Failure of Concrete Slab

(Causes and Presentations)

By

Hussein Qahtan
 List of Contents
1. Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
2. Types of Concrete Slabs .................................................................. 1
2.1 Flat Slabs ................................................................................... 1
2.1.1 Types of Failures ................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Signs of Failure: .................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Prevention Measures: ............................................................ 4
2.2 Ribbed Slabs: ............................................................................ 4
2.2.1 Types of Failures: .................................................................. 6
2.2.2 Signs of Failure: .................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Prevention Measures: ............................................................ 7
2.3 Waffle Slabs: ............................................................................. 8
2.3.1 Types of Failures: .................................................................. 9
2.3.2 Signs of Failure: .................................................................. 10
2.3.3 Prevention Measures: .......................................................... 10
3. Signs and presentations of problem only the surface facing ........... 11
3.1 Blisters .................................................................................... 11
3.1.1 To prevent blisters, it is crucial to: ...................................... 12
3.2 Cracking .................................................................................. 13
3.3 Crazing .................................................................................... 16
3.4 Curling .................................................................................... 17
3.5 Delamination ........................................................................... 20
3.6 Discoloration ........................................................................... 22
3.7 Dusting .................................................................................... 23
3.8 Efflorescence ........................................................................... 24
3.9 Low spots ................................................................................ 26
3.10 Pop outs................................................................................... 27
3.11 Scaling and mortar flaking ...................................................... 29
3.12 Spalling ................................................................................... 31
3.13 Thin toppings and underlayments ............................................ 32
4. Conclusion .................................................................................... 33
5. Recommendations ......................................................................... 34
6. References ..................................................................................... 36
 List of Figures

Figure 1 Flat slabs .............................................................................................. 2

Figure 2 Ribbed slabs......................................................................................... 5
Figure 3 Waffle slabs ......................................................................................... 9
Figure 4 Blisters are surface bumps that may range in size from 5 mm to 100 mm
(1/4 in. to 4 in.) in diameter with a depth of about 3 mm (1/8 in.). Inset photo
cross section illustrates a void .......................................................................... 13
Figure 5 Drying-shrinkage cracks like these often result from improper joint
spacing. (A5271).............................................................................................. 16
Figure 6 Crazing is a network of fine surface cracks. ....................................... 17
Figure 7 Curling ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 8 Delamination ..................................................................................... 21
Figure 9 Discoloration ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 10 Dusting ............................................................................................ 24
Figure 11 Efflorescence ................................................................................... 25
Figure 12 Low spots ........................................................................................ 26
Figure 13 Popouts ............................................................................................ 29
Figure 14 Scaling and mortar flaking ............................................................... 30
Figure 15 Spalling ............................................................................................ 31
Figure 16 Thin toppings and underlayments .................................................... 32
1. Introduction
In the realm of construction, concrete stands as a stalwart, typically
garnering minimal complaints despite its widespread use. Yet, ensuring that the
hardened concrete meets its intended purpose demands meticulous attention
throughout the construction process. When flaws manifest on the concrete slab
surface, they often manifest as blisters, cracks, crazing, curling, delamination,
discoloration, dusting, efflorescence, low spots, pop outs, scaling, or spalling.
This report delves into the causes behind these defects and offers insights into
prevention and repair, emphasizing the importance of adhering to rigorous
construction standards.

Concrete slabs are crucial components in construction, providing support

and stability to structures. However, various types of concrete slabs are
susceptible to different failure mechanisms. Understanding these failures, their
causes, and treatments is essential for ensuring the longevity and safety of
buildings and infrastructure.

2. Types of Concrete Slabs

2.1 Flat Slabs
Flat slabs represent a simplified yet versatile structural system in
construction, characterized by their direct support on columns without the use of
beams or girders underneath. This design facilitates a streamlined construction
process and offers flexibility in architectural layouts. However, flat slabs are
susceptible to a specific failure mechanism known as punching shear, where
concentrated loads at column-slab connections exceed the slab's capacity, leading
to localized failure. To mitigate this risk, engineers typically incorporate
additional reinforcement in the slab or utilize post-tensioning techniques. Despite
their advantages in construction efficiency and design flexibility, flat slabs have
limitations, including relatively lower span capability compared to other types of

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slabs and vulnerability to punching shear failure. Adherence to industry standards
such as ACI 318 and Eurocode 2 is crucial to ensure proper design and
construction of flat slabs, which find extensive use in various applications
including commercial buildings, parking structures, and industrial facilities.

Figure 1 Flat slabs

2.1.1 Types of Failures
2.1.1.1 Punching Shear Failure:
• Description: Punching shear failure occurs when the concentrated load at
the column-slab junction exceeds the capacity of the slab to resist it, resulting in
the formation of a shear cone and localized failure.

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• Causes: Inadequate reinforcement around columns, excessive loading,
improper design of column-slab connection.
• Signs: Cracks around column-slab junctions, spalling or crushing of
concrete at the corners of columns.
• Prevention: Increase slab thickness near columns, provide additional shear
reinforcement such as shear studs or stirrups, ensure proper detailing of column-
slab connection.

2.1.1.2 Flexural Cracking:

• Description: Flexural cracking occurs due to bending moments induced by
loads, resulting in cracks along the span of the slab.
• Causes: Inadequate reinforcement, excessive deflection, differential
settlement of supports.
• Signs: Visible cracks along the length of the slab, especially in areas of
high bending moments.
• Prevention: Proper reinforcement detailing, control of deflection through
adequate design and construction practices, ensure uniform support conditions.

