1

FUNDAMENTALS OF
PHOTONICS
Amir Nader Askarpour
 2

Statistical Properties of Random Light

Intensity of Coherent (Deterministic) Light 𝐼 𝑟,

⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑈 𝑟,
⃗𝑡 !

𝐼 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑈 𝑟,
⃗𝑡 !
Intensity of Coherent (Deterministic) Light
Ensemble average

1 &" ! 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 𝑟⃗ = lim . 𝑈 𝑟,
⃗𝑡
"→$ 2𝑇 %"
 3

Temporal Coherence and Spectrum

Temporal Coherence Function(at a specific location) 𝐺 𝜏 = 𝑈∗ 𝑡 𝑈 𝑡 + 𝜏

autocorrelation function
1 &" ∗
Stationary 𝐺 𝜏 = lim . 𝑈 𝑡 𝑈 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑑𝑡
"→$ 2𝑇 %"

Hermitian symmetry 𝐺 𝜏 = 𝐺 ∗ −𝜏

𝐼=𝐺 0

𝐺 𝜏 𝐺 𝜏 𝑈∗ 𝑡 𝑈 𝑡 + 𝜏
Degree of Temporal Coherence 𝑔 𝜏 = = =
𝐼 𝐺 0 𝑈 ∗ 𝑡 𝑈(𝑡)

0≤ 𝑔 𝜏 ≤1
 4

Coherence Time
Deterministic Coherent Signal 𝑈 𝑡 = 𝐴( exp 𝑗2𝜋𝜈( 𝑡

𝑔 𝜏 = exp 𝑗2𝜋𝜈( 𝑡 → 𝑔 𝜏 =1

Coherence Time (Width of Temporal Coherence Function)

&$
𝜏) = . 𝑔 𝜏 ! 𝑑𝜏 Note that 𝑔 0 = 1
%$

For 𝜏 < 𝜏) , fluctuations are strongly correleated and otherwise, they are
weakly correlated.
 5

Coherence Time
• For monochromatic light, the coherence time is infinite.
• If the coherence time is much longer than the time delays
encountered in an optical system, is effectively completely
coherent.
• Light is effectively coherent if the the distance 𝑐𝜏B is larger
than all optical pathlength differences encountered in the
optical system.
• Coherence length is defined as
𝑙B = 𝑐𝜏B
 6

Power Spectral Density

"
&!
𝑉" 𝜈 = . 𝑈 𝑡 𝑒 %*!+,- 𝑑𝑡
"
%!

Power Spectral Density

1 !
𝑆 𝜈 = lim 𝑉" 𝜈
"→$ 𝑇

Note that complex wave function 𝑈 𝑡 is defined so that 𝑉 𝜈 = 0 for

negative 𝜈.

𝑆 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 represents the average power per unit area carried by frequencies

between 𝜈 and 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈. Therefore, 𝑆 𝜈 has the units (W/m2/Hz).

&$
Total averge intensity 𝐼=. 𝑆 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
(
 7

Power Spectral Density

Wiener-Khinchin theorem:
&$
𝑆 𝜈 =. 𝐺 𝜏 𝑒 %*!+,. 𝑑𝜏
%$

Intensity Spectral Density or Spectral Density or Spectrum

 8

Spectral Width
The spectral width or linewidth of light is the width of the spectral density 𝑆 𝜈 .

Coherence time and spectral width are inversely related.

Coherence time can be increased by filtering the light using a narrowband filter.
The increase in coherence time is at the expense of the optical power.
 9

Spectral Width
There are various definitions for spectral width. One is based on FWHM.

Another convenient definition:

&$ !
∫( 𝑆 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
Δ𝜈 = &$
∫( 𝑆 ! 𝜈 𝑑𝜈
It can be shown that 𝜏) Δ𝜈 = 1.
 10

Random Wavepackets
Light emitted from an incoherent source may be modeled as a sequence of
wavepackets emitted at random times.

𝐴/ 𝑒 %-/.! 𝑒 *!+,"- 𝑡≥0

𝑈/ 𝑡 = H
0 𝑡<0
The emission times are totally random, and the random independent phases of
the different emissions are included in 𝐴/ .
Δ𝜈 1
𝑔 𝜏 =𝑒 % - /.! *!+,"-
𝑒 𝑆 𝜈 = Δ𝜈 =
2𝜋 𝜈 − 𝜈( ! + Δ𝜈/2 ! 𝜋𝜏)
Lorentzian
 11

Spatial Coherence
Mutual Coherence Function
𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 𝑈 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 + 𝜏

Complex Degree of Coherence

𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏
𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 =
𝐼 𝑟⃗1 𝐼 𝑟⃗!

