirit visits a man in his sleep. Sometimes a man is said to have heard the spirit speak from
a corner of the house. The spirits inhabiting objects of nature as well as those in the world of
spirits may be worshipped or treated with fear & respect. They believe that the spirit of the
deal exists & wanders irrespective of time & space.

—oo0oo—

Add: 1.Utility of religion 2.Indian position + Indian constitution (Relevant articles)

 24

STATUS & ROLE

Status: Status is a social position that a person occupies in society. It denotes the standing of
a person in his society. The status can be both high as well as low. The status of a person is
based on social evaluations”.

Definition by Maclluer: “Status is a social position that determines for its possessor, apart
from his personal attribute, a degree of respect, prestige & influence”. Mack & young:- “Status
is one’s place or position in a given social structure”. There are two types of status: 1.Ascribed
Status 2.Achieved Status

1) Ascribed status: The status which is given to sons on the basis of the situation in the
society or by other members of the society is called Ascribed Status. Such a status may be
given by birth. Ascribed statuses are usually fixed at birth. ex: sex, age, kinship, case & so
on.

2) Achieved status: The status or the position that a person earned out of his own personal
efforts is called achieved status. Specialization in education, quick means of transportation
and communication and in fact the changed conditions of life, are conducive to achieved
status. ex: Lal Bahadur Sastri who belonged to a poor family, later on due to his personal
efforts not only because the Prime Minister of India, but earned the status of the most
important politician of the world.

Role: The word “role” meant the “roll” on which an actor's part was written. The role consists
of behavior expected of an individual in a community. The task performed by an individual
makes up the role he is expected to play in the life of his community.

Definition by

Ogburn: “Role is a set of socially expected & approved behavior patterns, consisting of both
duties & privileges, association with a particular position in a group”.

Olson: “A social role is an integral part of some social organization”.

This is classified as

1) Ascribed role: “A role is said to be ascribed if its occupants acquire it automatically or as

the result of objective characteristics or relations to others which are beyond their control”.
The individual has no choice over ascribed roles.
2) Achieved role: Achieved roles are assisted into a standard. The person has generally
some choice, much or little in playing the achieved role. Achieved roles include all
occupational roles.
 25

Relationship between status & role:

STATUS ROLE

1. Status is determined by socio-cultural Role is also determined by socio-cultural

values and also in relation to other values. It is influenced by the situation of
members of society. the society & other members of the society.

2. Status in almost all societies is similar & In respect of similarity and sameness of the
same. status, the roles are expressed in different
forms.

3. Status can be properly understood in the Roles can also be understood in the
background of social aspirations and background of social aspirations and
ambitions ambitions.

4. Status represents only a part of the entire Different statuses carry out roles.
social set up to which an individual
belongs

5. Status is a position in social hierarchy Role is the behavioral aspect of status.

6. This is a concept & phenomenon for This is a concept & phenomenon of social
sociological study. psychology.

7. This is a standardized and formalized A role is what a person does with his
society. status.

8. Status contains positional aspects. Role has procedural aspects.

9. It is not feasible for the members of a Roles are discharged according to the
family to achieve that status in a natural statuses and therefore, they have all the
manner. elements of status.

—oo0oo—
 26

SOCIAL CONTROL, ORDER & STABILITY

Some members of society don’t comply with certain norms of life. Such deviated
persons are compelled to conform to norms. Such compulsion is called social control and the
aim of social control is to ensure conformity to society’s norms & expectations.

Definitions:

Ogburn: “The patterns of pressure which a society exerts to maintain order & established
rules in social control”.

Landis: social control is “a process by which an individual is made group responsive & by
which social organization is built & maintained.