2.1.1.3 Shear Cracking:

• Description: Shear cracking occurs due to the shear stresses induced by
applied loads, resulting in diagonal cracks in the slab.
• Causes: Insufficient shear reinforcement, high shear forces, inadequate
design consideration for punching shear.
• Signs: Diagonal cracks in the slab, often radiating from the corners of
columns.
• Prevention: Provide adequate shear reinforcement, ensure proper
distribution of loads to prevent localized high shear forces, enhance column-slab
connection detailing.

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2.1.2 Signs of Failure:
• Cracks: Visible cracks in the slab, particularly around column-slab
junctions or along the span of the slab.
• Spalling: Loss of concrete at the corners of columns due to punching shear
failure.
• Uneven Settlement: Differential settlement between supports, leading to
unevenness in the slab surface.

2.1.3 Prevention Measures:

• Proper Design: Ensure that flat slabs are designed to withstand expected
loads, considering factors such as live loads, dead loads, and dynamic loads.
• Reinforcement Detailing: Adequately reinforce the slab to resist bending,
shear, and punching shear forces, following design codes and standards.
• Construction Quality Control: Implement strict quality control measures
during construction to ensure proper placement of reinforcement, adequate
concrete cover, and correct implementation of column-slab connections.
• Regular Inspection and Maintenance: Conduct regular inspections of flat
slabs to identify early signs of distress or deterioration and undertake timely
maintenance measures to prevent failures.

2.2 Ribbed Slabs:

Ribbed slabs are characterized by their grid-like pattern of ribs between
columns, which reduce the amount of concrete required and provide a lighter
structural system. This design feature offers benefits such as improved span-to-
depth ratio and reduced material usage, making ribbed slabs particularly suitable
for residential and commercial buildings. However, they are prone to specific
failure mechanisms, including cracking due to shrinkage and inadequate support
beneath the ribs, which can lead to excessive deflection. To address these
challenges, proper curing methods and additional support provisions are essential
during construction. Despite the advantages offered by ribbed slabs, such as
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reduced construction costs and improved structural efficiency, their complexity
in formwork design and installation poses challenges, requiring adherence to
standards like BS 8110 and ACI 318 to ensure structural integrity and
performance.

Figure 2 Ribbed slabs

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2.2.1 Types of Failures:
2.2.1.1 Cracking
Description: Cracking in ribbed slabs can occur due to various reasons,
including shrinkage, thermal effects, and inadequate support conditions.

Causes: Insufficient reinforcement, inadequate curing, temperature

differentials, differential settlement.

Signs: Visible cracks along the ribs or at the intersections between ribs and
slab panels.

Prevention: Proper reinforcement detailing to control cracking, adequate

curing practices, provision of uniform support conditions, control of temperature
differentials.

2.2.1.2 Excessive Deflection:

Description: Excessive deflection refers to excessive downward
displacement of the slab under applied loads, which can affect serviceability and
structural performance.

Causes: Inadequate design considerations, insufficient reinforcement,

inadequate support conditions.

Signs: Excessive sagging of the slab between supports, visible signs of

distress in the form of cracking or deformation.

Prevention: Proper design to ensure adequate stiffness and strength,

provision of sufficient reinforcement to resist deflection, careful consideration of
support conditions during design and construction.

2.2.1.3 Void Formwork Failure:

Description: Ribbed slabs often incorporate void formwork to reduce
weight and improve efficiency. Failure of void formwork can compromise the
structural integrity of the slab.

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 Causes: Improper installation or failure of void formwork, inadequate
support conditions, construction errors.

Signs: Visible signs of void formwork displacement or failure, cracking or

deformation of the slab.

Prevention: Proper installation of void formwork according to

manufacturer specifications, careful construction practices to prevent damage to
void formwork during concrete placement, adequate support conditions during
construction.

2.2.2 Signs of Failure:

Cracks: Visible cracks along the ribs or at the intersections between ribs
and slab panels.

Excessive Deflection: Excessive sagging of the slab between supports,

affecting serviceability and structural performance.

Void Formwork Displacement: Visible signs of void formwork

displacement or failure, indicating potential structural issues.

2.2.3 Prevention Measures:

Proper Reinforcement Detailing: Ensure proper reinforcement detailing
to control cracking and resist deflection under applied loads.

Adequate Construction Practices: Implement quality control measures

during construction to ensure proper installation of void formwork, adequate
support conditions, and proper curing of concrete.

Structural Analysis: Conduct thorough structural analysis during design

to ensure adequate stiffness and strength to resist deflection and other failure
mechanisms.

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 Regular Inspection and Maintenance: Regular inspections of ribbed slabs
to identify early signs of distress or deterioration and undertake timely
maintenance measures to prevent failures.

2.3 Waffle Slabs:

Waffle slabs are innovative structural systems featuring a grid-like pattern
of ribs and voids underneath the slab, resulting in reduced dead load and increased
stiffness compared to conventional flat slabs. This design offers benefits such as
improved structural efficiency and enhanced architectural aesthetics, making
waffle slabs a popular choice for high-rise buildings and industrial structures.
However, they are susceptible to specific failure mechanisms, such as failure of
void formwork and cracking due to inadequate support or construction
deficiencies. To mitigate these risks, proper installation of void formwork and
provision of additional support are critical during construction. Despite their
advantages, waffle slabs present challenges such as complex formwork
requirements and potential void formwork failure, necessitating adherence to
standards like AS 3600 and Eurocode 2 to ensure structural reliability and safety.

