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Download ebook pdf of 离散数学 Discrete Mathematics 5Th Edition Chinese Edition Geng Su Yun Zhang Li Mao full chapter
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北京高等教育精晶教材
BEIJING GAODENG JIAOYU JI 树 GPIN JIAOCAI
离散数学
(第五版)
耿素云屈婉玲张立昂编著
清华大学出版社
本书有配套的《离额数学题解(第五版))) (IS8N: 978- 7- 302-
32508-6 ,屈婉1字耿素云张立昂编蔷) 。 本书数学课件可以从清
华大学出版社网随 (www.tup . com.cn) 下载 。
清 华大 学 出 版社 搬 字 出 版网站
WQ Bo_" k 圄
w \V w.wqbook.com
定价: 33 . 00元
离散数学
(第五版)
耿素云屈婉玲张立昂编著
清华大学出版社
北京
内容简介
本书封面贴有清华大学出版社防伪标签 , 无标签者不得销售 。
版权所有,侵权必究 。 侵权举报电话: 010 - 62782989 13701121933
图书在版编目 ( CIP ) 数据
责任编辑 :白 空 军
封面设计 :傅瑞学
责任校对 H才翠 兰
责任印制 :何芋
产品编号 044139 - 01
第五版前言
本书自从 2008 年发行第四版以来,随着信息技术飞速发展和社会对高层次信息人才的
迫切 需求 ,根据教育部计算机科学与技术专业教学指导委员会提出的 《计算 机科学与技术 专
业规范 》 和 《 高等学校计算机科学与技术专业核心课程教学实施方案 》 的建议,结合信息管理
与信息系统专业的教学要求,本书第五版在保持原有写作风格的基础上,除了对文字做了进
一 步加工,纠正了某些疏漏以外,并对部分内容进行了调整,主要表现如下 .
(1)将代数结构部分的内容进行了整合,并调整到教材的最后 .
(2) 图 论部分(第 5 ~ 第 7 章)的叙述有较大的改动.
作者
2013 年 2 月
. 1
第四版前言
本书从 1991 年发行第 一 版,到 2004 年推出第 三 版井被评为北京市精品教材以来,信息
技术飞速发展,新成果层出不穷, 一 个崭新的信息时代正在到来.为了应对高层次信息人才
需求的巨大挑战,近年来,教育部计算 机科 学与技术专 业教 学指导委员会组织有关专家对国
内外计算机专业教育进行了深入的调研,提出了 《 计算机科学与技术专业规范 )) (CCC2004-
2005) .在这个规范中,计算机科学与技术专业被细化成计算机科学、计算机工程、软件工程、
信息技术 4 个专 业方向, 并提出了相关专业方 向的教学计划和课程设计 .
根据这个意见的指导思想,并结合信息管理与信息系统专业的教学要求,本书第四版在
保持原有写作风格的基础上,除了对文字做了进一步加工,纠正了某些疏漏以外,并对部分
内容进行了调整,主要表现如下.
(1)在组合分析中补充了递推方程的求解及其在计算 机递归算法分析中的应用.
作者
2007 年 10 月
mM
第三眼前言
本书已出版发行 12 个年头.当初是为了适应全国计算机软件专业技术资格和水平考试
的 需要 而编写的.现在,全国计算机软件专业技术资格和水平考试的内容有了很大的变化,
仅在系统分析员级中还有离散数 学 . 但是,出乎我们 意 料的是,本书的发行 量一直 在逐年上
升,被很多学校选作教材 . 为了更好地适应这种形势的 需 要,应清华大学出版社的要求,出版
本书的第 三 版.
各部分的修改由原作者完成 .
作者
2003 年 9 月
. v.
第二版前言
计算机的出现和蓬勃发展彻底改变了人类的生活,它必将作为 20 世纪最灿烂辉煌的
和应用研究打下坚实的基础,同时也有助于培养他们的抽象思维、严格的逻辑推理和
创 新能力 .
格(水平)考试系列教材"出版以来,已历经 7 年.由于它取材适度、概念清楚、讲解翔实、通俗
以下几个方面进行了修订.
(1)对原书的习题进行了调整和充实.个别章节更新了某些习题,而对大部分章节补充
了难度适当、风格多样、覆盖面较广的习题.
中按章给出内容提要、解题要求、习题和解答,并结合习题针对一些普遍性的分析方法、解题
技巧、求解步骤和规范,以及应该避免的错误进行了详尽的论述.
在以上的修订工作中,数理逻辑与图论(第 1 、 2 、 7 , 8 、 9 章)由耿素云完成;集合论、代数
最后,我们诚恳欢迎广大读者对本书批评和指正 .
作者
1999 年 2 月
• VIß •
第-眼前言
本书是根据"计算机专业技术资格和水平考试大纲"的要求编写的,是"全国计算机软件
专业技术资格和水平考试系列教材"之一,它是高级程序员级和系统分析员级的离散数学教
材.离散数学是现代数学的重要分支,是计算机科学理论的基础.本书共含 6 个方面的内容:
① 数理逻辑; ②集合 论; ③ 代数结构; ④ 图论; ⑤ 组合分析初步; ⑥ 形式语言 与 门动机
初步 .
数理逻辑与图论(第 1 、 2 、 7 、 8 、 9 章)由耿素云编写;集合论、代数结构、组合分析初步(第
3 、 4 、 5 、 6 、 10 章)由屈婉玲编写 ;形式语 言与自动 机初步(第 11 章)由张立昂编写.
根据资格和水平考试的特点,本书着重于基本概念的论述和应用,而不着重于定理的证
明.每章均给出了典型的题例分析,并配置了相当数量的习题,书后给出了大部分习题的提
示或解答 .本书不仅 是函授的教材,便于考生复习与自学,而且 也可供计算机软件人员 学习
与参考 .
由于作者水平所限,书中难免有不妥或错误之处,恳请读者指正 .
编者
1991 年 4 月于北京大学计算机系
• IX •
圄豪
第 1 章命题逻辑…. .
1. 1 命题符号化及联结词………………………………………………… … ………… 1
1. 5 联结词全功能集 …………………………………………………………………… 17
1. 6 组合电路……………………… …………………………………………… … …… U
1. 7 推理理论………………………………………… ………………………………… 21
1. 8 题例分析………………………………………… ………………………………… 26
• XI •
第 5 章 图的基本概念……………………………………………………… …………….. 118
5. 1 无向图及有向图……………………………………………………………… . 118
5. 2 通路、回路和图的连通性………………………………………………………… 12 3
5. 3 图的矩阵表示…… …………………………………………………… …… …… 1 25
6. 1 二 部图…………………………………………………………………………… 14 0
6. 3 哈密顿图……………………………………..………………………………… 1 44
6. 5 题例分析……………………………………………………………………….. 151
习题…………………………………........... .. .......................... ..... ... .... ......... 154
第 7 章树…………………………………………………………………………… ……… 157
7. 1 元向树及生成树…………………………………………………………… …… 1 57
7.2 根树及其应用………………………...... ............... .............................. 161
7.3 题例分析………………………………………………………………………… 167
习题…………………………...... ...... ............... ...... ... .. ...... . ...... ......... .. . ...... 171
第 8 章组合分析初步……………………… … ……………… ……… …………………… 1 74
8. 1 加 法法 则和乘 法法贝IJ …………………………………………………………… 1 74
8. 2 基本排列组合的计数方法 ……………………………………………… … …… 17 5
8. 3 递推方程的求解与应用………………………………………………………… 181
8. 4 题例分析………………………………………………………………………… 187
习题…………………........... ....... ..... . ................. ... .................................. 192
第 9 章代数系统简介……………………………………………………………………… 1 96
9. 1 二元运算及其性质… ………………………………………………………….. 196
9. 2 代数系统……………………………………………………… ………………… 202
9. 3 几个典型的代数系统……………………………………………·…………… 206
9. 4 题例分析……………………………………………………………………….. 218
习题……….. .... ....................... ...... ... .. ....... . ........... ...... ... ... . ........ ...... .... 223
第 10 章 形式语言和自动机初步………………………………………………………… 230
10. 1 形式语言和形式文法…………………………………………… …… …… …… 230
10. l. 1 字符串和形式语言 …………………………………………………… 230
10 . l. 2 形式文法…………………………………… …… …… …… ……… … 231
10.4 图灵机…………………………………………………………………………… 2 44
10.4. 1 图灵机的基本模型…………
10.4.2 用图灵机计算函数…………………………………………………… 248
• XID •
第 1 重重 命题温濡
数理逻辑是用数学方法来研究推理的形式结构和推理规律的数学学科.它与数学的其
他分支、计算机科学、人 工智 能、语言学等学科均有密切的联系,并且日益显示出它的重要作
用和更加广泛的应用前景.数理逻辑的内容相当丰富.本书只介绍命题逻辑和 一 阶逻辑
(谓词逻辑)的逻辑演算.对数理逻辑感兴趣的读者 , 可参阅有关专著.