20. What are the agencies of social control?

A classification of the means of social control on the basis of their mode or operation is
to be studied into the following heads:

1) Control through beliefs: It is an old saying that where reason ends & logic fails, belief
begins. In fact, science has not been able to harm the foundation of belief. When the
people have faith in social values, no society can shake that. The agency of belief of social
control often acts through human superstition. The belief in these supernatural sanctions to
conduct has great advantages. It is effective & cheap. It controls the inner behavior of the
individual.
2) Control through customs: Customs are one of the quite well known methods of social
control. The people don’t feel either any of the nations or see any objection to obeying
them. This saves them from social ridicule as well.
3) Control by social ideas: It is said that the history of mankind is the history of its great
ideals. The great leaders of the world like Hitler, Lenin, Stalin and Gandhi played an
important role in setting up some ideas. Each society makes every effort to see the social
ideas like Liberty, Equality & Fraternity.
4) Control by ceremonies: Each ceremony makes one realize about the importance of
social duties & obligations. Birth of a child, marriage & even death presents occasions for
ceremonies.
5) By Art & Literature: Both art & literature influence the imagination & exert control on
human behavior. Art & Literature have become a powerful instrument because they know
no religion, caste & creeds and make people realize the value of cooperative living &
behavior. Today the whole of our buying behavior is mostly guided by advertisement.
 27

6) Through Leadership: Every association of people big or small needs leaders to guide.
Each group has its leaders who control conduct & behavior of the people who follow them.
Thus leadership has become an essential instrument & force for social control.
7) Through education: Education is a great vehicle of social control. Education gives moral
& social continuity to individuals. It fits the individual for his social role.
8) Through Law: Law is the most specialized & highly furnished engine of social control
employed by society. It limits the field of activity of criminals & ensures the progress of all.
Thus, law very effectively helps in social control.
9) By physical force: Physical force is an important instrument of social control. The fear of
punishment is a great check & an effective weapon which deters the people from not
violating social order & also makes them obey social control. The police, army & weapons
are all instruments of pure physical force.
10)Through Religion: Religion is a very powerful weapon of social control because, it is
feared that if social control is violated, gods will be displeased. Supernatural power of
religion always dominates over minds of the people. It supports social morality.
11)Through family: Family is a convenient place for social control. Family helps him in
bringing under the control of traditions. It is in the family alone that various parts of social
control are part of his life.
12)Through propaganda: Propaganda is also a powerful & significant weapon of social
control. This propaganda is carried out through different sources. ex: Press, radio.

—oo0oo—

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

The process by which individuals & groups are ranked in a more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification. The term stratification denotes the process or
condition in which layers (strata) of persons or groups are ranked differentiate all.

Definition:

W Murray: “Social stratification is a horizontal division of society into higher & lower social
Units.”

Gilbert: “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups or categories
linked with each other by the relationship of superiority & subordination.” It is clear that
inequality is the distinguishing feature of social stratification.

Forms or Types of stratification: Sociologists have commonly distinguished four types of

social stratification. They are 1) Slavery. 2) Estates 3) Caste. 4) Class & status.
 28

1) Slavery: In a feudal society, a clear distinction was maintained between slave & a freeman.
Every slave has his master to whom he is subjected. The master's power over his slave is
unlimited. The relationship between master & slave is therefore property expressed by the
slave being called the master’s “possession” or “property”. The slave has no political right
to participate in public councils. The slave is compelled to work. The free laborer may leave
off working on he likes, be it at the cost of starving. Slavery is an extreme form of
inequality. They are in lower condition. The basis of slavery is economic. Slavery was then
regarded as a social institution & having slaves was considered as a symbol of social status.
1) Estates: In feudal society, estates decide social stratification. Thus, those who owned
estates were a class in themselves whereas owners of small estates had less or no social
status. Classical feudalism contained only estates, the nobility & the clergy. The sergs
didn’t constitute an estate. The feudal estates were also political groups.
2) Caste: The Indian caste system is unique among systems of stratification. Castes are
usually associated with traditional occupations. Caste is connected with economic & social
differentiation. The higher castes are more or less polluted than the lower castes. Many
villages contained the caste order ranking in their locality.
3) Class & Status: Considerable difficulties arise when the attempt is made to specify the
number of social classes or to define their membership precisely. However, most
sociologists would probably agree in recognizing the existence of an upper class, middle
class & lower class. The picture of social stratification in industrial societies is complicated
by the existence of status groups as well as social classes.