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 Figure 3 Waffle slabs
2.3.1 Types of Failures:
2.3.1.1 Void Formwork Failure:
• Description: Waffle slabs incorporate voids underneath the slab to reduce
weight and increase stiffness. Failure of void formwork can compromise the
structural integrity of the slab.
• Causes: Improper installation, inadequate support conditions, construction
errors.
• Signs: Visible signs of void formwork displacement or failure, cracking or
deformation of the slab.
• Prevention: Proper installation of void formwork according to
manufacturer specifications, careful construction practices to prevent damage to
void formwork during concrete placement, adequate support conditions during
construction.

2.3.1.2 Cracking
• Description: Cracking in waffle slabs can occur due to various reasons,
including shrinkage, thermal effects, and inadequate support conditions.
• Causes: Insufficient reinforcement, inadequate curing, temperature
differentials, differential settlement.

9
• Signs: Visible cracks on the slab surface or at the intersections between
ribs and slab panels.
• Prevention: Proper reinforcement detailing to control cracking, adequate
curing practices, provision of uniform support conditions, control of temperature
differentials.

2.3.1.3 Shear Failure:

• Description: Shear failure in waffle slabs can occur due to inadequate
shear reinforcement or excessive shear forces applied to the slab.
• Causes: Insufficient shear reinforcement, high shear forces.
• Signs: Diagonal cracks in the slab, especially radiating from the corners of
voids or ribs.
• Prevention: Adequate provision of shear reinforcement such as shear studs
or stirrups, proper distribution of loads to prevent localized high shear forces.

2.3.2 Signs of Failure:

• Void Formwork Displacement: Visible signs of void formwork
displacement or failure, indicating potential structural issues.
• Cracks: Visible cracks on the slab surface or at the intersections between
ribs and slab panels.
• Shear Cracks: Diagonal cracks in the slab, especially radiating from the
corners of voids or ribs.

2.3.3 Prevention Measures:

• Proper Void Formwork Installation: Ensure proper installation of void
formwork according to manufacturer specifications, with adequate support
conditions.
• Reinforcement Detailing: Proper reinforcement detailing to control
cracking and resist shear forces.

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• Adequate Construction Practices: Implement quality control measures
during construction to prevent damage to void formwork, ensure proper
reinforcement placement, and adequate support conditions.
• Regular Inspection and Maintenance: Regular inspections of waffle
slabs to identify early signs of distress or deterioration and undertake timely
maintenance measures to prevent failures.

3. Signs and presentations of problem only the surface facing

3.1 Blisters
Blisters, those unwelcome protrusions on the surface of concrete slabs,
often arise during finishing operations, causing frustration among construction
professionals. These bumps, varying in size, stem from the entrapment of air or
water bubbles beneath a sealed surface, occurring typically during early concrete
setting. Seasoned concrete finishers attribute blistering to three primary factors:

Excessive entrapped air: Concrete mixes holding a surplus of entrapped

air, particularly due to an abundance of fine materials passing through sieves,
create a sticky consistency prone to crusting. This can lead to the entrapment of
air during finishing. Adjusting the mix by reducing sand content (60 to 120 kg
per cubic meter) and substituting with coarse aggregate of the smallest size can
alleviate this issue. Finishing techniques may also need modification on windy
days to prevent surface crusting.

Inadequate or excessive vibration: Insufficient compaction vibration

fails to release entrapped air adequately, while excessive vibration can result in
an excess of fines at the surface, promoting premature crusting and finishing.

Finishing premature concrete: Finishing when the concrete is still

spongy can exacerbate blister formation. The compaction and finishing tools push
entrapped air towards the surface, potentially forming blisters during subsequent
passes. Delayed troweling and additional floating can help mitigate blistering.
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3.1.1 To prevent blisters, it is crucial to:
• Control concrete properties: Avoid concrete with high slump, excessive
air content, or excess fines.
• Ensure appropriate cement content: Cement content should typically
fall within the range of 305 to 335 kg/m3 (515 to 565 lb/yd3).
• Warm the subgrade: During cold weather, pre-heating the subgrade
before concrete placement can prevent temperature differentials that may lead to
blistering.
• Proper subgrade preparation: Avoid placing slabs directly on
polyethylene film or other vapor barriers. Instead, utilize a 100-mm (4-in.) layer
of compactible, drainable fill, such as "crusher run" material graded from 38 mm
to 50 mm (1-1/2 in. to 2 in.) down to rock dust. This prevents moisture entrapment
and promotes proper drainage.
• Avoid overworking: Excessive use of vibrating screeds, jitterbugs, or
bullfloats can cause aggregate settling and water bleeding. Proper vibration
techniques should be employed to release entrapped air without overworking the
concrete.
• Timing of finishing: Wait until the concrete is adequately cured before
sealing the surface. Use wood bullfloats for non-air-entrained concrete and
magnesium or aluminum tools for air-entrained concrete to prevent premature
sealing.
• Use proper finishing techniques: Employ flat floating and flat troweling
methods, with hand floating initiated when a 5-mm (1/4-in.) imprint is made by
a person standing on the slab (3-mm or 1/8-in. for machine floating). Proper
lighting during finishing operations is also crucial for quality control.
• Reduce evaporation: Minimize evaporation over the slab surface by using
a fog spray or slab cover, particularly in hot and dry conditions.
• Control air content: Limit air content to below 3% for interior slabs to
avoid excessive entrapped air that may contribute to blister formation.
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 Figure 4 Blisters are surface bumps that may range in size from 5 mm to
100 mm (1/4 in. to 4 in.) in diameter with a depth of about 3 mm (1/8 in.). Inset
photo cross section illustrates a void
3.2 Cracking
Cracking in concrete is a common concern that often leads to complaints,
arising from various factors such as drying shrinkage, thermal contraction,
restraint to shortening, subgrade settlement, and applied loads. Understanding the
causes and implementing preventive measures can significantly mitigate cracking
issues. For instance, incorporating joints in the design and construction phases
directs cracks to inconspicuous locations.

