AYESHA FIRDOUS

960-FSS/BSIR/F20
RING OF FIRE
GEOGRAPRHY
It is a region around rim of the Pacific Ocean where many
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur. The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped belt about
40,000 km long and up to about 500 km wide. It is also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt. It
traces the meeting points of many tectonic plates, including the Eurasian, North American,
Caribbean, Antarctic, Indian, Australian, Philippine, and other smaller plates, which all
encircle the large Pacific Plate. The plates are constantly sliding past, colliding into, or
moving above or below each other. This movement results in deep ocean trenches, volcanic
eruptions, and earthquake epicenters along the boundaries where the plates meet, called fault
lines. The Ring of Fire has been the setting for several of the largest earthquakes in recorded
history, including the Chile earthquake of 1960, the Alaska earthquake of 1964, the Chile
earthquake of 2010, and the Japan earthquake of 2011 as well as the earthquake that
produced the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004.
COUNTRIES ON RING OF FIRE
There are many countries located on ring of fire but top 15 countries include Indonesia, New
Zealand, Papa New Guinea, Philippines, Japan, United States, Chile, Canada, Guatemala,
Russia, Peru, Solomon Islands, Mexico and Antarctica.

SAHEL REGION IN AFRICA

Sahel, semi-arid region of western and north-central Africa is extending from Senegal
eastward to Sudan. It forms a transitional zone between the arid Sahara (desert) to the north
and the belt of humid savannas to the south. It is the Eco climatic and biogeographic realm of
transition in Africa between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south.
Having a semi-arid climate, it stretches across the south-central latitudes of Northern Africa
between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. In the second half of the 20th century, it was
increasingly afflicted by soil erosion and desertification resulting from growing human
populations that made more demands upon the land than previously.
COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN SAHIL REGION IN AFRICA:
Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Algeria, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan and Eritrea.
 TREATY OF TORDESILLAS
The Treaty of Tordesillas was a treaty between Portugal and Spain in 1494, In it they
decided to divide up all the land in the Americas between the two of them, no matter who
was already living there. The Spanish Pope drew an imaginary line on a map 2,193
kilometers to the west of the Cape Verde Islands, gave Portugal the land to the east of this
line, and gave Spain the land to the west of this line. This also changed Spanish and
Portuguese exploration of the New World, which in part explains why the Portuguese-
speaking part of South America became one country called Brazil and the Spanish-speaking
colonies split up into many different independent countries including Argentina, Colombia,
and many others. This treaty took place during the age of discovery and was one a very
important part of it. This was the justification of Spain for occupying the French colony of
Port St Louis established on the Falklands Islands in 1764, saying it was on their side of the
world. Spain governed the territories West of the line and Portugal governed the territories
east of the line. After Great Britain and the Netherlands joined the Portuguese and Spanish in
exploring the world at the beginning of the 17th century, the Treaty was breached and more
or less 'cancelled'. By this time, Portugal's limited resources had already reduced its ability to
hold its Asian colonies and trade superiority. In time, the French, Danes, Swedes and
eventually the Americans joined the earlier Europeans in looking to have a presence in South
and East Asia.

SEMI SETTLER COLONIES

A semi-colony is a country which is officially an independent and sovereign nation, but
which is in reality very much dependent and dominated by an imperialist country (or, in
some cases, several imperialist countries). This domination can be in different forms like
economic, political, military, cultural/ideological, technological, demographic The term
semi-colony is often used interchangeably with "neo-colony". Some semi-colonies never had
much of a colonial administration before they became formally sovereign states, but most of
them did. Some semi-colonies were "settler colonies" attracting large numbers of foreign
immigrants, while in other semi-colonies the indigenous population always remained the vast
majority.
EXAMPLE:
Several Middle Eastern states established under British patronage, including many Arab
countries and Israel, are now largely dependent militarily and economically on the US.