1. 1 命 题符号化 及联结词
数理逻辑研究的中心问题是推理,而推理的前提和结论都是表达判断的陈述句 . 因而,
表达判断的陈述句构成了推理的基本单位.于是,称能判断真假的陈述句为 命题 .这种陈
述句的判断只有两种可能, 一 种是正确的判断, 一 种是错误的判断.称判断为正确的命题的
(4) 明年 10 月 1 日是晴天.
(5) 3 能被 2 整除.
(6) 这朵花多好看呀 !
(7) 明天下午有会吗?
(8) 请关上门!
(9) x 十 y>5 .
(1 0) 存在地球外的星球上也有生命.
解 在这 10 个句子中, (6) 是感叹句,( 7) 是疑问句, (8) 是析使句,这 3 句话都不是陈述
句,当然它们都不是命题.其余的 7 个句子都是陈述句,但(的不是命题,因为它没有确定的
(1) 3 不是偶数 .
(2) 2 是素数和偶数.
(3) 林芳学过英语或日语.
(4) 如果角 A 和角 B 是对顶角, 则角 A 等于角 B .
(3) 李平不但聪明,而且用功 .
(4) 李平不是不聪明,而是不用 JjJ .
为了掌握蕴涵联结词的逻辑 关系 及应用中应注意的事项,请看下例.
例 l. 4 将下列命题符 号 化.
(1)只要天不下雨,我就骑自行 车 上班.
(2) 只有天不下雨,我才骑自行车上班 .
(3) 若 2+2 = 4 ,则太阳从东方升起.
(2) 小王现在在宿舍或在图书馆里.
(3) 选小 王或 小李中的 一 人 当 班长 .
1 9 69 年 . s: 他是 三 好学生 .
联结词符也称为逻辑运算柯它们与普通数的运算符 一 样,在运算时有优先级.规定
优先级的顺序为"八, V ,→,日.若有括号,先进行括号中的运算 . 对相同的联结词按从左
到右顺序运算 .
1. 2 命题公式及分类
不是命题公式 .
下面给出命题公式层次的定义 .
( A= 'B , B 是 n 层公式.
② A = B 八 C ,其中 B 、 C 分别为 i 层和 j 层公式 , 且 η =max(i , j) .
• 5 •
③ A=BVC ,其中 B 、 C 的层次同② .
④ A= β → C ,其中 B 、 C 的层次同②.
⑤ A = B-C , 其中 B 、 C 的层次同②.
定义中的符号"="为通常意义下的等号, 以下 再出现时意义相 同.
由定义可看出, -'ρ Vq , p ^q 八 r 、-,(-,户八 q) → (r Vs) 分别为 2 层、 2 层、 4 层命题公式 .
一 个含有命题变项的命题公式的真值是不确定的,只有对它的每个命题变项用指定的
命题常项代替后,命题公式才变成命题,其真值也就唯一确定了例如,命题公式 (p 八 q) → r
中,若指定 ρ 为 "2 是素数", q 为 "3 是奇数", r 为 "4 能被 2 整除",则 (ρ 八 q) → γ 变成真命题 .
若 ρ 、 q 的指定同前,而 r 为 "3 能被 2 整除",则 (ρ 八 q) →r 就变成假命题了 . 给命题变项指定
一 个代替的命题常项,实际上就是给命题变项指定 一 个真值, 1 或 O .
一 般地,对 一 个命题公式的解释或赋值定义如下.
(2) 按从低到高的顺序写出各层次 .
(3) 列出所有可能的赋值.从 OO "' O(n 位)开始,每次 加 1 ,直到 11.. . 1 为止 .
(4) 对应每个赋值,计算命题公式各层次的值,直到最后计算出命题公式的值 .
例1. 7 求下列命题公式的真值表 .
(l )p 八 (qV-'r) .
(2) (ρ 八 (ρ → q)) → q .
(3) -, (ρ → q) 八 q.
解 表 1 - 1 、表 } - 2 、表 1 - 3 分 别为(1)、 ( 2) 、 (3) 的真值表.由表 1 - } 可知, 1 00 、 110 、 111
无成真赋值 .
根据在各种赋值下的取值情况,可将命题公式分为 3 类,定义如下 .
定义1. 9 设 A 为一个命题公式.
(1)若 A 在所有赋值下取值均为真, 则称 A 为 重言式 或 永真式 .
(2) 若 A 在所有赋 值下取值均为假,则称 A 为 矛盾式 或 永假式.
。 。 。 。
。 。 。 。 。
。 。 。
。 。 。
1 。 。 I 1
。 。 。 。
表 1-2
。 。 。
。 1 1 。
1 。 。 。
l 1
表 ]-3
卢 q 卢→ q -,(卢→ q) -, (ρ→ q) 八 q
。 。 1 。 。
。 l 。 。
1 。 。 1 。
l 。 。
给定一个命题公式,判断其类型的一种方法是利用命题公式的真值表 . 若真值表最后
一 列全为 1 ,则这个命题公式为重言式;若最后一列全为 0 ,则这个命题公式为矛盾式;若最
后一列既有 0 又有 1,则这个命题公式为非 重言式的可满足式.在例1. 7 中,由真值表可知,
(1)为可满足式; (2) 为重言式; (3) 为矛盾式.下两节还将给出判断命题公式类型的其他
方法.
函数.
定义1. 10 一个 n(n二三 1 ) 阶笛卡儿积 {O , 1 }"到 {0 , 1} 的函数称为 一个 n 元真值函数
n 元真值函数 F 记为 F: {0 , 1}"• {0 , 1}( .
一 列,不计中间的计算过程 ) ,也对应无穷多个命题公式,这些公式彼此都是等值的,它们中
的每 一 个都是这个真值函数的一个表达形式.
① 关于筒卡儿积和函数的记法,请见第 4 章 二元 关系和函数部分.