Cracks that occur before hardening typically result from settlement within
the concrete mass or surface shrinkage caused by rapid water loss during the

13
plastic stage. Settlement cracks may form over embedded items or adjacent to
forms due to insufficient consolidation or excessive slump. Plastic-shrinkage
cracks, on the other hand, are short and can develop before final finishing under
conditions of high wind, low humidity, and high temperature.

Cracks appearing after hardening are often due to drying shrinkage,

thermal contraction, or subgrade settlement. To accommodate drying shrinkage
and control crack locations, joints are strategically placed at regular intervals.

The water content of concrete significantly influences its drying-shrinkage

properties. Increased water content, fine sand, or high-shrinkage aggregates can
elevate shrinkage. Silica fume concrete, for instance, is prone to plastic-shrinkage
cracking under specific conditions.

Thermal expansion and contraction, insufficiently compacted subgrades,

or overloading can also contribute to cracking. Adhering to proper subgrade
preparation, minimizing mix water content, providing adequate support, and
controlling temperature changes are essential practices to mitigate cracking.

Preventive measures include proper placement, consolidation, finishing,

and curing of concrete, as well as the use of low water content mixes and
shrinkage-reducing admixtures. Additionally, synthetic fibers and appropriate
joint spacing can help control cracking. Cracks resulting from freezing and
thawing, alkali-aggregate reactivity, sulfate attack, or corrosion of reinforcing
steel may appear over time. However, selecting suitable materials and employing
proper mix design can minimize or eliminate these issues.

Cracking in concrete can be reduced significantly or eliminated by

observing the following practices:

• Use proper subgrade preparation, including uniform support and proper

subbase material at adequate moisture content.

14
• Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of
coarse aggregate and use low-shrinkage aggregate.
• Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit
overly wet consistencies.
• Avoid calcium chloride admixtures.
• Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic
through use of spray-applied finishing aids or plas- tic sheets to avoid plastic-
shrinkage cracks.
• Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the slab
thickness.
• Provide isolation joints to prevent restraint from adjoining ele- ments of a
structure.
• Prevent extreme changes in temperature.
• To minimize cracking on top of vapor barriers, use a 100-mm- thick (4-in.)
layer of slightly damp, compactible, drainable fill choked off with fine-grade
material. If concrete must be placed directly on polyethylene sheet or other vapor
barriers,
• placed directly on polyethylene sheet or other vapor barriers, use a mix
with a low water content.
• Properly place, consolidate, finish, and cure the concrete.
• Avoid using excessive amounts of cementitious materials.
• Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture to reduce drying
shrinkage, which may reduce shrinkage cracking.
• Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrink- age cracks.

For comprehensive guidance on crack prevention and concrete

deterioration, references such as "Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,
EB001" and "Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete,
IS413" provide valuable insights.

15
 Figure 5 Drying-shrinkage cracks like these often result from improper
joint spacing. (A5271)
3.3 Crazing
Crazing, characterized by a network pattern of fine cracks confined mostly
to the surface layer, arises from minor surface shrinkage. These cracks, often
barely perceptible except when the concrete surface undergoes drying after being
wet, form intricate patterns resembling chicken wire, with individual areas
typically less than 50 mm (2 in.) in size. Occasionally, the term "map cracking"
is employed to describe similar cracks that are more visible and encompass larger
concrete areas. While crazing cracks may mar the appearance of concrete and
gather dirt, they are typically not structurally concerning and do not typically
signal future deterioration.

During the initial stages of concrete strength development, environmental

factors, especially relative humidity during drying cycles, play a crucial role in
causing crazing. Low humidity, high air temperature, intense sunlight, or drying
winds—alone or in combination—can expedite surface drying, thus promoting
16
crazing. Surfaces treated with dry cement for accelerated drying and finishing are
particularly susceptible to crazing. Conditions conducive to dusting, as outlined
below, also heighten the risk of crazing.

Preventing crazing necessitates prompt initiation of curing procedures,

typically within minutes after final finishing, especially under adverse weather
conditions. In instances of high temperatures and sunlight exposure, employing
water curing methods becomes imperative to impede rapid surface drying and
reduce surface temperature. Whenever possible, concrete should be shielded from
abrupt fluctuations in temperature and moisture levels to deter crazing.

Figure 6 Crazing is a network of fine surface cracks.

