A Study of Obsidian Exchange Networks in Calabria

Author(s): Albert J. Ammerman

Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 11, No. 1, Early Chemical Technology (Jun., 1979), pp. 95-110
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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A studyof obsidianexchangenetworksin Calabria
Albert J. Ammerman

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the role that trade and exchange
systems play in cultural developments in prehistory. Particular attention has been paid
to obsidian, which, as a durable commodity that can be obtained from only a limited
number of volcanic sources, offers distinct advantages for study. In the western
Mediterranean, the main focus of research interest has been on the characterization by
means such as neutron activation analysis and optical emission spectroscopy of obsidian
samples from Neolithic sites located in different parts of Italy and southern France
(Hallam et al. 1976). Models have also been put forward as a means of describing how
exchange systems are thought to operate along general lines. These include Renfrew's
down-the-line model and the so-called law of monotonic decrement (Renfrew I977)
and the gravity model for competing obsidian sources (Hallam et al. 1976). However,
in the absence of a well developed data base or comprehensive information on lithic
assemblages from sites located at different distances from a source of obsidian, it has
not been previously possible to attempt an evaluation of these models in the western
Mediterranean. The aim of this article is to present some preliminary results of work
on obsidian exchange networks carried out in the region of Calabria in southern Italy
over the last four years. This work has revealed the extensive use of obsidian at Neolithic
sites in the region and also the importance of Calabria for obsidian exchange systems
operating between the island of Lipari and peninsular Italy. The picture of exchange
networks that is beginning to emerge in Calabria also raises some basic questions about
the adequacy of the models that have so far been advanced. A need for developing more
complex models is suggested, for example, by the finding, discussed below, that not
all of the sites in a given area appear to participate to the same degree in exchange
networks and that sea travel, counter to assumptions made in previous models, may
have been easier in some cases than land travel. Emphasis in this article is placed not
on formulating new general models of exchange systems but rather on putting the
evaluation of existing models on a more empirical footing.

Prehistory of Calabria
In contrast with Sicily and Puglia, Calabria was until recently one of the least explored

World Archaeology Volume ii No. r Early chemical technology

( R.K.P. I979 oo43-8243/xI-oo0095 $1.50/I
96 Albert J. Ammerman

regions of southern Italy in terms of its prehistory. As late as 1970, only six sites with
Neolithic material were reported for the region and most of these were cave sites such
as the Grotta di Sant'Angelo (Tine 1962) and the Grotta della Madonna (Cardini 1970),
which are located in the rugged northern part of Calabria. The only open-air site to have
been excavated was the settlement of Favella (Tine I964) near the Greek colony of
Sybaris. The Calabria Survey which was begun in 1974 has led to the location of well
over 300 prehistoric sites and has substantially changed our knowledge of the prehistory
of the region. Of particular interest has been the identification of reasonably dense
patterns of impressed ware Neolithic settlement in coastal areas near each of the four
Calabrian towns indicated in fig. I. The Neolithic in southern Italy starts at about 5000

Figure I Map of southern Italy. The island of Lipari, one of the main sources of obsidian in
the western Mediterranean,is located in the centre of the Aeolian Islands

B.C. (conventional C14 years) and extends to about 2500 B.C., with different pottery
styles being used to describe a sequence of Neolithic cultures. This sequence is
usually thought to start with impressed ware pottery in the early Neolithic and to
end with Diana pottery with its characteristic trumpet-shaped lugs in the late
Neolithic. It is worth commenting that the stratigraphic sequence and series of radio-
carbon dates from the Grotta della Madonna in Calabria (Cardini 1970) are in
basic agreement with the chronological schemes put forwad foforother parts of
 A study of obsidianexchange networksin Calabria 97

southern Italy. Some caution is, however, required with regard to the C14 date (R-285)
from spits 40 and 41 in the lower part of level H at the Grotta della Madonna (Cardini
I970: 4I), which is sometimes cited as being an early Neolithic date, since there would
appear to be mixing with underlying Mesolithic levels and these two spits have at other
times been attributed to the late Mesolithic (Cardini 1972: 229).