• 7 •
含两个命题变项 ρ 、 q 的真值函数共有 16 个 . 表 1 - 4 中给出了这 16 个真值函数,其中
FI 对应的命题公式都 是矛 盾式, F1 6 对应的命题公式都是重言式,几对应 ρ ^q 或与它等值
的命题公式,几对应, (ρ→ q) 或与其等值的命题公式……
表 1-4
卢 q FI F主 F3 F. F, F, F7 F.
。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。
。 1 。 。 。 。 1 1
。 。 。 1 l 。 。 l
1 。 。 。 。
ρ q F, F 10 F II F I2 F I3 F I4 F I' F I6
。 。 1 1 l 1
。 。 。 。 。 1
1 。 。 。 1 1 。 。
。 。 1 。 。 1
1. 3 等值演算
给定 ηCn二三 1)个命题变项,按合式公式的形成规则可以形成无穷多个命题公式,而在这
无穷多个命题公式中,有些具有相同的真值表.例如 , n=2 时, ρ→ q ,' 户 Vq ,'( 户 ^'q ) , …,
这些表面看来不同的命题形式,在所有 4 个赋值 00 、 01 、 10 、 11 下均有相同的真值,也就是说
它们的 真 值表最后 一 列是相同的. 事实 上 , n 个命题变项只能生成 2 2 个真值不同的命题公
式.在 η =2 时,只能生成 2 2 ' = 16 个真值不同的命题公式.这就存在着如何判断哪些命题公
式具有相同真值的问题 . 设 A 、 B 是均含 n 个命题变项酌, ρ 2 ,… , þn 的命题公式,由定义可
知,若 A 、 B 具有相同的真值,则 A-B 恒真,即 A-B 是重言式.
定义1. 11 设 A 、 B 为两命题公式,若等价式 A-B 是重言式,则称 A 与 B 是等 值的 ,
记作 A ∞ B .
注意,定义中引进的符号"臼"不是联结词符,它只是当 A 与 B 等值时的 一 种简便记法 .
千万不能将" 件 "与"白"和" -" 混为 一 谈.
• 8 •
表 1-5
。 。 。 l 1
。 1 。 l 。 1
。 。 1 。 1
1 。 。 1 。 。
表 1 -6
。 。 1 。 l l
。 1 。 1 。 。
1 。 。 1 l 。 。
1 。 。 1 。 。
下面给出 24 个重要的等值式,希望读者牢记住它们,它们在后面要经常用到.在下面
的公式中 , A 、 B 、 C 仍代表任意的命题公式.
双重否定律 -,-, A ∞ A .
等幕律 AVA 件 A.
A 八 A 仲A.
A 八 B∞ B 八 A.
-'CA 八 B) 件 -, A V-, B.
吸收律 AV(A 八 B) 仲 A.
AACAVB) 伸 A.
零律 A V l 同 l.
A 八 0 件 O.
同一律 A VO ç_斗 A.
A 八 1 ∞ A.
排中律 A V -, A件l.
矛盾律 A 八 -, A 件 O .
蕴涵等值式 A → B 悼 -, A VB .
等价等值式 A-B 仲 C A → B)^(B → A).
假言易位 A → B 同 -, B → -'A.
以上等值式都不难用真值表证明 . 由于 A 、 B 、 C 代表的是任意的命题公式,因而每个公
式都是 一 个模式,它可以代表无数多个同类型的命题公式 .例如, pV'ρ ∞ 1 、 (户 ^q) V.(ρ 八
q) 件 1 、「户 V.(. 户) 件 1 等都是排中律的具体形式.每个 具 体的命题形式称为对应模式的 一
证明 由于 A 与 B 等值,对任意的赋值 , A 与 B 的值都相等,把它们分别代人 φ( 寸,
其结果当然也 一 样,从而 φ (A) 件φ (B) . •
利用等值演算可以验证两个命题公式是否等值,也可以判别命题公式的类型,还可以用
来解决许多实际问题.下面举一些等值演算的例子 .
例1. 9 验证下列等值式 .
(1 )ρ → Cq→ r) 间 (ρ 八 q) → r.
解 验证两个命题公式等值可以从其中任一个开始演算 .
(1) ρ → Cq→ r)
间 「 ρV(q→ γ) (蕴涵等值式)
制 「 ρV( .qVr) (蕴、涵等值式)
件( .p V.q) Vr (结合律)
件 .( p 八 q) Vr (德 · 摩根律)
间 ( ρ 八 q) →~ (蕴涵等值式)
间p 八 1 (同一律)
伺 p 八 (q V.q) ( 排中律〉
间 (p 八 q ) V (ρ 八 .q) . (分配律)
解 (1) qV.((.ρVq) ^p )
口q V. ( ( ·户八 p ) V(q 八 ρ )) (分配律)
间 q V. (OV(q 八 p )) (矛盾律)
• 10 •
白 qV---'(q 八 ρ) (同 一 律)
件 qV ( ---'qV ---, p) (德·摩根 律)
件 lV---'ρ (排中律〉
样 1. (零律)
由此可知,(1 ) 为重言式.
(2) (p V---'p) → ((q^---'q) 八 r )
样 1 → (( q^---'q)^ γ 〕 (排中律)
件 1 → (0 ^r) (矛盾律)
间 l→0 (零律)
. {::丰 O .
真赋值.
锣IJ 1. 11 用等值演算法解决下面问题.
A 、 B 、 C 、 D4 人参加百米竞赛.观众甲、乙、丙预测比赛的名次如下 .
甲 : C 第一, B 第 二 .
乙 :C 第二, D 第 三 .
丙 :A 第二, D 第四.
比赛结束后发现甲、乙、丙每人预测的情况都是各对 一半,试 问实际名次如何(假设元 并 列
名次)?
解设丸, ql< , r , 5ι 分别表示 A 第 t 名, B 第 i 名, C 第 z 名, D 第 z 名, i = 1, 2 , 3 , 4 ,显然,
,.
又由 ③ 、 ④得 到,
1. 4 范式
ρ → q伸 「 ρVq ,
(2) 否定号的消去或内移 .
, , ρ∞ q ,
, (ρ ^q) 同 「 ρV 'q ,
12 •
(3) 使用分配律.求析取范式应该使用"八"对 "V" 的分配律,求合取范式使用" V" 对
"八"的分配律.
任给 一 个命题公式,经过以上 三步 演算,都可得到与它等值的析取范式或合取范式 . 于
是,得到下述定理 .
定理 1. 2( 范式存在定理 ) 任一命题公式都存在与之等值的析取范式和合取范式.
不过,命题公式的析取范式和合取范式不是唯 一 的.
例1. 12 求下面命题公式的合取范式和析取范式.
((p Vq) → r) → ρ .
解 (1)求合取范式 .
((p Vq) → r ) → ρ
仲 ((pVq) 八「 γ) Vρ (,消去)
(2) 求析取范式.
最后两式都是原公式的析取班式.
8 个极小项对应情况如下 :
「 ρ 八 'q 八 'r 000 记作 mo ;
「 ρ 八 'q 八 r 001 记作 ml;
「 ρ ^q^'r 010 记作 nl z ;
「ρ 八q 八γ 011 记作 nl 3 ;
• 13 •
ρ 八 'q 八 'r 100 记作 m 川
ρ 八 'q 八 r 101 记作 m s ;
p 八 q^'r 11 0 记作 m6 ;
ρ 八q 八 r 111 记作 m7 .
下面给出求主析取范式的步骤,这也就证明了主析取范式的存在性,唯 一 性的证明从
略.求给定命题公式 A 的主析取范式的步骤如下.
(1)求 A 的析取范式 A ' .