3.4 Curling
Curling, characterized by the upward distortion of a concrete slab's corners
and edges, results from variations in moisture content or temperature between the
top and bottom layers of the slab. Typically, the top surface dries out or cools
faster, causing more shrinkage compared to the wetter or warmer bottom layer.
Excessive curling, if subjected to loads beyond the concrete's flexural strength,
may lead to crack formation as a stress-relieving mechanism. Several strategies
can mitigate curling:
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• Use of low-shrinkage concrete mix: Opt for concrete mixes with reduced
shrinkage properties.
• Proper control-joint spacing: Employ appropriate control joints as
outlined in crack prevention measures.
• Uniform moisture content and temperature: Ensure even distribution of
moisture and temperature throughout the slab.
• Incorporation of large amounts of reinforcing steel: Place reinforcing
steel deeper into the slab, approximately 50 mm (2 in.) below the surface.
• Thickened slab edges: Increase the thickness of slab edges to resist
curling.
• Specialized techniques: Implement vacuum dewatering, shrinkage-
compensating concrete, or post-tensioning methods.

Reducing shrinkage in concrete mixes involves various approaches:

• Low water content: Minimize water content to reduce shrinkage.

• Optimal aggregate proportions: Maximize coarse aggregate content
while minimizing sand content.
• Use of low-shrinkage aggregates: Utilize well-graded aggregates of the
largest practical size.
• Avoidance of shrinkage-inducing admixtures: Refrain from using
calcium chloride or similar admixtures that may increase shrinkage.
• Control of concrete temperature: Keep the temperature of fresh concrete
low to mitigate shrinkage.

Moreover, shrinkage-reducing admixtures can effectively minimize drying

shrinkage, especially with extended curing periods and low water-cementitious
materials ratios.

Stabilizing moisture content is crucial:

18
• Proper curing: Apply suitable curing compounds to slow down moisture
loss.
• Moisture-insensitive sealers: Use breathable sealers or coatings on slab
surfaces to prevent moisture-related issues like delamination.
• Well-drained fill: Utilize coarse granular fill instead of vapor barriers to
maintain adequate moisture balance.

Temperature control measures such as insulation and ambient air

temperature regulation can also help mitigate curling.

In cases where curling persists, corrective actions like ponding the slab to
level it and introducing additional control joints may be necessary. Grinding and
injection of Portland cement grout to fill voids and restore bearing in uplifted
portions are additional techniques that can restore serviceability.

Figure 7 Curling

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3.5 Delamination
Delamination, akin to blisters, occurs when surface mortar separates due
to trapped bleed water and air beneath prematurely densified mortar layers. This
typically arises from surface finishing before adequate bleeding has transpired.
Delaminations are more prone to develop under conditions where factors prolong
bleeding time (e.g., cold substrates) while accelerating surface setting (e.g., high
ambient temperatures).

Allowing sufficient time after concrete placement for air and water to
escape is imperative. Detection during finishing is challenging, with
delaminations becoming evident only after the concrete surface dries and the
affected area succumbs to traffic-induced pressure. Delaminated mortar thickness
usually ranges from 3 mm to 5 mm (1/8 in. to 1/4 in.). To prevent delaminations,
refer to the recommendations outlined in the section on blisters.

Additionally, delaminations may stem from disruptive stresses caused by

chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement or poorly bonded areas in two-
course construction. These delaminations, deeper than those due to trapped air or
bleed water, are often termed spalls.

Identifying delaminated areas can be accomplished through sounding

techniques such as dragging a chain across the surface or tapping with a hammer,
discerning hollow sounds for delaminated areas and ringing sounds for intact
ones. ASTM D 4580 outlines the standard practice for measuring delaminations
in concrete bridge decks by sounding. Alternative methods include acoustic
impact, infrared thermography, and ground-penetrating radar.

Repairing delaminations involves patching or, for widespread occurrences,

grinding and overlaying with a new surface. Epoxy injection may offer benefits
in certain scenarios.

20
Figure 8 Delamination

21
3.6 Discoloration

Surface discoloration in concrete flatwork can manifest as pronounced

color changes across large areas, spotted or mottled blotches, or early
efflorescence. Various factors contribute to discoloration, including calcium
chloride admixtures, cement alkalies, hard-troweled surfaces, inadequate curing,
wet substrates, water-cement ratio variation, and changes in the concrete mix.
Discoloration can occur soon after concrete placement or at later stages due to
atmospheric or organic staining.

Preventive measures include avoiding calcium chloride admixtures,

ensuring consistent concrete ingredients, and adhering to proper concreting
practices. Remedial actions involve immediate flushing with water, followed by
acid washing or treatments with chemicals like diammonium citrate. Staining
with chemical stains can mask color variations effectively. However, certain rare
discolorations, ranging from buff to red/orange, pose challenges, especially under
high humidity and temperature conditions. These stains may require specialized
removal methods and careful curing practices to prevent recurrence.

Figure 9 Discoloration
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3.7 Dusting
Dusting, characterized by the formation of a fine, powdery material that
easily rubs off the surface of hardened concrete, can occur indoors or outdoors
but is more problematic indoors. It stems from the presence of a thin, weak layer
called laitance, consisting of water, cement, and fine particles.

Fresh concrete undergoes a period where cement and water react to develop
hardness. During this phase, the heavier cement and aggregate particles tend to
sink while displaced water moves upward, resulting in an excess of water near
the surface. Floating and troweling concrete with bleed water further weakens its
strength and wear resistance, contributing to dusting.