.
0-2

t * 15

a coverag of the region at a scale of :o,ooo

,.0
~~~~/ j/)~ CALABRIA, ITALY
/y~ f^ ~ * ~1-2 OF SITES WITHOBSIDIAN
~ ~NUMBER
j *
s

3-5
^~ */~ * 6-14

e"15
) /

Figure 2 Map of prehistoricsites with obsidian in Calabria.This distributionmap gives the

number of sites locatedon each mapsheetin the Cartadella Calabriamap series,which provides
a coverage of the region at a scale of i::10o,ooo000
98 Albert J. Ammerman

It has been a common practice in the literature on impressed ware pottery in southern
Italy to distinguish between two main ceramic traditions: one for peninsular Italy and
the other for Sicily and the Aeolian Islands where more elaborate impressed motifs,
taking the name of Stentinello, are found. The site of Gerace in south-east Calabria
(Costabile 1972) which produced impressed ware pottery with Stentinello affinities
was initially thought to be somewhat anomalous when it was first discovered in the late
I96os. Recent work in Calabria has shown that the ceramic material most commonly
found at impressed ware Neolithic sites on the west coast of Calabria is made in a
Stentinello style (e.g. Ammerman et al. I 978a). What was previously considered a
dichotomy in ceramic traditions between peninsular Italy and the islands can
now be viewed as essentially artificial. In addition, there is evidence that patterns
of variation in the spatial distribution of impressed ware motifs can be recognized
within Calabria and that obsidian from Lipari was being actively exchanged between
these areas with somewhat different local pottery traditions.
During the survey work in Calabria, obsidian has been found at over two hundred
sites which date for the most part to the Neolithic and Copper Age (see fig. 2). In the
case of Neolithic sites on the west coast of Calabria, obsidian often constitutes more than
80 per cent of the lithic material recovered from sites. On the basis of the lithic material
from the Mesolithic levels at the Grotta della Madonna and also what is known from the
survey, there is no clear evidence at present that obsidian was exploited at sites with
Mesolithic occupation. The situation in Calabria would seem to differ in this respect
from that observed in Greece, where obsidian from an island source in the Aegean was
being exploited in the later Mesolithic levels at the Franchthi Cave (Jacobsen 1:973:76).
Evidence from prehistoric sites in the Aeolian Islands (Brea I966: 99) suggests that the
exploitation of obsidian on Lipari reached its peak in the late Neolithic, declined in
importance in the Copper Age and more or less faded otut by the Middle Bronze Ageo
The rather modest amounts of obsidian recovered from sites with Copper Age and Bronze
Age pottery in Calabria would seem to be in agreement with what is seen in the Aeolian
Islands. The lithic technology at Neolithic and Copper Age sites is oriented mainly
toward the production of blades and only a low percentage of the obsidian blades found
at sites in Calabria shows signs of intentional retouch or secondary modification. With
regard to the interpretation of fig. 2, it is important to note that those areas without
sites correspond in most cases to areas where survey work has yet to be carried out.
From our experience it is reasonable to expect that prehistoric sites with obsidian can
be found in most parts of Calabria, except perhaps in mountainous interior areaso A
sense of the scale of obsidian exchange networks is provided by the realization that this
distribution map presents only a small fraction of the total number of prehistoric sites
with obsidian in Calabria.

Obsidian from Lipari

It comes as no real surprise that Lipari, which is located in the Aeolian Islands off the
west coast of Calabria, is the primary source of the obsidian found at sites in Calabria.
All of the samples (46) examined so far by means of neutron activation analysis
 A study of obsidianexchange networksin Calabria 99

at the University of Bradford have been attributed to Lipari (Crummett and Warren
n.d.). This attribution is made on the basis of the content of the trace elements of
lanthanum and scandium, which provide a means of discriminating between obsidian
from Lipari and that from the three other sources - on the islands of Pantellaria,
Sardinia and Palmarola - in the western Mediterranean (Hallam et al. 1976). There
is no known source of workable obsidian in peninsular Italy, and Palmarola in the
Pontine Islands, the closest alternative source to Lipari, is located some 300 km. north-
west of Calabria (see fig. i). The geological source of obsidian on Palmarola is
restricted to the southern end of the island where the natural material itself takes the
form of small, fist-sized nodules (Buchner I949: i66). In his study of obsidian sources
in Italy, Buchner (1949: 167) describes differences in the appearance of obsidian from
Palmarola and Lipari and implies that material from the two sources can be distinguished
on this basis. Characteristics that he lists as distinguishing material from the two sources
include: (a) the obsidian from Lipari usually contains many more spherulites, small
concentrically arranged aggregations of minerals that form around gas inclusions; and
(b) the obsidian from Palmarola has a more patinated and less translucent appearance