(2) 若 A' 的某简单合取式 B 中不含命题变项丸,也不含否定「扣,则将 B 展成如下
形式 :
B 仲 BM 仲 B 八 (ρ i V'ρ i ) 伸 (B 八 ρ i ) V(B 八「户;).
若 B 中不含多个这样的丸,则同时合取所有这样的户, 与「玩的析取 .
(3) 消去重复出现的命题变项和极小项以及矛盾式,如 ρ 八 p 用户取代, ρ 八「户用 0 取
代 .m i Vmi 用 1n j 取代.
(4 )将极小项按下角标由小到大的顺序排列.
锣IJ 1. 13 求例1. 12 中给出的命题公式的主析取范式.
小项 .
( (ρVq) → r) → ρ
件 P V ( q 八 'r) ( 析取范式)
反之,若知道了 A 的真值表,找出所有的成真赋值,以对应的十进制数作为角码的极小
项即为 A 的主析取范式中所含的全部极小项,从而可立即写出 A 的主析取范式.
例 1. 14 试由 ρ 八 qVr 的真值表(见表 1 -7) 求它的主析取范式.
14 •
表 1 -7
ρ q r p 八q 户八 qVr 户 q γ
p 八q p 八 qVr
。 。 。 。 。 1 。 。 。 。
。 。 1 。 1 。 1 。 l
。 。 。 。 1 1 。 I 1
。 1 。 1 1 1 l 1 1
由以上分析可知,主析取范式有以下用途.
1.判断两命题公式是否等值
取范式.反之,若 A 、 B 有相同的主析取范式,必有 A仲 B. 例如
ρ → q仲 「户 Vq
件 「 ρ 八 C-'qVq)V( -, ρVρ ) ^q
样( -, ρ 八 -' q) V( -, 户八 q) V(ρ 八 q)
件 mo Vm ] Vm3'
-'p V(ρ ^q ) 仲 「 ρM -'qVq ) V(ρ ^ q)
2. 判断命题公式的类型
例1. lS 判断下列命题公式的类型 .
(1) -'(p → q) 八 q.
(2) C(ρ → q) ^ρ) → q .
(3) Cp → q) 八 q.
解 (1) -, (ρ→ q) 八 q
件 -,( -, ρVq) ^q
• 15 •
∞ ρ 八 -'q ^q
伺 O.
(2) ((ρ → q) 八 ρ) → q
样 -, (( -, ρVq ) 八 p) Vq
件 -, (-, 户 Vq ) V-'ρVq
件 ( ρ 八 -'q ) V'ρVq
件( .ρ 八 'q) V(.ρ 八 q) V Cρ 八 . q) V ( ρ 八 q)
口m o Vm l Vm2 Vm3
(3) ( ρ → q) 八 q
样(-, ρVq) ^q
字丰 q
件ml Vm:l
由以上推演可知,(1 )为矛盾式, (2) 为重 言 式, ( 3) 为非重言式的可满足式.
3 . 求命题公式的成真和成假 赋 值
定理 1. 4 任 一 命题公式都有唯 一 的主合取范式.
求命题公式 A 的主合取范式与求主析取范式的步骤类似,也是先求出合取范式 A' . 若
A ' 的某简单析取式 B 中不 含 命题变项户, ,也不含其否定「 ρ i ' 则将 B 展成如下形式:
16 •
B 仲 BVO 件 BV(ρ , 八「 ρ;) 仲 (BVρ i )^(BV. 户,).
∞ Mo ^M 2 川1[. .
其实,只要求出了命题公式 A 的主析取范式,就可以立即得到主合取范式,反之亦然.
首先注意到极小项与极大项之间的关系:
'ï 1nj 伸 Mi ' .M i 仲 1n i .
件 1 m }} 八 ' mj 2 八 … 八 r m j2 " k
间 Mj , ^Mj, 八 … 八 Mjz • 寸 ·
由此可得出由 A 的主析取范式求主合取范式的步骤如下 .
(1)求出 A 的主析取范式 .
(2) 写出以 A 的主析取范式中没出现的极小项的角码为角码的极大项.
例如 , A 中含 3 个命题变项,主析取范式为
A 间 1no Vm l Vm5 Vm 7
则主合取范式为
A {=丰 此1[2 八 M3 八 M, 八 M6
反之,也可以通过主合取范式立 即 得到主析取范式.通过主合取范式也可以判断公式
之间是否等值,判断公式的类型(注意重言式的主合取范式中不含任何极大项,用 1 表示) ,
求成假赋值(所含极大项角码的二进制表示)等 .
1. 5 联结词全功能 集
在 一 个形式系统中,多少个联结词最"合适"呢? 一 般说来,在自然推理系统中,联结词
集中的联结词可以多些,而公理系统中联结词集中的联结词越少越好 . 但联结词集中的联
结词元论是多些还是少些,它必须能够具备表示所有真值函数的能力 . 具有这样性质的联
结词集叫全功能集.
定义1. 18 设 S 是 一 个联结词集合,如果任 一 真值函数都可以用仅含 S 中的联结同的
命题公式表示,则称 S 为 全功能集 .
17 •
定理 1. 5 { "八, V } 、 { "川、 { " V } 、 { "→ } 都是联结词全功能集.
证明 正如前面已经指出的那样,每 一 个真值函数都可以用 一 个主析取范式表示,而主
析取范式中只使用联结词"八和 V. 故 { "八, V } 是联结词全功能集.
为了证明 { "八 } 是全功能集,只需证明可以用「和八代替 V. 事实上,
ρVq 仲 , , (ρVq) 仲 ,(, ρ^ ,肘,
ρ 八 q仲 , , (ρ 八 q) 仲 , (ρt q) 仲 (ρ 个 q) t (ρt q)
类似地,
「 ρ∞ ρ ↓户
户八 q仲 (ρ+ρ )~(q~q)
ρVq仲 (ρ... q) ~ ( ρ~ q)
(2)ρ 八 'q
件 ,(, ρVq)
件 , (ρ → q) .
(3)ρ 八 'q
件 ρ 八 (q 干 q)
件 ,( , (ρ 八 (qtq)))
件 '(p t (什 q))
• 18 •
件 (ρ 干(什 q)) 干 (ρt(qtq)).
( 4 )ρ 八 'q
同 ,(,户 Vq)
伸( ,户 H.q
件 (ρ+ρH q.
1. 6 组合电路
可以用电子元件物理实现逻辑运算,用这些元件组合成的电路物理实现命题公式,这就
是 组合电路. 实现八、 V 、「的元件分别叫做与门、或 门 、非 门.与门 有 2 个(或 2 个以上)输
入,每个输入是 1 个真值,有 1 个输出,输出它的所有输入的合取 .或门 也有 2 个(或 2 个以
二主〉王♀Y -可~飞
y ---t..--'
x Vy
x 一----{>o--二~
(a) 与门 ( b) 或 门 (c) 非门
图 1-1
x .....,......可--...._x Vy x 一-写~飞 x Vy
(a) (b)
图 1-2
• 19 •
表 1-8
I y F( 工 , y)
x
。 。 y
。 。
x
。 。 y
图 1-3
如下.
奎因-莫可拉斯基方法
(1)合并简单合取式生成所有可能出现在最简展开式中的项 . 合并的方法如下 : 首先
列出主析取范式中所有极小项的角码的二进制表示. 2 个极小项可以合并 当且仅当它 们的
为止 . 最后得到的不能再合并的项就是所有可能在最简展开式中出现的项 .