Functional necessity of social stratification:

We can’t even imagine a society without social stratification. In every society some of
the duties & responsibilities call for a higher level of intelligence or skill. Therefore, the more
skilled must be given better economic & social privileges. It is a universal phenomenon. Social
stratification has therefore described as under:

1) Need for providing higher opportunities: In every society, we find a sense of

competition and the people try to occupy higher positions. In the absence of social
stratification, people will not struggle to occupy higher posts with better working
conditions.
2) Need on the basis of Responsibility: It is seen that some are willing to take more
responsibilities entrusted to them but others are quite reluctant to take any responsibility.
So, stratification is required to attract suitable & capable persons to take up such
responsibilities.
3) Need on the basis of positions: Some higher posts require some technical or well
qualified candidates. It is natural that trained & skilled people can’t be given the same
 29

position as it is occupied by untrained & unskilled people. In order to allot suitable

positions to suitable persons, social stratification as needed.
4) Need on the basis of status: Social status may be ascribed (by birth) or achieved. It is
desirable to provide higher status to intelligent, capable & efficient persons. Social
stratification therefore becomes inevitable in order to provide different statuses to different
persons in society.
5) Need for competition: Healthy competition is an indication of healthy society. Worth &
value will be recognized in the society through only competition. In order to have proper &
healthy competition, it is essential that there should be social stratification.
6) Need for performance of proper roles: In order to encourage people to perform frisky
roles in the society, they should be provided superior & civilized treatment with higher
status aspects in politics. Plato also contributed to the idea of powerful political
stratification. In this way, social stratification is needed for the progress of society. The
purpose of research is find the truth involved in a problem. A researcher starts his research
from ideas, assumptions in order to attain a social theory. It is a vague idea about nature
of social life.

Objective and concept: They are simply obstructions that served to organize your thought
and experiences into manageable and entities the vary greatly in terms of their scope, clarity,
etc. The aspects relevant to his work or selective.

Forming of hypothesis: It identities the major dimensions of social life that will be
subjected to empirical scrutiny.

Methods of research: Methods relate research as a whole from the beginning to end.
Methods are always original and superior to techniques. The methods used in the sociological
phenomena as, as to follows:

a) Case study methods: This may be defined as an all inclusive and exclusive study of an
individual to peruse one to understand he or she functions as unit of society case study
methods helps in organizing social data in preserving unitary character of the subject under
case study methods effort is make to made a comprehensive study of the problem keeping
view unitary character of the subject. This is more suitable for the study of fewer persons
to find out root cause for a problem. This is qualitative for character.
b) Comparative method: This involves comprehensions of various kinds of people in order
to find out differences as well as similarities in their ways of life and thus to find out clues
to mans social behavior. This method has been used by many sociologists and method is
quite popular. But, this method is too defective and suffers from limitations. This leads to
wrong conclusions. When the outlook of the investigator is narrow and not fully developed.
 30

c) Sampling method: This very frequently used by the sociologist. When a small group is
selected as representative of whole it is known as a sampling method. A sampling unit
must be representative of the universe or population and it should be clean and definite
and should be standardized if possible. It should have homogametic character.
d) Collection of data: The data is collected by the research in various types depends upon
the problem, population and circumstances.
e) Observation: Sociologist look at the behavior of certain groups and draws conclusion
about it.
f) Interview method: This face to face in turn personal role situation in which one person
(the interviewer) ask the person being interviewed (the respondent) questions designed to
obtain information for the study of social problem. This is study to study human behavior.
it is an oral verbal method of securing data. The objects of inerter viewer may be exchange
of ideas are experiments.

—oo0oo—