than that from Lipari.
As a means of checking on Buchner's suggestion, an 'experiment' involving the
attribution of pieces of obsidian was conducted. Five obsidian artefacts derived from
Lipari and five from Palmarola were used in the experiment and attributions were made
with reference to two groups of obsidian pieces indicated as coming respectively from
Lipari and Palmarola.1 Archaeology students were asked in a blind test to attribute each
of the ten artefacts to one of the two sources. A score of eight or more correct attributions
(out of a total possible score of ten) was made by I8 of the 22 students who took part
in the experiment. These results, which run counter to the conventional wisdom of
characterization studies, indicate a level of success that is significantly better in statistical
terms than one would expect on the basis of chance alone in attribution. The
implication here is that visual evidence provides, at least for these two sources, a guide
for making a preliminary discrimination between different sources. This finding is of
practical importance when it comes to the examination of large sets of lithic material,
since it means that pieces occurring in small numbers from a secondary source have
a reasonable chance of being detected. In Calabria, for example, initial screening makes
it possible to identify pieces that may come from Palmarola. More refined techniques
such as neutron activation analysis can subsequently be applied to pieces identified
in this way. During the examination of obsidian from sites in Calabria, few pieces have,
in fact, been encountered where such an initial attribution to Palmarola can be made.
The results of both the neutron activation analysis of samples and the visual screening
of large sets of lithic material indicate that the obsidian found in Calabria comes pre-
dominantly from Lipari.

1 The five pieces from Lipari were selected on the basis of random sampling from a collection
of several hundred pieces of obsidian, while the Pontine specimens were chosen on a judgment
basis (as representative of obsidian from Palmarola) from a smaller collection of material. The
order in which the ten pieces appeared in the test was established by means of drawing random
numbers. The students taking part in the test were not given prior instruction on how to
discriminate between obsidian from the two sources.
 0oo Albert J. Aimmerman

There are four known sources of workable obsidian - Rocche Rosse, Forgia Vecchia,
Gabellotto and Acquacalda -on the island of Lipari (Dixon 1976: 293; Hallam, et al.
1976: 94). Relatively little variation in the content of trace elements is observed in
the analysis of geological samples from these different flows. The first two flows were
actually formed in historical times and only the last two sources would have been available
for exploitation in the Neolithic (Bigazzi and Bonadonna 1973). It has been shown on
the basis of fission track dates that all of the obsidian artefacts from Neolithic sites along
the Adriatic coast of peninsular Italy that were analysed by Bigazzi and Bonadonna
(1973) come from the Gabellotto flow. The obsidian available from this flow appears to
be both of good quality and quantity. Lipari, in terms of its prehistory, is one of the
better known islands in the western Mediterranean and obsidian cores and blades are
found in abundance at Neolithic sites. Impressed ware pottery in the Stentinello tradition
is found at the site of Castellaro Vecchio on the north-west side of the island, while the
later part of the Neolithic is well documented on the east side of the island by the
stratigraphic sequence on the Lipari acropolis and by the site of Diana (Brea and
Cavalier i96o).

The percentage of obsidian at sites

One approach to studying exchange systems has been in terms of the relative abundance
or percentage of obsidian in the set of lithic material recovered from Neolithic sites
(e.g. Renfrew et al. 1968: 327). While this provides some insight into the relative
importance of obsidian at sites and the patterns of movement of obsidian away from a
source, it also contains certain drawbacks (see the discussion below) and complementary
lines of investigation are called for if the behaviour of exchange systems is to be under-
stood in any detail. In fig. 3, a map showing the percentage of obsidian at selected

CATANZARO/r

/it\ ~PERCENTAGE OFOBSIDIAN

j | 10N-19 SE (
0 0-9
] 0,J20-39 440-79
o80-100

Figure3 The percentageof obsidian in the lithic assemblageat selected neolithic sites in the
central part of Calabria.Most of the sites on the west coast actually have over 9o per cent of
obsidian
 A study of obsidianexchangenetworksin Calabria IOI

neolithic sites in the central part of Calabria is presented. Systematic collection was
made of all lithic material observed on the surface of sites examined during the Calabria
Survey. Fieldwork was conducted only during the spring and autumn or seasons of
the year when rains occur regularly in Calabria and conditions are good for seeing
lithic material on the surface of sites. With. regard to sample size, the material recovered
from each site consists of at least one hundred pieces, and in most cases several hundred
pieces were collected. In addition, the replicated collection of sites, which involves