Temporal Coherence Function

𝐺 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑟,
⃗ 𝜏 =𝐺 𝜏

0 ≤ 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 ≤1
This quantity is therefore considered a measure of the degree of correlation between
the fluctuations at 𝑟⃗1 and those at 𝑟⃗! at a time 𝜏 later.
 12

Spatial Coherence
𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 = 0
When the two phasors 𝑈 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 and 𝑈 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 fluctuate independently and their
phases are totally random (each having a phase that is equally probable between
0 and 2𝜋). The light fluctuaAons at the two points are then uncorrelated.

𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 =1
When the two phasors are completely correlated.

Two examples
 13

Spatial Coherence
Mutual Intensity 𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 0 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 𝑈 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 = 𝐺(𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! )

When the opAcal pathlength differences encountered in an opAcal system are much
shorter than the coherence length, the light effecAvely possesses complete temporal
coherence, in which case the mutual coherence funcAon is a harmonic funcAon of
Ame.
𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 = 𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! 𝑒 *!+,"-

Normalized Mutual Intensity

𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗!
𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! =
𝐼 𝑟⃗1 𝐼 𝑟⃗!

If the complex wavefunction is deterministic, normalized mutual intensity is 1 for

all positions, and the light is completely correlated everywhere.
 14

Coherence Area

• The coherence area is an important parameter for characterizing random light,

but it must be viewed in relation to other pertinent dimensions of the optical
system under consideration.
• If the coherence area is greater than the size of an aperture through which the
light is transmitted, the light may be regarded as coherent (just as if A, were
infinite).
• Similarly, if the coherence area is smaller than the spatial resolution of the
optical system, the light is said to be incoherent.
• Light emitted from an extended radiating hot surface has a coherence area of
the order of 𝜆! , where 𝜆 is the central wavelength, so that in most practical cases
such light may be regarded as incoherent.
 15

Partially Coherent Plane Waves

𝑧 *!+," -%2
𝑈 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 =𝑎 𝑡− 𝑒 )
𝑐
If 𝑎 𝑡 is a random function, 𝑈 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 represents partially coherent light.
𝑧! − 𝑧1 *!+," 2 %2
.% # $
𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 = 𝐺3 𝜏− 𝑒 )
𝑐
𝐺3 𝜏 = 𝑎∗ 𝑡 𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜏

𝐼 𝑟⃗ = 𝐺 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑟,
⃗ 0 = 𝐺3 0 Constant everywhere

𝐺 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑟,
⃗ 𝜏 = 𝐺3 𝜏 Independent on position
 16

Partially Coherent Spherical Waves

1 𝑟 *!+," -%
4
𝑈 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡− 𝑒 )
𝑟 𝑐
1 𝑟! − 𝑟1 *!+," 4 %4
.% # $
𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 = 𝐺 𝜏− 𝑒 )
𝑟1 𝑟! 3 𝑐
𝐺3 0
𝐼 𝑟⃗ =
𝑟!
For 𝜏 = 0, fluctuations at all points on a spherical wavefront are completely
correlated, whereas fluctuations at points on two wavefronts separated by the radial
distance 𝑟! − 𝑟1 ≫ 𝑙) are uncorrelated.
 17

Partially Coherent Spherical Waves

• An arbitrary partially coherent wave transmitted through a pinhole generates a
partially coherent spherical wave. This process therefore imparts spatial coherence
to the incident wave (points on any sphere centered about the pinhole become
completely correlated). However, the wave remains temporally partially coherent.
Points at different distances from the pinhole are only partially correlated. The
pinhole imparts spatial coherence, but not temporal coherence, to the wave.
• Suppose now that an optical filter of very narrow spectral width is placed at the
pinhole, causing the transmitted wave to become approximately monochromatic.
The wave will then have complete temporal as well as spatial coherence. Spatial
coherence is imparted by the pinhole, which acts as a spatial filter, while temporal
coherence is introduced by the narrowband filter.
• The price paid for obtaining such an ideally coherent wave is, of course, the loss of
optical energy associated with the temporal and spatial filtering processes.
 18

Interference of Two Partially Coherent

Waves
𝐼1 = 𝑈1 ! 𝐼! = 𝑈! !

𝐺1!
𝐺1! = 𝑈1∗ 𝑈! 𝑔1! =
𝐼1 𝐼!