Several factors can lead to dusting, including water application during

finishing, exposure to rain, spreading dry cement, low cement content, excessive
water content, improper curing (especially rapid surface drying), carbonation
during winter concreting, freezing of the surface, and dirty aggregate.

Heated enclosures used to protect concrete in freezing temperatures should

be carefully managed to prevent rapid surface drying and carbonation, which can
lead to dusting. Carbon dioxide-producing heaters should be avoided during
concrete placement, finishing, and the initial curing period unless properly
vented.

Corrective measures for dusting include grinding off the thin layer of
laitance or applying a surface hardener containing ingredients like sodium silicate
or metallic silicofluorides. These treatments improve wearability and reduce
dusting but cannot transform a fundamentally flawed concrete slab.

For further details, Concrete Floors on Ground, EB075, provides

comprehensive information on floor-surface hardeners and their application.

23
 Figure 10 Dusting

3.8 Efflorescence
Efflorescence, a form of discoloration, manifests as a white deposit on the
surface of concrete, often emerging shortly after construction. Despite its
unattractive appearance, efflorescence is generally harmless, although excessive
deposits can disrupt the surface.

The phenomenon arises from soluble salts within the concrete, moisture to
dissolve these salts, and evaporation or hydraulic pressure that moves the solution
to the surface. Water within moist concrete dissolves soluble salts, which migrate
to the surface through evaporation or pressure, leaving behind a salt deposit.
Efflorescence is influenced by temperature, humidity, and wind, with slower
evaporation rates in winter typically leading to more occurrences.

All concrete materials are susceptible to efflorescence, with even small

amounts of water-soluble salts capable of causing it when concentrated at the
surface. Various salts, including carbonates and sulfates, contribute to
efflorescence. To mitigate soluble salts:

24
• Use washed sand meeting ASTM C 33 or CSA A23.1 standards.
• Employ clean mixing water devoid of harmful substances.

Low moisture absorption is key to preventing efflorescence, achievable

through proper aggregate grading, adequate cement content, a low water-cement
ratio, and thorough curing.

To address efflorescence, identify and address moisture sources.

Efflorescence can be removed through dry brushing, water rinsing with brushing,
light waterblasting, or sandblasting, followed by flushing with clean water. In
stubborn cases, a dilute muriatic acid solution can be used, with caution to prevent
surface damage, especially for integrally colored concrete. Always pretest
treatments on inconspicuous areas and dampen concrete surfaces before applying
acid. Rinse thoroughly after treatment, ensuring the entire element is treated
uniformly.

For painted surfaces, thorough rinsing and drying are necessary before
painting. For further details, refer to "Efflorescence: Causes, Prevention, Repair,"
Concrete Technology Today, PL871.

Figure 11 Efflorescence

25
3.9 Low spots
Low spots in concrete slabs can pose drainage issues or affect the usability
of the surface, especially when items placed on the slab require a level surface.
These low spots commonly stem from poor lighting during placement and
finishing, inaccurately set forms and screeds, damage to grade settings, the use of
overly wet concrete, or subpar placement and finishing techniques.

To prevent low spots, consider the following measures:

• Utilize a low-slump, low-water-content concrete mix to minimize the risk

of excessive settling.
• Ensure adequate lighting during placement and finishing to accurately
identify and address any potential low areas.
• Regularly inspect and maintain grades and levels throughout the
construction process, promptly filling any low spots that may arise.
• Employ a vibrating screed for strikeoff to achieve a more uniform surface
level.
• Opt for a "highway" straightedge instead of a bullfloat to effectively
smooth and straighten the surface, reducing the likelihood of low spots.

Figure 12 Low spots

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3.10 Pop outs
Popouts are cone-shaped fragments that break out from the surface of
concrete, leaving behind holes ranging in size from 5 mm to 50 mm (1/4 in. to 2
in.), though occasionally reaching up to 300 mm (1 ft) in diameter. Typically,
these holes contain a fractured aggregate particle at the bottom, with some of the
aggregate still attached to the point of the popout cone.

The main cause of popouts is porous rock with high absorption rates and
relatively low specific gravity. When such aggregate absorbs moisture or freezes
under damp conditions, its expansion generates internal pressure that ruptures the
concrete surface. Materials like pyrite, hard-burned dolomite, coal, shale, soft
fine-grained limestone, or chert are common culprits. Popouts often manifest
within the first year after placement, although those triggered by alkali-silica
reactivity (ASR) may appear within hours, weeks, or even a year later. Moisture-
induced swelling can also prompt popouts shortly after placement or following
exposure to seasons of high humidity, rainfall, or freezing temperatures.

While popouts are primarily cosmetic and typically do not compromise the
concrete's service life, minimizing or preventing them is preferable. To achieve
this:

• Use concrete with minimal water content and slump appropriate for the
task.
• Opt for durable crushed-stone or beneficiated-aggregate concrete.
• In hot, dry, and windy conditions, cover the surface with plastic sheets after
screeding and bullfloating to mitigate evaporation before final finishing, reducing
the migration of alkalies to the surface and thus curbing ASR-related popouts.
• Avoid finishing concrete with bleed water on the surface.
• Minimize hard-steel troweling, especially on exterior slabs, unless
necessary.