a site being revisited after a period of time and a second systematic collection made
using the same set of grid squares at the site (Ammerman and Feldman 1978), was
carried out at two-thirds of the sites shown in fig. 3. At all of the sites where this
technique was employed, consistent estimates of the percentage of obsidian were
observed between the separate collections. This consistency lends confidence to the
basic pattern of values seen in fig. 3. Perhaps the single most striking feature here is
the uniformly high percentage of obsidian encountered at sites on the west coast of
Calabria. A value of go per cent or more is, in fact, observed at the majority of these
sites. In contrast, the values for sites located on the east coast near the town of Crotone
all fall below 40 per cent. The decline in the percentage of obsidian with distance from
the source is much greater here than in the previously published case for the Near
East (Renfrew et al. 1968: 328). The values on the east coast fall off to less than half
of those seen at west coast sites over a distance of less than Ioo km. It is worth noting
that the Catanzaro Trough, which runs across the width of Calabria at its narrowest
point, provides a relatively easy line of communication between the west coast and
areas such as the one near Crotone on the east coast of Calabria.
The variation in the percentages of obsidian observed among the sites in the Crotone
area would seem to be problematic as far as certain models of exchange systems are
concerned. Some of the sites near Crotone have less than io per cent obsidian, while
others at more or less the same distance from Lipari have more than 30 per cent. This
pattern of values is not what one would expect according to down-the-line models of
exchange systems (Renfrew 1977), where the relative proportion of obsidian at sites
is seen as decreasing monotonically or progressively as one moves away from a source
through an exchange network and where sites at basically the same distance from a
source should exhibit comparable values. Without going into an extended discussion,
there are several possible explanations that can be offered for this pattern. One of these
would be that the sites date to different times in the Neolithic period: sites with early
occupation might have low values and those with later occupation higher values, since
down-the-line models can be expected to exhibit dynamic time behaviour (Ammerman
et al. i978b). A second possibility is that the pattern of variation may stem from local
differences in the availability of chert. Lower percentage values for obsidian might be
expected to occur at those sites where chert, as an alternative raw material for making
stone tools, is immediately available and is actively being worked. Still another possible
explanation would be that certain sites are located along the main lines of movement of
obsidian and have more access to the material, while other sites are situated off the
main lines of long distance exchange and have lower percentages of obsidian. Sufficient
evidence is not available at present in the Crotone area to permit a full evaluation of
this set of alternatives. The main point to be made here is that the values for sites near
102 Albert J. Ammerman

Crotone do not conform to a simple down-the-line pattern and that a wide range of
factors is probably involved in determining the percentage of obsidian observed at a
given site.
It is also worth commenting on the recently proposed route for the movement of
obsidian from Lipari to peninsular Italy (Hallam et al. 1976: 100oo)in the light of what
is seen in fig. 3. This route is based on the questionable assumption that land travel is
easier than sea travel and involves obsidian moving from Lipari to the north coast of
Sicily, then following a land route to Messina, crossing the Straits and again following
a land route up the coasts of Calabria. If this route were correct, one would expect to
see a progressive decline in the percentage of obsidian at sites as one moves up the
west coast and more or less comparable values at sites on the west and east coasts of
Calabria located at roughly the same distance from Reggio Calabria (e.g. sites near
Amantea on the west coast and sites near Crotone on the east coast; see fig. i). Neither
of these patterns is observed: sites near Nicotera and Amantea on the west coast have
essentially the same values (some sites near Amantea or those furthest to the north on
fig. 3 have values of over 95 per cent), while sites on the east coast have less than half
the percentage of obsidian in comparison with those on the west coast. Furthermore, the
observation can be made that the rugged relief along the stretch of the west coast from
Reggio Calabria to Palmi as well as that of Aspromonte in the interior would present a
real challenge to land travel in this part of Calabria. In contrast, movement is in general
much easier along the east coast of Calabria. Radial movement via boat from Lipari
to various points along the west coast of Calabria and the north coast of Sicily would seem
to be a more plausible line of interpretation. There is a good possibility that sea travel
was in this case actually easier than land travel. Using the islands of Panarea and