𝐼 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈! !
= 𝑈1 !
+ 𝑈! !
+ 𝑈1∗ 𝑈! + 𝑈1 𝑈!∗
∗
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼! + 𝐺1! + 𝐺1! = 𝐼1 + 𝐼! + 2ℜ𝐺1! = 𝐼1 + 𝐼! + 2 𝐼1 𝐼! ℜ𝑔1!
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼! + 2 𝐼1 𝐼! 𝑔1! cos 𝜙

• For two completely correlated waves with 𝑔1! = 𝑒 *5 and 𝑔1! = 1, we

recover the interference equation for two coherent waves of phase difference
𝜙.
• For two uncorrelated waves with 𝑔1! = 0, the result is 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼! , and there
is no interference.
 19

Interference of Two Partially Coherent

Waves
• Visibility
𝐼637 − 𝐼689
𝒱=
𝐼637 + 𝐼689

2 𝐼1 𝐼!
𝒱= 𝑔
𝐼1 + 𝐼! 1!

𝐼1 = 𝐼! → 𝒱 = 𝑔1!
 20

Interferometry and Temporal Coherence

𝑈1 = 𝑈 𝑡
𝐼1 = 𝐼! = 𝐼(
𝑈! = 𝑈 𝑡 + 𝜏

𝑈1∗ 𝑈! 𝑈∗ 𝑡 𝑈 𝑡 + 𝜏
𝑔1! = = = 𝑔(𝜏)
𝐼( 𝐼(

𝐼 = 2𝐼( 1 + 𝑔 𝜏 cos 𝜙 𝜏

𝒱= 𝑔 𝜏

Peak visibility near 𝜏 = 0

Visibility vanishes for 𝜏 ≫ 𝜏)

𝑔(𝜏) can be measured using

a moving mirror.
 21

Fourier-Transform Spectroscopy
&$
𝐺 𝜏 = 𝐼( 𝑔 𝜏 = . 𝑆 𝜈 𝑒 *!+,. 𝑑𝜈
(

𝐼 = 2𝐼( 1 + 𝑔 𝜏 cos 𝜙 𝜏 = 2 𝐼( + 𝐼( 𝑔 𝜏 cos 𝜙 𝜏

&$ &$
𝐼=2 . 𝑆 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 + ℜ . 𝑆 𝜈 𝑒 *!+,. 𝑑𝜈
( (

Note that 𝑆 𝜈 is real.

&$
𝐼 = 2. 𝑆 𝜈 1 + cos 2𝜋𝜈𝜏 𝑑𝜈
(
• This equation can be interpreted as representing a weighted superposition of
interferograms produced by each of the monochromatic components of the
wave. Each component 𝜈 produces an interferogram with period 1/v and unity
visibility, but the composite interferogram exhibits reduced visibility by virtue of
the different periods.
• The spectral density 𝑆 𝜈 of a light source can be determined by measuring the
interferogram I versus 𝜏 and then inverting the result by means of Fourier-
transform methods. This technique is known as Fourier-transform spectroscopy.
 22

Optical Coherence Tomography

Short coherence length

Time-Domain OCT
From movable mirrors Reflection coefficients Time delays
!

𝐼 𝜏 = 𝑈 𝑡 − 𝜏 + W 𝑟8 𝑈 𝑡 − 𝜏8
8 Independent on 𝜏

𝐼 𝜏 = 2𝐼( 1 + W 𝑟8 ℜ 𝑔 𝜏 − 𝜏8 + W 𝑟8 𝑟*∗ ℜ 𝑔 𝜏* − 𝜏8
8 8,*
 23

Interferometry and Spatial Coherence

𝐺 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 𝑈 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 + 𝜏
𝑟⃗1 = −𝑎𝑥,
X 𝑟⃗! = 𝑎𝑥,
X 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 𝑥X + 𝑑𝑧̂

Fresnel (Paraboloidal) approximation

𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗1 𝑑 + 𝑥 + 𝑎 ! /2𝑑
𝑈1 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 ∝ 𝑈 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 − ≈ 𝑈 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 −
𝑐 𝑐
𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗! 𝑑 + 𝑥 − 𝑎 ! /2𝑑
𝑈! 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 ∝ 𝑈 𝑟⃗! , 𝑡 − ≈ 𝑈 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑡 −
𝑐 𝑐
𝑈1∗ 𝑟,
⃗ 𝑡 𝑈 𝑟,
⃗𝑡
𝑔1! = = 𝑔(𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏7 )
𝐼(
𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗1 − 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗! 𝑥+𝑎 !− 𝑥−𝑎 ! 2𝑎𝑥 𝑥
𝜏7 = = = =𝜃
𝑐 2𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑐

𝐼 = 2𝐼( 1 + 𝑔(𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏7 ) cos 𝜙 𝑥

 24

Quasi-Monochromatic Light
𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 ≈ 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! 𝑒 *!+,"- = 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! 𝑒 *5 𝑒 *!+,"-
2𝜋𝜃
𝐼 𝑥 = 2𝐼( 1 + 𝒱 cos 𝑥+𝜙
𝜆
The interference pattern is then sinusoidal with spatial
;
period and visibility 𝒱.
<
For a coherent plane wave travelling in the z direction:
⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑒 %*=2 𝑒 *!+,"- → 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! = 1
𝑈 𝑟,

Visibiliy is 1 and there is a peak at 𝑥 = 0.

However, if the illuminaAon is a Alted plane wave
arriving from a direcAon in the x—z plane that
makes a small angle 𝜃7 , with respect to the z axis,
⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑒 %*=
𝑈 𝑟, 2&<% 7
𝑒 *!+,"- → 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! = 𝑒 %*=<%!3
!3<%
The interference paQern is shiRed laterally by a fracAon of a period.
;
 25

Interference with Light from an Extended

Source
Suppose now that the incident light is a collection of independent plane waves
arriving from a source that subtends an angle 𝜃> , at the plane of the pinhole.

The phase shift 𝜙 then takes values in the range

< !3 3
± 2𝜋 & = ±2𝜋𝜃> and the fringe pattern is a
! ; ;
superposition of displaced sinusoids.
 26

Interference with Light from an Extended

Source
𝜆 which is sufficient to wash out the
If 𝜃> = → −𝜋 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ +𝜋 interference pattern and thereby reduce
2𝑎
its visibility to zero.

Therefore, a measure of coherence distance is

𝜆
𝜌) ≈
𝜃>
and a measure of coherence aea is

𝜆 !
𝐴) ≈
𝜃>
The angle subtended by the sun, for example, is 0.5°, so that the coherence
distance for filtered sunlight of wavelength 𝜆 is 𝜌) ≈ 115𝜆. At 𝜆 = 0.5𝜇𝑚, 𝜌) ≈
57.5𝜇𝑚.
 27

Effects of Spectral Width on Interference

Δ𝜈 ≪ 𝜈( → 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 = 𝑔3 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏 𝑒 *!+,"- Slowly varying function of 𝜏 in
1
comaprison to
,"

2𝜋𝜃 𝑐
𝐼 𝑥 = 2𝐼( 1 + 𝒱7 cos 𝑥 + 𝜙7 𝜆̅ = 𝒱7 = 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏7
𝜆̅ 𝜈(
𝑥 𝜙7 = arg 𝑔 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 𝜏7
𝜏7 = 𝜃
𝑐
If 𝑔3 𝑟⃗1 , 𝑟⃗! , 0 = 1 and decreases with increasing 𝜏, vanishing for 𝜏 > 𝜏) ,
then the visibility is 1 at 𝑥 = 0 and decreases with increasing 𝑥, vanishing for
𝑥 ≫ 𝑥) . The interference paQern is then visible over a distance
𝑙)
𝑥) =
𝜃
 28

Partial Polarization
• To simplify the presentation, we shall not be concerned with spatial effects.
• The electric-field vector has two components, in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions, with
complex wavefunctions 𝑈7 (𝑡) and 𝑈? (𝑡) that are generally random.

• For quasi-monochromatic light, all dependencies on 𝜏 are approximately of the form

𝑒 *!+,". so that the polarization properties are described by the values at 𝜏 = 0. The
three numbers 𝐺77 0 , 𝐺?? 0 and 𝐺7? 0 , hereafter denoted 𝐺77 , 𝐺?? and 𝐺7?
are used to describe the polarization of the wave.
• Note that 𝐺77 = 𝐼7 , and 𝐺77 = 𝐼? , are real numbers that represent the intensities of
the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components, but 𝐺7? is complex and 𝐺7? ∗ =𝐺
?7 as can easily be verified
from the definition.
 29

Coherency Matrix

Jones matrix representation of a device

 30

Stokes Parameters
𝑆1 𝑆! 𝑆@
, ,
𝑆( 𝑆( 𝑆(

Degree of Polarization