例1. 19 求下述公式的最简展开式 :
V( , 工 1 八 Xz 八τ3 八 x. ) V( x , 八 ' x z 八 X3 八「 工. )
V (x , ^' Xz ^X3 八 x. ) V( x , 八 工 z ^工 3 八 'x., ).
解 表 1 -9 中列出了 F 中的 7 个极小项.表中的标记 祷 表示该项已被合并,合并过程
见 表 1 - 9( 续) ,其中 (3 , 5) 与 (6 , 7) , (3 , 6) 与 (5 , 7) 都合并成 (3 , 5 , 6 , 7). 最后得到没有被合并
表 } -9
编号 极小项 角码 标记 编号 极小项 角码 标记
• 20 •
表 ]-9 ( 续)
第一批 第二批
(1, 4) Xj ^ X3 ^ x,
--, I 一 10 (3 , 5 , 6 , 7) --'X j ^X4 。一 -1
(2 , 4) 工 1 八 --'X2 ^X 3 101 一
(2 , 6) --'X2 八 X3 ^ X .. 一 O ll
(3 , 6) --, X , 八 X3 八 工4 。一 11 4同
(5 , 7) --' Xj 八 -' X 3 八 X4 。 -0 1
'‘
(6 , 7) 「工 飞 ^--,芷 主 ^工 也 。。一 1 '导
继续例1. 19 的解,展开式中运算符的个数等于所选项中运算符数之和加项数减1.根
据表 1 - 10 列出的被选项的情况,可以选择(1,的, (2 ,的和 (3 , 5 , 6 , 7) ,也可以选择(1, 4) ,
(2 , 6) 和 (3.5.6 , 7) . 即 最简展开式为
或
F仲 ( X , 八 X 3 八 ---, X <\ ) V( ---'X 2 ^ X:; 八 X 4 ) V( ---' Xj 八叫)
表 1-10
覆盖 (1, 4) (2 , 4) (2 , 6) (3 , 5 , 6 , 7)
运算符数 3 3 3 2
1. 7 推理理 论
表 1-11
「
nv 一
p•
q
p -o q (p→ -o q ) 八 户 ((户→ -o q) 八 p) → -o q
一 0101
-11nυ'inu
AU
1 。 1
<
U
1 。 1
1iti
1 1 1
0 0
前提 : p→ q ,"" ρ.
结论 : ""q .
推理的形式结构为
((ρ→ q) 八 "" p) → ""q. (祷祷〉
用 等 值 演算法
( (ρ→q) ^, ρ) → 'q
件..., (( ..., ρVq) 八「户 )V'q
件 ρ V""q .
可见(**)不是重言式,所以推理不正确.
• 22 •
下面介绍 一 种新的证明推理正确的证明方法 一一 构造证明法 . 这种方法是按照给定的
规 则 进行,其中有些规则建立在 推理定律 (即重言蕴涵式)的基础之上.
重要 的推理 定律有 以下 8 条 :
(1) A=>(A VB); 附加
(2) (A 八 B)=>A ; 化简
(3) ((A → B) 八 A ) 司 B ; 假言推理
(4) ((A → B) 八 --, B) 斗 --, A; 拒取式
证明 是 一 个描述推理过程的命题公式序列 , 其中每个命题公式或者是己知的前提,或者
是由前面 的命题公式应用推理规则得到的结论.
下面给出证明中常用的推理规 则.
(1)前提引人规则:在证明的任何一步,都可以引人前提 .
前提.
规则.
(4) 假言 推理规则 : A → B , A 仨B .
(5) 附加规则 :A 仁A VB .
(6) 化简规则 :A 八 B 仨A.
(8) 假言 三 段论规则 :A → B , B→ C 仨A → C.
(11)合取引入规则: A , B 仨A 八 B .
下面通过例题说明如何利用以上规则构造证明.
例1. 21 构造下列推理的证明.
(1)前提 : þ→ T , q→ S , ρVq.
结论 : rV s.
(2) 前提 : ρVq , ρ→ 'r , s• t , --'5→ γ , , t .
结 论: q.
证明 (1)① ρ→ r 前提引入
• 23 •
( q• s 前提引人
( pVq 前提引人
(2) ( 5 • t 前提引人
( , t 前提引人
( -'5 ①② 拒取式
( ' s• r 前提引入
( r ③④ 假言推理
@ ρ→ 'r 前提引人
⑦ 「户 ⑤@ 拒取式
③ ρ Vq 前提引人
( q ⑦⑧ 析取 三 段论
例1. 22 写出下面推理 的证明.
解 设 ρ : 今天是星期 一 .
q: 进行英语考试.
r: 进行离散数学考试
s : 英语老师有会 .
结论 : r .
证明: ① ρ→ (q Vr) 前提引人
② ρ 前提引人
( qVr ①② 假言推理
( 5 • 'q 前提引人
( 5 前提引人
( 'q ④⑤ 假言推理
( r ③⑥ 析取 三 段论
下面介绍在使用构造证明法时,常用的两种技巧.
1.附加前提证明法
有时要证明的结论以蕴涵式的形式出现 ,即推理的形式结构为
(A , 八 A 2 八 …八 儿)→ (A → B) . ( 铃)
对( 传 )进行等值演算得
件 ( A , ^A 2 八…八 A k 八 A ) → B. (块块)
• 24 •
在 ( H) 中,原来结论中的前件 A 已经变成前提了,称 A 为附 加 前提 . 如果能证明( 川 )为 重
言 式,则(川也为重 言 式.称这种将结论中的前件作为前提证明后件是有效结论的证明法
为 附加前提证明法.
例1. 23 用附加前提证明法证明下面推理.
结论: S • r.
证明 : ① ---' s Vρ 前提引人
( 5 附加前提引 人
③ ρ ①② 析取 三 段论
④ 户→ ( q→ r) 前提引人
( q• r ③④ 假 言 推理
( q 前提引人
( r ⑤@ 假 言 推理
由附加前提证明法可知,推理正确 .
2. 归谬法
由于
样 ---, (A , ^A 2 八…八
A,, ^---'酌,
因而,若儿,儿 ,… . A" 与 ---, B 不相容 ,则说明 B 是公式儿,儿, … .A" 的逻辑结论 . 这种将
结论 : ---'q .
② ρ 前提引人
( ---, (r 八 s) → ---'q ①② 假 言 推理
( ---, ( ---'q) 否定结论引人
( q ④置 换
( r ^s ③⑤ 拒取式
( ---'s 前提引人
⑧ 』 ⑤ 化简
( .S ^---, s ⑦③ 合 取
由 ⑨ 得出了矛盾,根据归谬法说明推理正确.
• 25 •
1. 8 题例分析
例 1. 2S 给定语句如下.
(1) 1 5 是素 数 .
(2) 1 0 能被 2 整除 , 3 是 偶数 .
(3) 你下午有会吗?若无会,请到我这儿来 !
(9) 明年 5 月 1 日是晴天.
(1 0) 圆的面积等于半径的平方与 π 的乘积.
以上 10 个语句中,是简单命题的为囚,是复合命题的为国,是真命题的为团,假命题的
为固,真值待定(真值客观存在,只是现在不知道〉的命题是固.
供选择的答案
A : ①(1) 、 (4) 、 (8) ; ② (4) 、 (6) 、 (9) 、(1 0) ; ③(1)、 (9) 、(1 0).
C : ① (2) 、 (5 ) 、 (9) 、(1 0) ; ② ( 7) 、 (8) 、 (10); ③ (2) 、 (9) 、(1 0) ; ④ (5) 、(7)、 (8) 、(1 0).