Stromboli, the trip between Lipari and the west coast of Calabria, which involves a
distance of about 8o km., can be made without losing sight of land.

Patterns of lithic reduction at sites

A more refined way of looking at lithic assemblages than the percentage of obsidian
is required, if progress is to be made in the study of exchange systems. The production
of stone tools involves what is sometimes called a reduction technology (Sheets 1975):
following the preparation of a core, blades and flakes as well as debitage are successively
removed from the core until it is exhausted. Information on reduction practices is
provided by the comparative study of the size classes of lithic material observed at
sites. Where exchange systems are concerned, it is important to know the form - either
cores or prepared blanks - in which obsidian is moving through an exchange network.
In our case, cores would appear to be the main form as far as long distance exchange is
concerned, since they are found regularly at sites in different areas of Calabria along with
evidence for the local production of blades and flakes which is seen both in terms of
core rejuvenation flakes and debitage. It is of interest to consider how cores are being
'partitioned' or reduced in areas at different distances from the source of obsidian on
Lipari. There are various ways of measuring the size of obsidian pieces but perhaps the
best overall measure is provided by weight, which can be related directly to the weight
 A study of obsidian exchangenetworksin Calabria 10o3

of cores themselves. While some previous use has been made of the weight of obsidian
pieces, this has usually involved a comparison of the mean weight of pieces at sites.
In many cases, the mean does not offer a good summary description of the size classes
represented at a site. A description in terms of the frequency distribution of pieces
belonging to different size classes is more revealing in this respect.
To give an intuitive sense of what is meant by partitioning in lithic reduction, fig. 4

COUNT

OBSIDIAN CHERT

WEIGHT

0.1-0.5 2.5-9.9 25.0-79.9

0.6-2.4 10.0-24.9 >80.0 gm

Figure 4 The relative proportionsby count (top) and weight (bottom) of obsidian and chert
belonging to differentsize classes. The weight of a piece is used here as a measureof its size.
The pie diagramsarebased on the lithic materialfrom 30 prehistoric(Neolithic and CopperAge)
sites in the Acconia area,which is located near the town of Nicastro in Calabria

shows the relative proportions by count and weight of material belonging to different
size classes for a group of thirty prehistoric sites in the Acconia area of Calabria. The
smallest size class represents mostly small waste flakes and chips, while the two larger
classes contain mainly cores. Blades and flakes suitable for use in activities fall mostly
in the middle size classes. Almost half of the obsidian pieces by count belong to the
smallest size class, yet this material represents only a small fraction of the total weight
of obsidian recovered from this group of sites. In contrast, cores and large waste flakes
have low counts and yet comprise over two-thirds of the total weight of obsidian.
104 Albert J. Ammerman

If a comparison is made between the diagrams for obsidian and those for chert, which
occurs in much smaller quantities at the sites, it can be seen that the relative proportion
(by count) of small pieces is much lower for chert and the same applies for the relative
proportion (by weight) of cores and large pieces. These patterns indicate comparatively
less in the way of reduction activity for chert which does not occur locally in the Acconia
area. The high proportion both of blades and retouched pieces among the chert pieces
recovered from sites may even imply that some of the chert blades are reaching the
area in prepared form through exchange networks. If this interpretation is correct, what
is being observed in the Acconia area would be the operation of two complementary
lithic systems for obsidian and chert.
A more convenient way of presenting size class data is in terms of cumulative frequency
distributions, as shown in fig. 5. Cores have been removed from.the data sets here so that

"

,*"
COUNT .'* "
0.80- ,,...@''

?ebe~ .~....ACCNA
UJOAOr // /^ ?"-^ ACCO IA
o---o NICOTERA

0.20;/

0.1 0.3 0.5 10 1.5 2.0 2.5^ 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 10.0 150 20.0 25.0 50.0 250.0
WEIGHT(grams)

Figure5 Cumulativefrequencydistributionsbased on count (upper pair of curves) and weight

(lower pair of curves) of obsidian pieces belonging to different size classes for the group of
Stentinello sites located respectivelyin the Acconia and Nicotera areas of Calabria.Cores are
not included in the frequencydistributionshere. Note that an ordinalscale is used in presenting
the size classes along the horizontalaxis

the curves are based only on pieces derived from the working of cores and directly
reflect the partitioning of cores. The frequency distributions are based on the group of
Stentinello sites occurring respectively in the Acconia and Nicotera areas on the west
coast of Calabria. The sites are in both cases situated in dune areas whose soils offer