MOVE OF CAPITAL
The capital of a country is often a very populated city where much history has been
made due to the high-level political and economic functions that occur there.
However, sometimes government leaders decide to move the capital from one city to
another. Capital relocation has been done many times throughout history. The
ancient Egyptians, Romans, and Chinese changed their capitals. Some countries
choose new capitals that are more easily defended in a time of invasion or war. Some
new capitals are planned and built in previously undeveloped areas to spur
development. New capitals are sometimes in regions deemed neutral to competing
ethnic or religious groups as this could promote unity, security, and prosperity.
Recently, the Indonesian parliament finalized legislation for the planned move of the
country's capital from Jakarta to a new purpose-build location in the region of East
Kalimantan on the island of Borneo by 2024. The new capital will be called Nusantara. The
Indonesian leadership has cited the intent to help another region structurally the reason for
the move, but observers also see burdens from pollution and overcrowding. Jakarta is also
one of the fastest sinking cities on Earth due to its location below sea level and the excessive
extraction of ground water.
Another example is of Pakistan. It had chosen Karachi as its capital in 1947. However, a
decade later, President Ayub Khan chose to move the capital to the new city of Islamabad.
Though reasons for the change weren’t specified, it’s believed Ayub wanted to remain close
to Rawalpindi, where the military headquarters are located.

5 LARGEST COUNTRIES BY TERRITORY, POPULATION AND

SHARING MAXIMUM BORDERS IN AFRICA AND EUROPE
5 LARGE COUNTRIES BY TERRITORY
IN AFRICA:

· Algeria
· DR Congo
· Sudan
 · Libya
· Chad
IN EUROPE

· Russia
· Ukraine
· France
· Spain
· Sweden

5 LARGEST COUNTRIES BY POPULATION

IN AFRICA

· Ethiopia
· Congo
· Nigeria
· Angola
· Egypt
IN EUROPE

· Germany
· France
· UK
· Italy
· Spain

5 COUNTRIES HAVING MAXIMUM NEIGHBORS

IN AFRICA

 DR Congo (9 neighbors including Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic,

Republic of Congo, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. )
 Tanzania (8 neighbors Including Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic
Republic of Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique)
 Zambia (8 neighbors including Angola, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Malawi, DR
Congo, Botswana, Mozambique)
 Algeria (7 neighbors including Morocco, Mali, Libya, Tunisia, Mauritania, Niger,
Western Sahara)
  Sudan (7 neighbors including Egypt, South Sudan, Central African Republic, Chad,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya)
IN EUROPE

 Russia (14 neighbors, including Georgia, Latvia, Ukraine, Norway, Finland,

Lithuania, Poland, Estonia, Belarus, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, North
Korea)
 France (11 neighbors including Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Italy, Spain,
Belgium, Andorra, Monaco, Brazil, Suriname, Sint Maarten)
 Germany (9 neighbors including Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Belgium,
Austria, Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland, Luxembourg,)
 Turkey (8 neighbors including Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Greece, Georgia, Iraq,
Syria, Bulgaria.)
 Austria (8 neighbors including Switzerland, Slovenia, Germany, Czech Republic,
Slovakia, Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein)

DIVISION OF AFRICA
The Partition of Africa was the invasion, annexation, division, and colonization of most of
Africa by seven Western European powers during a short period known as New Imperialism
(between 1881 and 1914).
Africa is divided into:

 Maghreb Region
 Egypt and the Sudan
 Francophone west Africa
 Nigeria
 East Africa
 Central Africa.
 Southern Africa excluding south Africa
 South Africa
 Other West Africa (This region includes Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau
and The Gambia)
 DEPENDENCIES IN THE WORLD
A dependent territory or dependency is a territory that does not possess full political
independence or sovereignty as a sovereign state, yet remains politically outside the
controlling state's integral area. Several terms can be used to refer to the dependencies and
territories. These terms include overseas territories, crown dependencies, overseas
possessions, unincorporated territories, and areas of special sovereignty. A dependency is
different from a country’s subdivision in that it is not geographically part of the sovereign
state nor its constituent part. It maintains some degree of political autonomy not enjoyed by a
country’s administrative subdivisions Crown dependencies are self-governing crown
possessions, which the British government solely protects and represent at international
levels. “Unincorporated” is a term used in the US to refer to territories where the US
Constitution only partially applies. France refers to its external semi-autonomous regions as
"overseas collectivities," while the Netherlands uses the phrase "constituent countries" to
refer to its territories.
There are about 58 dependencies and/or territories, most of which are islands in the world's
oceans. Although the British Empire no longer exists, the United Kingdom has the most
dependencies or overseas territories.