答案 A: ( ; B: ( ; C: ( ; D: ( ; E : ( .
分析 (3) 、 (4) 、 (6) 不是命题. (1)、 (2) 为假命题 . (5) 、 (7) 、 (8) 、(1 0) 为真命题 . (9) 真值
待定.
(5) 设户 : 2 是素数 .p 为真命题. q : 2 是合数 . q 是假命题 . p V q 为真命题 .
(7) 由于蕴涵式的前件为假,所以蕴涵式的真值为真 .
(8) 设 ρ: 4 是偶数 . q: 3 能被 2 整除.命题符号化为 -'þ→ -' q 或 q →户,因为 q 为假,所
以 q→户为真.
例 1. 26 给定命题公式如下:
(l) (ρ ^ q) → (p Vq);
(2) (ρ <-+q)<-+( ( ρ → q) ACq→ ρ)) ;
(3) , (ρ→ q) 八 q;
(4) (ρ^ , ρ )-q;
(5)ρ → (ρ V q) ;
(6) (ρV' 户)→ ((q^'q) 八 r) ;
• 26 •
( 7 ) ((p→ q ) → ρ )-p;
(8) (ρ 八 q) V(ρ 八 'q) ;
在以上 10 个命题公式中,重言式的为囚,矛盾式的为国
供选择的答案
A: ① (1)、 (2) 、 (5) 、(7) ;②(1)、 (4) 、 ( 5) 、 (7); ③ (1)、 (2) 、 (5) 、 (7) 、 (9); ④ (2) 、 ( 5 ) 、
(8 ) .
B : ① (3); ② ( 4 ) 、 (6); ③ (6); ④ ( 3) 、 (6) .
答案 A: ( ; B: ( .
分析 可用真值表法、等值演算法、主析取(主合取)范式等方法判断公式的类型.有时
( 3) 若乙的证词正确,则午夜时屋里灯光未灭;
( 4) 若乙的证词不正确 , 则作案时间发生在午夜之前;
(5) 午夜时屋里灯光灭了 .
• 27 •
资窃录音机的是囚
供选择的答案
A : ① 甲; ② 乙.
答案 A: ( .
分析一 首 先将巳查明的 事实 符号化.
设 ρ : 甲盗窃录音 机;
q: 乙监窃录音 机;
r: 作案时间发生在午夜前;
需 :乙的证词 正 确;
l : 午夜时 灯光未灭.
( s• t 前提引人
( ---'s ① ② 拒取式
( ---'5 • r 前提引人
( r ③ ④ 假 言 推理
@ ρ→ ---' r 前提引人
⑦ 「ρ ⑤⑤ 拒取式
③ ρVq 前提引人
( q ⑦⑧ 析取 三 段论
至 此说明乙盗 窃了录音机.
件 「 ρ 八 q 八 ---'s^r 八 ---, t.
A: ①( 卢→ q) → r; ②( ---, ρ→ q) → γ; ③ ( ---'q→「 ρ) → r .
B : ①「户 ^---'q 八 -'r; ② ρ 八 q 八-,,.. ; ③ ---,(---, ρ ^---'q) ^---'r ; ( ---, ( ---, ( ---'P ^---'q ) 八 ---'1' ) ;
( ---, ( ( ---, ρ 八 ---'q ) 八 ---'1' ) •
28 •
C: ① ρVqVr; ② ---, (ρVq Vr); ③ ---, (ρVq) Vr.
答案 A: ( ; B: ( ; C : ( ; 0 : ( ; E: ( .
分析 利用等值演算法消去指定联结同集中没有的联结同,其结果的形式可能不唯 一 ,
但在供选择的答案中均只有唯 一 的 一 式与印 Vq) → γ 等值,所以容易找到正确答案.
(1)在 { ---, ,→ } 中,
(ρVq) → r
仲 (---,---, ρ Vq) → r
仲 (---, ρ → q) → r.
(2) 在 { ---',八 ) 中,
(ρVq) → r
件 ( ---,卢八 ---'q ) Vr
间 ---,(---,(---, ρ 八 ---'q) 八 ---'r) .
(3) 在 { ---'. V } 中,
(ρVq) → r
(ρVq) → r
仲 ---, (ρVq) Vr
件 (ρ • q) Vr
件---, ((ρ • q) • r)
间 ( (ρ .q).r).(( ρ .q).r) .
求下列各复合命题的真值:
(1)忡忡)→ ( ---'r 八 。 ;
• 29 •
(3) (ρ 八 q 八 r )+--+( , ρV' S).
答案 。)、 (2) 的真值为 1 , (3) 的真值为 O .
(6) 4 二三 3 仅当 3 ζ 2 .
( 6) , ρ→ 'q , 真值为 O.
(7) 户吨,真值为 O .
"q 是 ρ 的必要条件"
"只要户,就 q"
"ρ 仅当 q"
"只有 q , 才户"
"没有 q , 就没有户"
"除非 q , 才户"
"除非 q , 否 则非 ρ"
以 真 值为 O .
主析 取范式与主合取范式.
7 ,所以 , A ∞ M 1 八 M3 八 Ms 八 M7 一- A 的主合取范式 .
习题
1. 1 判断下列语句是否为命题,若是命题请指出是简单命题还是复合命题.
(l) .j言是无理数 .
(2) 5 能被 2 整除.
(3) 现在开会吗?
(4 ) x 十 5>0 . -
(5) 这朵花真好看呀 !
• 31 •
(6) 2 是素数当且仅当 三 角形有 3 条边.
(7) 雪是黑色的当且仅当太阳从东方升起.
(1 0) 小李在宿舍里.
(11)全体起立!
(1 2) 4 是 2 的倍数或是 3 的倍数.
(1 3) 4 是 偶数且是奇数.
(4) 李明与王华是同学.
(1 5) 蓝色和黄色可以调配成绿色 .
1. 2 将上题中的命题符号化,并讨论它们的真值 .
1. 3 判断下列各命题的真值.
(1)若 2+2 =4 , 则 3 +3=6 .
(4) 若 2+2 手 4 ,则 3 十 3 手 6.
1. 4 将下列命题符号化,并讨论其真值.
(1)如果今天是 1 号,则明天是 2 号 .
(2) 如果今天是 l 号,则明天是 3 号 .
1. 5 将下列命题符号化.
(1) 2 是偶数又是素数.
(2) 小王不但聪明而且用功.
(3) 虽然天气很冷,老王还是来了.
• 32 •
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cheekbones, an arched but rather broad nose, an ordinary mouth,
somewhat thin-lipped, and a pointed and characteristic chin from
which the beard has been plucked. The same process has denuded
the upper lip, which is of good proportion. Their teeth are remarkably
white and regular, a preservation for which they account by asserting
that they never eat roast meat, but always boil their food. Perhaps
the most marked character of their faces is a curious tendency to
wrinkles, especially on the forehead, which is low, but broad and
upright. The lowness of the features may be merely an illusive
appearance, since it is overshadowed by a peculiar style of
hairdressing. With very rare exceptions the male Lolo, rich or poor,
free or subject, may be instantly known by his horn. All his hair is
gathered into a knob over his forehead, and then twisted up into a
cotton cloth, so as to resemble the horn of a unicorn. The horn with
its wrapper is sometimes a good nine inches long.” Baber mentions
slave raids made by the Lolos to capture Chinese children, whom
they usually bring up like their own children. They tattoo the slaves
on the forehead with a blue cross. Apparently it is to have a place of
safety in case of such raids that the Chinese have built towers like
the one I have sketched on the borders of Yünnan. Many of the
customs of the Lolos are peculiar and interesting, and the position of
woman is far above that enjoyed in China. The birth of a girl is more
highly esteemed than that of a boy, and a stranger introduced by a
woman Lolo has the best possible guarantee. Baber considered that
a European would be quite safe in Lololand if properly introduced
and of honest character. The most experienced and successful
travellers always seem to emphasise the importance of the latter
fact.