good conditions for the unmodified, post-depositional survival of lithic material. As can
be seen in fig. 5, there is an overall similarity between the two pairs of curves implying
comparable reduction strategies for the group of sites in each area. In fig. 6, cumulative
frequency distributions are presented for four of the Stentinello sites in the Acconia
area. Here it is of interest to note the different patterns which can be observed between
individual sites in the same area. Sites 67 and 68 both exhibit a higher relative proportion
 A study of obsidianexchangenetworksin Calabria Xo5

i/ .p/ ....--*-
7
ltC /l/ / l,. -
L. O..
0.40-

'
0.20 / ---.63&64
. ...... 67
o----o 68
1 1 1 - . 1- I II / 1 J
0.1 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 6.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 50.0120.0 250.0
WEIGHT(grams)

Figure 6 Cumulative frequency distributions of obsidian pieces belonging to different size

classes for four Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. The frequency distributionsfor counts
(through 3-0 gm.) are shown on the left and those for weight (starting with 6'o gm.) on the
right. Cores are not included in the frequencydistributions

(by count) of small pieces or debitage and also have more of their total weight tied up
in larger size pieces (many of them large waste flakes). There is a greater emphasis on
the reduction of obsidian at these two sites, where larger amounts of lithic material
were also recovered, than at the two other sites. At sites 25 and 63-64 the bulk of the

Figure 7 Distribution map of Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. The Tyrrhenian coast is
now about Ix5 km. west of site 67
i:o6 AlbertJ. Ammerman

material both in terms of counts and of the relative proportion by weight falls in the
middle size classes. The locations of these sites in the Acconia area, where a reasonably
dense pattern of Stentinello settlement is observed, is shown in fig. 7. It is of considerable
interest that the two sites (67 and 68) located closest to the coast are apparently the ones
where the reduction of obsidian is being more actively carried out.
A graphic means of presenting the combined frequency distributions for counts and
weights is provided by the use of concentration curves (Kendall and Stuart I969: 48)
as shown in fig. 8. Here the points on each curve represent the respective size classes,

1.0 --

--.-o 25 /
*---* 63 & 64
*.-" 67* / '
0.8 6
68

0.26sf-
/ /

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

F

Figure 8 Concentrationcurves for four Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. This figure is
based on the same data as used in fig. 6. See the text for an.explanationof the horizontaland
verticalaxes of this graph

which are the same as those used in fig. 5. The horizontal axis, F, gives the cumulative
relative frequency based on counts, while the vertical axis shows the associated value
of phi or the cumulative relative proportion of weight. The area between a given curve
and the diagonal line, where the values of F and phi are equal, is called the area of
concentration and is equivalent to one half of the coefficient of concentration (Kendall.
and Stuart 1969: 49). Concentration curves provide a useful means for comparing
patterns of variation between populations when there is a natural origin of measurement
as is the case here. At sites where obsidian is being actively worked, the curves run
lower in relation to the horizontal axis with a greater proportion of the weight being
'concentrated' in the larger size classes. Figure 8 indicates differences in the degree of
participation in obsidian reduction among Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. Such
differences have implications for the rate of loss or deposition of material at sites, which
is usually assumed to be uniform among sites in the formulation of models of exchange
systems (Ammerman et al. 1978b; Renfrew 1977: 72). At sites such as 67 and 68 where
there is a greater emphasis on the reduction of obsidian, the rate of loss of pieces
 A study of obsidianexchange networksin Calabria 107

will on average be higher than at the other two sites, since waste material, which is
relatively more abundant at the first two sites, is effectively lost at the time of reduction.
Account needs to be taken of heterogeneity in rates of loss in the development of more
realistic models of exchange systems. One interpretation that can be made is that those
sites (25 and 63-64) with less emphasis on obsidian reduction may have participated less
actively in exchange networks as well and may even have received some of their blades
and flakes in prepared form by means of exchange with neighbouring reduction sites.
The location of the two reduction sites near the coast would seem to be in agreement
with an interpretation that these sites probably had more involvement in long distance
exchange networks.

Discussion
From characterization studies (Bigazzi and Bonadonna I973; Hallam et al. 1976), it is
known that obsidian from Lipari is present at Neolithic sites in both the heel and central
part of Italy. While actual counts of lithic material are seldom reported, obsidian is
described as occurring only in small quantities at these sites (e.g. Manfredini i968: 76).