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• Utilize wet-curing methods like continuous sprinkling with water, fogging,
ponding, or covering with wet burlap shortly after final finishing. Ensure a
minimum wet-curing period of 7 days, as these methods can significantly
diminish or eliminate popouts triggered by ASR. Avoid plastic film, curing paper,
and curing compounds, as they can lead to an accumulation of alkalies at the
surface. Flush out curing water from the surface before allowing final drying.
Avoid impervious floor coverings or membranes, as they may exacerbate popout
development.
• Employ a blended cement or a supplementary cementitious material like
fly ash (known to control ASR) in cases where popouts stem from alkali-silica
reactivity. The use of low-alkali cement can also be beneficial.
• Consider two-course construction, using clean, sound rock in the topping
and placing the offending aggregates in the base slab. This approach limits the
exposure of susceptible aggregates to excess moisture.
• Ensure the slab surface is sloped to facilitate proper water drainage.
• Opt for air-entrained concrete to enhance durability and minimize the risk
of popouts.
• Reduce concrete temperature to a range of 10°C to 20°C (50°F to 70°F) to
mitigate the likelihood of popout formation.

Surfaces afflicted with popouts can be repaired. For individual popouts, a

small patch can be created by drilling out the spalled particle and filling the void
with dry-pack mortar or another suitable patch material. In cases where popouts
are too numerous for individual patching, consider using a thin-bonded concrete
overlay to restore serviceability.

Additionally, refrain from using vapor barriers whenever possible. If

unavoidable, cover the vapor barrier with 100 mm (4 in.) of dampened
compactible granular fill and choke it off.

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 For more comprehensive insights into popouts, refer to "Popouts: Causes,
Prevention, Repair," available in Concrete Technology Today, PL852.

Figure 13 Popouts

3.11 Scaling and mortar flaking

Scaling and mortar flaking in concrete are surface defects caused by
freezing and thawing cycles. Scaling typically results in the loss of surface
mortar, exposing the aggregate underneath, while mortar flaking involves the
detachment of mortar over coarse aggregate particles. These defects are primarily
physical in nature, driven by hydraulic pressure from water freezing within the
concrete rather than chemical corrosion.

Factors such as deicing chemicals and poor finishing practices can

exacerbate scaling and mortar flaking. Deicers containing ammonium sulfate or
ammonium nitrate should be avoided as they rapidly degrade concrete. However,
properly air-entrained concrete with well-spaced air voids exhibits excellent
resistance to these defects when adequately proportioned, placed, finished, and
cured.
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 To minimize scaling and mortar flaking, several best practices are
recommended:

• Utilize a concrete mix with durable, well-graded aggregate, low slump,

adequate compressive strength, low water-cement ratio, proper air content, and
sufficient cementitious materials.
• Ensure proper slope for water drainage to prevent saturation of the
concrete.
• Employ appropriate finishing practices, avoiding premature finishing and
remixing water into the surface.
• Cure the concrete promptly with wet burlap, curing paper, or plastic sheet
for a minimum of 7 days, followed by air drying.
• Refrain from applying deicing chemicals to newly placed concrete during
its first winter season, and instead use sand for traction.

If scaling or mortar flaking occurs, breathable surface treatments such as

linseed oil, silane, or siloxane can be applied to protect the concrete. Impermeable
materials like epoxies should be avoided as they may lead to delamination.

For remediation, thin-bonded overlays or surface-grinding methods can be

employed on sound, air-entrained concrete below the affected surface.

Figure 14 Scaling and mortar flaking

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3.12 Spalling
Spalling, a deeper surface defect compared to scaling, manifests as circular
or oval depressions or elongated cavities on concrete surfaces. It can be caused
by various factors such as pressure or expansion within the concrete, bond failure,
impact loads, fire, or weathering. Common causes include poorly constructed
joints and corroded reinforcing steel. Proper design of concrete elements,
including joints, and the use of low permeability concrete with adequate cover
for steel reinforcement can help prevent spalling.

Repairing spalled concrete involves removing damaged areas to a depth of

at least 40 mm and extending patch limits beyond the unsound areas. Patching
materials like portland cement-based mixes, rapid strength proprietary materials,
or polymer concretes are used for repairs. It's essential to ensure good bonding
between the patch material and the existing concrete surface. Joint restoration is
crucial for spall repairs involving joints to allow for thermal expansion of the
slab.

In summary, preventing spalling requires proper concrete design,

construction practices, and special precautions where necessary. When repairing
spalled concrete, careful removal of damaged areas and appropriate selection and
application of patching materials are essential for long-lasting repairs.

Figure 15 Spalling
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3.13 Thin toppings and underlayments
A variety of proprietary materials serve as toppings and underlayments for
concrete slabs, typically portland-cement-based and non-shrink. Often self-
leveling, these materials restore the surface of a sound slab. Toppings offer a
durable surface, while underlayments accommodate floor coverings like tile or
carpet. For applications under 25 mm thick, bonding to the slab typically requires
a primer. Thicker applications, up to 100 mm, may or may not need a primer.
Adding aggregate to the mix reduces shrinkage. Manufacturers provide guidance
on product use and installation. Further details can be found in the resource
"Resurfacing Concrete Floors" (IS144).