We were escorted by two soldiers, as usual. Our progress was
far from rapid, as the river is extremely low at this season. For the
first two days we were generally able to see to the bottom, and often
we scraped the stones if we did not actually stick fast. The men
seemed to spend nearly as much time in the river, pushing and
pulling us, as on the boat. It was a picturesque and interesting
journey, as we continually came to the dams made for irrigation
purposes. We much regretted that we were unable to visit Kwan
Hsien (thirty-six miles north of Chengtu), where the system of
irrigation of the plain can be seen at its source. As we were short of
time, and also heard that we should not see much at this time of the
year, it did not seem worth while going there. The Min River flows
from the Min Hills, and just near Kwan Hsien a cutting was made in
order to divide it into two large branches. These again were
subdivided into many others, forming a network to irrigate the whole
of the plain in which Chengtu lies. This was done by an able
governor more than 200 years b.c., and the original system, which is
still in use to-day, has turned an unproductive plain into one of great
fertility. Naturally, there have been many improvements made in the
course of centuries, and dams and dikes have been erected to
regulate the flow of water. We were able to see quite a number of
these after leaving Chengtu, and to marvel at their simple and
successful construction. They are mostly made of bamboo crates,
filled with stones, and rising about three feet above water. These are
placed in long lines, and the temporary dike is made of sand. The
channels have to be cleaned regularly, and large sums have to be
spent on repairs. The farmers pay a tax of about ½d. an acre, and, in
order to get the money in regularly, they are compelled to pay double
if it is not paid before a certain date. For about a month yearly the
river below Chengtu is closed, and there is always a great crowd of
boats at that time, both above and below the dam, waiting for the re-
opening. The opening of a big dam, such as the “Frog’s Chin,” is an
imposing ceremony, preceded by a day of worship at the temples
and the inspection of dikes. All the officials attend, and when the
sluice is opened the runners of the officials lash the water, and the
women and the children throw stones in to make the water run faster
to irrigate the fields!
HOUSE ON MIN RIVER
Throughout the plain there are many water-wheels to raise the
water to higher levels, and some also are apparently used for
grinding corn. At the close of our first day’s journey on the river there
was a great deal of loud talk when we halted for the night, added to
the tiresome beating of the drums by the night watchmen, who patrol
the towns and big villages all night long. It turned out that a man had
come to try and persuade our captain to undertake a bigger job than
ours. On being warned that the interpreter would hear what he said,
he remarked that it did not matter, as he would not be able to
understand the dialect. Mr. Ku, however, had studied the dialect
when he was at college, and thoroughly understood the plan that
was being devised. This was that we should slip down the river in the
middle of the night, while the escorts were away sleeping at the inn.
Then some story would be trumped up that the boat could not take
us any farther, and we should have been obliged to find another one.
Mr. Ku had the good sense to go ashore at once and apply to the
Yamen for a couple of soldiers to come and sleep on board, so that
there was no opportunity for the captain to undertake the new job
even if he had been willing to do so, and we had no further trouble.
Certainly, one could hardly be surprised if the captain wished to
make a little more money, for he receives about 6s. for a trip which
lasts four days, and out of this money he has to pay and feed two
other men besides feeding our two. We hear that a man can live
(without starving) on a penny a day for food, and the regular
allowance of soldiers is only 2d. per day.
We passed many picturesque villages, some built in lath and
plaster, which, at a little distance, might almost have been taken for
Cheshire villages, if it were not for the beautiful blue figures flitting
about; for blue is the universal colour of the clothing here. We were
much interested to see a large number of fishing cormorants at one
place; but unfortunately they were not at work. Very light rafts are
used for this purpose, turned up at one end, as in the sketch. We
also twice saw otters used for the same purpose. The Chinese
declared to us that the otter brings the fish up in its paws, and not in
its mouth; but they always invent an answer so glibly to your
question, whether they know the answer or not, that I should
certainly not believe the above without further corroboration. We
were surprised to see in one place that the cormorants (after diving)
were fished up to the surface in baskets very much the same shape
as the birds, and evidently made for the purpose.
OTTER FISHING ON MIN RIVER
About forty miles below Chengtu, the two main branches of the
river unite and form something more worthy of the name of river. The
branch which flows through Chengtu is called the “Walking Horse
River” at its division from the main current—a very dangerous spot
for navigation, and one where there are constant disasters. It is said
that the rafts generally carry coffins with them in consequence; and
certainly the number of those carrying coffins which passed us going
upstream gives colour to the story. It was curious to see the boats
being towed along by men walking beside them in the water
harnessed as trackers. Lower down, the river becomes deeper, and
some of the rapids look very pretty, as the water is a bluish-green
colour and the rocks are red sandstone. Sometimes the road from
the riverside leads up precipitous hills by long stone staircases. The
reflections of the common blue clothes of the people, as seen in the
river, are an exquisite turquoise colour. The scenery becomes
increasingly beautiful as one proceeds down the river. Our escort
was changed daily, and one man brought a fowling-piece on board
with which to beguile the time. He tried to shoot the wild ducks,
which are the size and colour of our tame ones, but he had not the
smallest success. We were interested to see the loading of the
weapon, which had a piece of smouldering rope finally thrust down
the barrel, preparatory to its being fired off. The gun had to be
balanced on a bundle of sticks while careful aim was taken at a very
near bird sitting quite still. Even then, the bird was in no danger, so
far as we could see, but ineffectual attempts to shoot kept the man
busy all day. The soldier wore a silver ring, of which he was
extremely proud. This had to be entrusted to the other soldier each
time that he fired his weapon. Part of the way we had police
boatmen, who spent some time in rowing, and were of material
assistance to us; but unfortunately this was only a rare occurrence.
Kiating was the first large town we reached, and here we left the
boat in order to make our expedition to Mount Omi.
CHAPTER XVII
Mount Omi
W
E reached Kiating in the morning, and set to work at once
on our preparations for the next day. The people there
considered us very extraordinary for wishing to make the
ascent at such an unusual time of year, and told us that it would be
worse than useless, for we should certainly see nothing at all from
the top. They pointed out how arduous an ascent it would be, as the
snow would make climbing extremely difficult. The weather had been
cloudy for some time, and we were in the land of mists, but nothing
would deter us from our intention. We had read discouraging
accounts of other travellers who had been up there, and it certainly
sounded as if we should find the ascent beyond our strength, but we
determined, at all events, to try. We arranged to take as little luggage
as possible, but it was necessary to take food for six days, as on the
sacred mountain there are no inns. There are plenty of monasteries,
which give you reasonable accommodation, but it was quite unlikely
we should get food there. The first day we travelled across the plain
some twenty miles to the foot of the mountain. The scenery was
pretty, but nothing remarkable was to be seen at this time of the
year. One of the principal objects of interest is the white wax tree, a
sort of ash, called by the Chinese “Pai-la-Shu.” The white wax
insects are bred in the celebrated valley of the Chien-ch’ang, some
200 miles away among the mountains. When they reach the right
stage of development they are put in paper boxes, in bamboo trays,
and brought to the plain of Kiating by the swiftest runners. These
men only travel by night, as it is essential that the process of
development should not proceed too rapidly. The boxes have to be
opened every day and ventilated, and the men secure the best
rooms in the inns, so that other travellers have much to suffer if they
are on the road at the same time. Finally, the education of the grub is
finished in the plain round Kiating.