In contrast, it can now be seen that obsidian was used extensively at Neolithic sites in
Calabria and that sites in the region played a major role in exchange systems operating
between Lipari and other parts of peninsular Italy. The consistently high percentages
observed at sites on the west coast of Calabria make it likely that obsidian moved in a
radial pattern by boat from Lipari to various points along the west coast rather than
following a land oriented route tied to Sicily. Instead of land travel being easier than
sea travel (Hallam et al. 1976: ioo), the opposite would appear to be the case. A radial
pattern of movement was incidentally observed by Harding (i967: 9) for the island of
Siassi in his study of a trade system in New Guinea. The fact that sea travel was easier
than land travel clearly introduces complications when it comes to the treatment of
distance in attempts to use a gravity model for competing obsidian sources in central
Italy. It also has wider implications for the interpretation of inter-regional contact in the
western Mediterranean in Neolithic and later times. At the same time, it is worth recalling
that even as late as the age of Philip II, sea travel in the Mediterranean consisted mainly
of what Braudel (I966: 104) has called 'tramping' or voyages with ships following the
coast and only on exceptional occasion losing sight of land.
The picture of obsidian exchange networks that is beginning to emerge within Calabria
does not conform to a simple down-the-line model. There is wide variation in the
percentages of obsidian observed at sites in the Crotone area on the east coast of Calabria,
which departs from the pattern of monotonic decrement expected under this class of
model. The analysis of lithic assemblages from the Acconia area in terms of frequency
distributions indicates that there are different patterns of obsidian reduction occurring
at Stentinello sites. The underlying assumption of down-the-line models - that of
uniform loss or deposition of material among sites - does not seem to be a realistic one
as far as Calabria is concerned. Moreover, it would appear that certain sites probably
participated to a greater degree than others in long distance exchange networks. There
may already be elements of activity specialization and a settlement hierarchy at Stentinello
io8 Albert J. Ammerman

sites in Calabria. One implication that follows from the discussion is that a reasonable
knowledge of settlement patterns in an area is a prerequisite for the study of exchange
networks. A second is that exchange systems are probably much more complex than
has often been thought, and there is a need to develop more adequate models. Some of
the factors that deserve attention in developing such models would include: the dynamic
time behaviour of exchange systems; heterogeneity of rates of loss of material among
sites; the roles of items and commodities other than obsidian moving through the
exchange system (Wright and Zeder 1977); and population growth and associated
changes in the structure of a network during the life of an exchange system (Ammerman
et al. i978b). It is also evident that detailed attention has to be paid to geography,
especially in the case of a region with such varied relief as Calabria, in the study of
exchange systems.

Acknowledgements
Support for the fieldwork was provided by grants from the National Science Foundation
(BNS 76-I5095) and the Institute for the Development of Scientific Research in
Calabria. I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to Professor G. Foti and Dr P. Guzzo
of the Soprintendenza Archeologica in Calabria; Professor G. Ghiara, former Rector of
the University of Calabria; Dr S. Warren of the Department of Physics, University of
Bradford; Professor A. Moroni of the Institute of Ecology, University of Parma; and
Professor L. Cavalli-Sforza of the Department of Genetics, Stanford University. Special
thanks are extended to D. Aldridge and M. Carrara, for making available data collected
respectively in the Crotone area and the Crati Valley during the Calabrian Survey. For
their participation in the fieldwork and the analysis of material, I would also like to thank
G. Diamond, S. Gaywood, M. Pitts and S. Rosen.
Department of Anthropology
S. U.N. Y. Binghamton

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Abstract
Ammerman,A. J.
A study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria
Recent survey work in Calabriawhich has revealedthe extensive use of obsidian at Neolithic
sites raises questions about models of exchange systems that have been previously advanced.
Rather than being tied to a land-based route through northern Sicily, obsidian appears to
I io Albert J. Ammerman

have moved in a radial pattern by boat from the island of Lipari to various points along the
west coast of Calabria. The percentage of obsidian observed at a site does not follow a simple
pattern of monotonic fall-off with the increasing distance of the site from Lipari. The analysis
of lithic material from Neolithic sites in the Acconia area of Calabria indicates that certain sites
played a more active role in obsidian reduction and probably also exchange networks than
others. These results imply a need for developing more adequate and. complex models of
Neolithic exchange systems.