COUNTRIES CLAIMED BY
American Samoa USA
Anguilla UK
Aruba Netherlands
Ashmore & Cartier Islands Australia
Baker & Howland Islands USA
Bermuda UK
Bouvet Island Norway
British Indian Ocean
UK
Territory
British Virgin Islands UK
Cayman Islands UK
Christmas Island Australia
Cocos Islands Australia
Cook Islands New Zealand
Coral Sea Islands Australia
Faeroe Islands Denmark
Falkland Islands UK
French Guiana France
French Polynesia France
Gibraltar UK
Greenland Denmark
Guadeloupe France
Guam USA
Guernsey UK
Heard & Mc Donald Islands Australia
Hong Kong Controlled by China
Isle of Man UK
Jan Mayen Norway
Jarvis Island USA
Jersey UK
Johnston Atoll USA
Kingman Reef USA
Macao Controlled by China
Martinique France
Mayotte France
Midway Islands USA
Monteserrat UK
Navassa Island USA
Netherlands Antilles Netherlands
New Caledonia France
Niue New Zealand
Norfolk Island Australia
Northern Mariana Islands USA
Palmyra Atoll USA
disputed by China, Taiwan
Paracel Islands
and Vietnam
Puerto Rico USA
Peter Island Norway
Pitcairn Islands UK
Reunion France
St. Helena & Dependencies UK
 St. Pierre & Miquelon France
South Georgia & South
UK
Sandwich Islands
disputed by China, Vietnam,
Spratly Islands
Malaysia and more
Svlabard Norway
Tokelau New Zealand
Turks & Caicos Islands UK
Virgin Islands USA
Wake Island USA
Wallis & Futuna France

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL AND TRUSTEESHIP AREAS

The Trusteeship Council, one of the main organs of the UN, was established to supervise
the administration of trust territories as they transitioned from colonies to sovereign nations.
The Council suspended its activities in 1994, when Palau, the last of the original 11 trust
territories, gained its independence. Under the Charter, the Trusteeship Council is authorized
to examine and discuss reports from the Administering Authority on the political, economic,
social and educational advancement of the peoples of Trust Territories and, in consultation
with the Administering Authority, to examine petitions from and undertake periodic and
other special missions to Trust Territories.
There were eleven trust territories under the administration of the UN Trusteeship Council.

 Western Samoa
 Tanganyika
 Rwanda-Urundi
 Cameroons under British administration
 Cameroons under French administration
 Togoland under British administration
 Togoland under French administration
 New Guinea
 Nauru
 Strategic Trust Territory/ Trust territory of the Pacific Islands
 Italian Somaliland
 DIVISION OF BRAZIL
Located in central-eastern part of South America and covering an area of 8.5 million sq.km
(3,287,956 sq mi), Brazil is the world's 5th largest country as well as the largest country in
South America and in the Southern Hemisphere.
BRAZIL IS DIVIDED INTO 5 PRIMARY GEOGRAPHIC AREAS

 The northern Guiana Highlands

 Brazilian Highlands (or plateau) in central and east
 The massive Amazon River Basin
 The Pantanal wetland areas of the southwest
 The Southern Highlands to the west and south of Curitiba.

TROPIC OF CANCER

The Tropic of Cancer also known as the Northern Tropic is a straight imaginary line located
at approximately 23.5° north latitude (i.e., 23.5 degrees north of the equator), running
through different countries and international waters (Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean). It is the most northerly circle of latitude on Earth at which the Sun can be directly
overhead. This occurs on the northern solstice when the northern hemisphere is tilted toward
the sun to its maximum extent.

COUNTRIES LOCATED ON TROPIC OF CANCER:

It passes through 3 continents (Asia, Africa, North America), and 17 countries.
ASIA
 Taiwan
 China
 Myanmar
 Bangladesh
 India
 Oman
 UAE
  KSA
AFRICA
 Egypt
 Libya
 Niger
 Algeria
 Mali
 Mauritania
 Western Sahara
NORTH AMERICA
 Bahamas
 Mexico

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
Tropic of Capricorn is an imaginary latitude line that goes around the globe on the south of
the equator at approximately 23.50. It is the most southern point on earth and corresponds to
the declination of the sun’s ecliptic to the celestial equator.
COUNTRIES LOCATED ON TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
It passes through 3 continents (Oceania, Africa, South America) and 10 countries
IN OCEANIA
 Australia
IN AFRICA
 Madagascar
 Mozambique
 South Africa
 Botswana
 Namibia
IN SOUTH AMERICA
 Brazil
 Paraguay
  Argentina
 Chile

MANDATE SYSTEM
After World War I ended in 1918, the newly-formed League of Nations, created the
Mandate System. The League of Nations was formed on the idea of collective security, or
the concept that by working together to ensure the security of all nations, each nation would,
in turn, ensure its own security. The Mandate System was an attempt to stop the cycle of
war and fighting over conquered land by appropriating the land of the collapsed Ottoman
Empire and the colonies of Germany. The idea was that there were different types of
territories: those that were close to independence, those near-to-far to independence, and
those with virtually no hope of self-determination. These territories would be guided by a
larger, established state. The ultimate goal was development of each mandate territory
toward eventual independence.