SIGNBOARD OF INN
POLICE BOATMAN: MIN
RIVER
TIGER SHRINE
It was interesting to find on Mount Omi the two great Chinese
symbols of power, the dragon and the tiger. As Laurence Binyon puts
it: “In the superstitions of literal minds the Dragon was the genius of
the element of water, producing clouds and mists; the Tiger the
genius of the Mountains, whose roaring is heard in the wind that
shakes the forest. But in the imagination of poets and of artists these
symbols became charged with spiritual meanings, meanings which
we should regard as fluid rather than fixed, and of imports varying
with the dominant conceptions of particular epochs. In the Dragon is
made visible the power of the spirit, the power of the infinite, the
power of change; in the Tiger the power of material forces.”
It is worthy of note that the Buddhists selected mountains
already sacred, where they might establish themselves and form
Buddhist sanctuaries. They tolerated the gods in possession, so that
they still continue to be worshipped simultaneously with the Buddha.
The mixing up of religions is seen everywhere in China, but nowhere
did we notice it so grotesquely carried out as here. We counted no
fewer than twelve tiger shrines on the way up the mountain, many of
them with vivacious beasts half out of their shrines, as if they were
tired of their rôle and were meditating a raid on their worshippers. In
the evening the Abbot had prepared a feast for us, but we declined
it, so he sent in a tray of nuts and sweets instead.
The following morning we set off betimes on foot, and very soon
the coolies left the carrying-poles behind, and were obliged to carry
our chairs on their backs. Soon the steps became almost continuous
and increasingly slippery. The longest flight was over 1200 steps,
and as the steps sloped downwards and were covered with ice the
ascent was most fatiguing and toilsome. The day was grey and
cloudy, but the shifting mists revealed crags and abysses, and all
along our path there was a wealth of lovely shrubs—camellias,
rhododendrons, bamboos, and ferns. The frost had coated
everything, and the leaves were reproduced in ice, looking exactly
like clear glass; sprays of dead blossom, tall grasses, delicate ferns,
everything was duplicated in ice, and the slight thaw early in the day
detached this ice from the vegetation. We were sorry not to see in
full beauty the flowers and ferns for which Mount Omi is justly
celebrated, but it would have been impossible to conceive anything
lovelier than what we did see.
Our midday halt at a monastery was provokingly long, as the
men’s food had to be cooked, so that we did not start for a couple of
hours. The sight of fowls here was a pleasant surprise to us, as the
Buddhists obviously could have no use for them and our larder
needed replenishing. We secured some eggs, and asked for a fowl
also. When we came to pay for it, however, the monks said that they
did not sell anything. If we liked to put our names down on their
subscription list (which a monk forthwith produced) for the restoration
of the monastery, we should be welcome to a fowl as a gift, not
otherwise. We set out again, and found our way grow more and
more precipitous and slippery. We met Tibetan pilgrims, a wild and
fierce-looking company, toiling painfully upwards like ourselves, or
slithering down. All these are welcomed and entertained in the
monasteries. Our soldier escort was evidently very much afraid of
them, and had a great deal to say of their evil doings, warning us to
keep close together and close to himself. As I approached a group of
pilgrims in one of the monasteries, in order to watch a man blowing
up his fire with a goatskin bellows, one of them scowled at me and
waved me away, as if he feared our sharing his thieving propensities.
This is the season for Tibetan pilgrims, and many of them had
travelled far, bringing their beasts of burden with them. The Chinese
pilgrims come in the spring, and there was a big pilgrimage ten years
ago—so a monk told us. The air grew intensely cold and dense, and,
as twilight fell, our men urged us to halt about two miles short of the
summit, where there was a good monastery. To this we willingly
agreed, the more so as my breathing had grown extremely difficult,
and I was beginning to feel at the end of my strength. Our lofty room
was clean and well built, and the ten beds around it all stood empty.
Soon a large glowing brazier was brought in, and we were thankful
not only to get warm, but also to dry our clothes, which were heavy
with mist.
Mount Omi is 11,000 feet high, and Kiating is only 1200, so we
had come into a wholly different temperature, and when we woke in
the morning it was to find everything frozen hard—sponges like
boards, oranges as hard as bullets, and the water in my sketching-
bottle a lump of ice. But the sun was shining brilliantly, and the
mountain-top was a dazzling vision of loveliness emerging from a
vast ocean of clouds. It took us about an hour to arrive at the
summit, and the priest told us that as the sun shone we were
evidently good people. This was highly satisfactory, as so many
people thought us fools for attempting the ascent at this time of year,
telling us of all the people who had toiled to the top and seen
nothing. We anxiously inquired at what time of day we could see
“Buddha’s Glory,” a sort of Brocken spectre which is rarely seen by
travellers, and which we were told could not be seen at all at this
time of year. Standing on the edge of the summit, you look down a
precipice of more than a mile, and we could only feast our eyes on
the ever-changing scene, the clouds looking as if they were boiling
up from some hidden caldron, now concealing, now revealing the
peaks of distant mountains. On a clear day the far-distant snowy
peaks of Tibet are visible, and the glorious fertile plain out of which
the limestone peak of Mount Omi rises.
SUMMIT OF MOUNT OMI
I established myself in a sunny nook under the temple eaves,
and sent for hot water with which to sketch the neighbouring crag of
the “10,000 Buddhas.” After lunch I sketched the interior of the
Buddha shrine with all its gaudy, squalid trappings, a harmony in
reds. I was amazed to see the brevity of the worshippers’ prayers;
owing, I think, to their fear of my introducing them into the sketch.
The three figures of the Buddha were behind a large red curtain, in
which were openings through which they could be dimly discerned.
We went back to our former quarters for the night, but had very little
rest, as the coolies went in for a night of revelry, in which we felt sure
the monks shared, although our suggestion to that effect next day
was vehemently repudiated. The descent of the mountain we found
extremely arduous, despite our being shod with straw sandals and
having the support of our pilgrim sticks; it was dreadfully slippery,
and for six and a half hours we toiled steadily down flights of steps,
or glissaded down them on our backs. We calculated the distance as
not much less than twelve miles. The stiffness produced was not
quite so bad as I had anticipated, but it makes you feel extremely
foolish to have to watch each step you take in order to be sure that
your feet are obeying your bidding. Then you see the coolies pick up
the chairs and carry you for another three hours after you are dead
beat as if they had done nothing. We spent the night at a clean new
inn about three miles from the town of Omi, and for the first time we
occupied an upstairs bedroom in a Chinese house. After this
occasion we always used to try and secure one, but our stiffness
then made it extremely painful to get up the steep staircase. It was
like mounting into a loft, and was a very pleasant variety from any
inn we had yet encountered.
The following morning we made an early start, so as to have a
little time in Kiating to collect our belongings and go on board a boat
to take us to Sui Fu. Our temper was sorely tried by the delay of our
men and the changing of some of them at Omi Hsien, which delayed
us about an hour. By dint of offering extra pay, however, we made up
some time, and came upon an interesting sight to beguile us on the
way—namely, cormorants and an otter fishing. When we got to the
Tong River—the third river that we saw at the base of the mountain
—we were rowed down to Kiating, a distance of some four miles. We