Figure 16 Thin toppings and underlayments

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4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this comprehensive analysis of concrete slab failures
highlights the multifaceted nature of these issues, from blistering and cracking to
discoloration and spalling. Understanding the root causes behind each defect is
essential for effective prevention and repair. Key factors such as concrete mix
design, construction practices, environmental conditions, and proper maintenance
play pivotal roles in mitigating these defects.

To prevent issues like blistering, cracking, and delamination, careful

attention to concrete properties, moisture control, curing methods, and finishing
techniques is paramount. Proper subgrade preparation, joint placement, and
reinforcement can also help minimize cracking and curling. Efforts to mitigate
discoloration, dusting, and efflorescence involve selecting appropriate materials,
avoiding contaminants, and implementing suitable curing and cleaning
procedures.

In cases where defects do occur, prompt and targeted repair strategies are
essential to restore the structural integrity and aesthetics of concrete surfaces.
Techniques such as patching, grinding, and overlaying can effectively address
localized damage, while proper joint restoration is crucial for long-term
durability.

Furthermore, the utilization of specialized materials like thin toppings and

underlayments offers versatile solutions for surface restoration and enhancement.
These materials provide durable finishes and accommodate various floor
coverings, offering flexibility and convenience in renovation projects.

Overall, by adhering to rigorous construction standards, adopting

preventive measures, and employing appropriate repair techniques, stakeholders
can ensure the longevity and performance of concrete slabs in diverse
applications. Continuous research, innovation, and collaboration within the

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construction industry are vital for advancing best practices and addressing
emerging challenges in concrete slab design, construction, and maintenance.

5. Recommendations
To prevent the various issues discussed in the analysis of concrete slab
failures, a comprehensive set of recommendations encompassing concrete mix
design, construction practices, environmental considerations, and maintenance
protocols is necessary. Here are some key recommendations:

➢ Concrete Mix Design:

Opt for well-proportioned concrete mixes with appropriate water-cement

ratios to minimize shrinkage and cracking.

Use high-quality aggregates and minimize the use of fine materials prone
to entrapped air and surface defects.

Incorporate supplementary cementitious materials or admixtures to

enhance durability and mitigate shrinkage.

➢ Construction Practices:

Ensure proper subgrade preparation, including adequate compaction and

drainage measures, to prevent moisture-related issues.

Implement accurate placement and consolidation techniques to minimize

settlement and ensure uniformity.

Employ proper curing methods, such as moist curing or curing compounds,

to maintain adequate moisture levels and promote concrete strength development.

Adhere to recommended joint spacing and construction details to

accommodate concrete movement and reduce cracking.

➢ Environmental Considerations:

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 Monitor weather conditions during concrete placement, avoiding extreme
temperatures, high winds, or low humidity that can impact concrete behavior.

Provide protection from rapid drying or exposure to direct sunlight to

prevent surface defects like plastic-shrinkage cracking and crazing.

Avoid using deicing chemicals on newly placed concrete during winter,

opting for sand or other non-damaging alternatives for traction.

➢ Maintenance Protocols:

Implement regular inspection and maintenance programs to identify and

address potential issues early, preventing escalation.

Use appropriate cleaning methods to remove contaminants and prevent

discoloration or efflorescence buildup.

Conduct timely repairs using suitable materials and techniques to restore

structural integrity and aesthetic appeal.

➢ Specialized Solutions:

Consider the use of thin toppings and underlayments for surface restoration
and enhancement, following manufacturer guidelines for proper installation.

Evaluate the suitability of synthetic fibers, shrinkage-reducing admixtures,

and other specialized products to mitigate specific issues like cracking and
curling.

➢ Education and Training:

Provide training and education for construction professionals, including

contractors, engineers, and site supervisors, on best practices for concrete slab
design, placement, and maintenance.

Promote awareness of emerging technologies, materials, and techniques

for improving concrete performance and longevity.
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 By implementing these recommendations, stakeholders can significantly
reduce the occurrence of common concrete slab issues and enhance the overall
quality and durability of concrete structures. Collaboration among industry
professionals, ongoing research, and adherence to evolving standards are
essential for continuous improvement in concrete construction practices.

6. References

[1]. Portland Cement Association. Concrete slab surface defects causes,

prevention, repair. (2001)
[2]. Miller, F. MacGregor, Powers, Laura J., and Taylor, Peter C., Investigation
of Discoloration of Concrete Slabs, Serial No. 2228, Portland Cement
Association, 1999, 22 pages.
[3]. Taylor, Peter C., Detwiler, Rachel J., and Tang, Fulvio J., Investigation of
Discoloration of Concrete Slabs (Phase 2), Serial No. 2228b, Portland Cement
Association, 2000, 22 pages.
[4]. American Concrete Institute (ACI): ACI 318 Building Code Requirements
for Structural Concrete
[5]. British Standards Institution (BSI): BS 8110 Structural use of concrete -
Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction
[6]. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings
[7]. Australian Standards (AS): AS 3600 Concrete structures
[8]. Neville, A. M., & Brooks, J. J. (2010). Concrete Technology. Pearson
Education.
[9]. Nawy, E. G. (2009). Reinforced Concrete: A Fundamental Approach (6th
Edition). Prentice Hall.

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[10]. Malhotra, V. M., & Mehta, P. K. (2006). Concrete: Microstructure,
Properties, and Materials. McGraw-Hill Education.
[11]. Nawy, E. G. (2008). Prestressed Concrete (5th Edition). Prentice Hall.

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