CLASSIFICATION OF MANDATE SYSTEM

The league of nations created three classes of mandate system: class A mandates, class B
mandates, and class C mandates.
Class A mandates consisted of the former Turkish provinces of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and
Palestine. These territories were considered sufficiently advanced that their provisional
independence was recognized, though they were still subject to Allied administrative control
until they were fully able to stand alone. Iraq and Palestine (including modern Jordan and
Israel) were assigned to Great Britain, while Turkish-ruled Syria and Lebanon went to
France. All Class A mandates reached full independence by 1949.
Class B mandates consisted of the former German-ruled African colonies of Tanganyika,
parts of Togoland and the Cameroons, and Ruanda-Urundi. The Allied powers were directly
responsible for the administration of these mandates but were subject to certain controls
intended to protect the rights of the mandates’ native peoples. Tanganyika (which is now part
of Tanzania) was assigned to Britain, while most of the Cameroons and Togoland were
assigned to France, and Ruanda-Urundi (now Rwanda and Burundi) went to Belgium.
Class C mandates consisted of various former German-held territories that mandatories
subsequently administered as integral parts of their territory: South West Africa (now
Namibia, assigned to South Africa), New Guinea (assigned to Australia), Western Samoa
(now Samoa, assigned to New Zealand), the islands north of the Equator in the western
Pacific (Japan), and Nauru (Australia, with Britain and New Zealand).
The mandate system was replaced by the UN trusteeship system in 1946.
AFRICA
The International Court of Justice held that South Africa continued to have international
obligations under the mandate for South-West Africa. The territory finally attained
independence in 1990 as Namibia, after a long guerrilla war of independence against the
apartheid regime.
OCEANIA
The pattern of colonial rule in Oceania was altered by the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
An Australian force occupied German New Guinea, and a New Zealand force took German
(Western) Samoa; Japan took the Carolines, the Marshalls, Palau, and the Marianas. At the
end of the war these German territories, together with Nauru, were retained by the occupying
powers as mandates under the League of Nations. The professed aim of the administrators
was to help the people of these territories to stand on their own feet under the strenuous
conditions of the modern world.

STATUS OF HONG KONG AND MACAU

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Since 1842, when the island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British Crown in the Treaty of
Nanking, Hong Kong had been a British crown colony. Under public international law, it
therefore formed part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The
situation with respect to Macao was somewhat comparable, as the sovereignty and the power
to enter into treaties for Macao was exercised by another European State, the Republic of
Portugal. A difference of largely terminological nature arose from the fact that Portugal in
1979 had entered into an agreement with the People’s Republic of China which characterized
Macao as not being a colony, but a Chinese territory administered by Portugal.
HONG KONG
On June 30, 1997, the United Kingdom transferred sovereignty over Hong Kong to China in
a ceremony commonly referred to as "the handover." The modalities of the handover and of
Hong Kong's future after the act had been previously agreed upon in a treaty between China
and the United Kingdom of 19 December 1984 entitled: the "Joint Declaration of the
Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the
Government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the Question of Hong Kong". This
Sino-British Joint Declaration inter Alia stipulated that the Government of the United
Kingdom would restore Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China with effect from 1
July 1997, that the PRC would establish a Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR)
upon resuming the exercise of sovereignty, and that the Hong Kong SAR will enjoy a high
degree of autonomy to remain unchanged for 50 years. Since 1 July 1997, Hong Kong is thus
under public international law a part of the People's Republic of China.
MACAO
Two and a half years later, Macao followed suit. The procedure used in administering the
change in sovereignty had been closely modelled on the example of Hong Kong. On April
13, 1987, a "Joint Declaration of the Government of the People's Republic of China and the
Government of the Republic of Portugal on the Question of Macao" was signed, with most
of its provisions resembling verbatim those of the Sino-British Joint Declaration. When the
handover took place on December 20, 1999, Macao had thus similarly become a special
administrated region of the People's Republic of China.