1

FUNDAMENTALS OF
PHOTONICS
Amir Nader Askarpour
 2

Beam Optics
𝑈 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴 ( ⃗𝑟 ) exp ( − 𝑗𝑘𝑧 )
( 𝛻2𝑇 −2 𝑗𝑘𝜕/ 𝜕 𝑧 ) 𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ ) =0

This equation shows immediately that in a homogeneous

medium, where k is constant, the transverse variation of
the amplitude entails an axial variation and vice versa. In
general, the transverse profile changes its shape during
propagation, and the profiles at two distant points of
propagation may show hardly any similarity. Some selected
profiles, however, are conserved during propagation and
only change their spatial extension.
 3

Beam Optics
Paraxial Helmholtz Equation

( 𝛻2𝑇 −2 𝑗𝑘𝜕/ 𝜕 𝑧 ) 𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ ) =0

Fresnel Approximation
𝐴1
[ ]
2
𝜌
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − 𝑗𝑘 𝜌 2=𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑧 2𝑧

𝐴1 ( 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑘𝑧 )
[ ]
2 2 2 2
𝜕 𝜌
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )=− exp − 𝑗𝑘
𝜕𝑥 2
𝑧 3
2𝑧

𝐴 1 ( 𝑗𝑘 𝜌 − 2 𝑧 )
[ ]
2
𝜕 𝜌2
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − 𝑗𝑘
𝜕𝑧 2𝑧 3
2𝑧
 4

Gaussian Beam
𝐴1
[ ]
2
𝜌
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − 𝑗𝑘
𝑧 2𝑧
𝐴1
[ ]
2
𝜌
𝑧→𝑧−𝜉 𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − 𝑗𝑘 𝑞 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑧 − 𝜉
𝑞( 𝑧) 2𝑞( 𝑧)

𝜉 =− 𝑗 𝑧 0 𝑞 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑧 + 𝑗 𝑧 0

𝑧=0 𝑒 √
− 𝑗𝑘 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2+ ( 𝑧 + 𝑧0 )
2

√ 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + ( 𝑧 + 𝑧 0)
2

𝑧 0 =1 𝑧 0 =1+0.3 𝑗
 5

Gaussian Beam
𝐴1
[ ]
2
𝜌
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − 𝑗𝑘 𝑞 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑧+ 𝑗 𝑧 0
𝑞( 𝑧) 2𝑞( 𝑧)

1 1 𝑧 − 𝑗 𝑧0 1 𝜆
= = 2 2 ≡ −𝑗
𝑞 ( 𝑧 ) 𝑧+ 𝑗 𝑧 0 𝑧 + 𝑧 0 𝑅 ( 𝑧 ) 2
𝜋𝑊 (𝑧)

[ ( )]
2 2 2
𝑧 + 𝑧0 𝑧0
𝑅 ( 𝑧 )= = 𝑧 1+
𝑧 𝑧

[ ( )]
2
2 𝑧2 𝜆 𝑧0
𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑊 1+ 0
2
𝑊0=
𝑧0 𝜋
 6

Gaussian Beam
𝐴1
[ ]
2
𝜌
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − 𝑗𝑘
𝑞( 𝑧) 2𝑞( 𝑧)
1 1 𝜆
= −𝑗
𝑞 (𝑧 ) 𝑅 ( 𝑧) 2
𝜋 𝑊 (𝑧 )
𝑧 − 𝑗 𝑧0
[ ]
2 2
𝜌 − 𝑗𝜌 𝜆
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴1 2 2 exp − 𝑗𝑘 − 𝑗𝑘
𝑧 + 𝑧0 2 𝑅 (𝑧 ) 2
2 𝜋𝑊 (𝑧)

𝐴1 𝑊 0 𝑗 𝑧+𝑧 0
[ ] [ ]
2 2
𝜌 𝜌
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= exp − exp − 𝑗𝑘
𝑗𝑧 0 𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) √ 𝑧 2+𝑧 2 𝑊 2
( 𝑧) 2 𝑅 (𝑧 )
[ ] [
0
𝑊0
]
2 2
𝜌 𝜌 𝑧
𝐴 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴 0 exp − 2 exp − 𝑗𝑘 + 𝑗 𝜁 ( 𝑧) 𝜁 ( 𝑧 )=tan
−1
(
𝑊 𝑧 ) 𝑊 (𝑧 ) (
2𝑅 𝑧 ) 𝑧0
𝑊0
[ ] [ ]
2 2
𝜌 𝜌
𝑈 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴 0 exp − 2 exp − 𝑗𝑘𝑧 − 𝑗𝑘 + 𝑗 𝜁 ( 𝑧)
𝑊 (𝑧) 𝑊 ( 𝑧) 2 𝑅 ( 𝑧 )
 7

Gaussian Beam
𝑊0
[ ] [ ]
2 2
𝜌 𝜌
𝑈 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴 0 exp − 2 exp − 𝑗𝑘𝑧 − 𝑗𝑘 + 𝑗 𝜁 ( 𝑧)
𝑊 (𝑧) 𝑊 ( 𝑧) 2 𝑅(𝑧 )

√ ( )
2
𝑧
𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑊 0 1+
𝑧0

[ ( )]
2
𝑧
𝑅 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑧 1+ 0
𝑧

𝑊 0=
√𝜆 𝑧0
𝜋
−1 𝑧
𝜁 ( 𝑧 )=tan
𝑧0
 8

Gaussian Beam
[ ] [ ]
2
𝑊0 2 𝜌
2
𝐼 ( 𝑟⃗ ) =𝐼 0 exp − 2
𝑊 (𝑧) 𝑊 (𝑧)

𝑧=0 𝑧 =𝑧 0 𝑧=2 𝑧 0
 9

Gaussian Beam

[ ]
2
𝑊0 𝐼0
𝐼 ( 0 , 𝑧 )=𝐼 0 =
( )
𝑊 ( 𝑧) 𝑧 2
1+
𝑧0
 10

Gaussian Beam - Power

∞
1
𝑃=∫ 𝐼 ( 𝜌 , 𝑧 ) 2 𝜋𝜌 𝑑 𝜌 = 𝐼 0 ( 𝜋 𝑊 0 )
2
2 Independent on z
0

[ ]
2
2𝑃 2𝜌
𝐼 ( 𝜌 , 𝑧)= 2
exp − 2
𝜋 W (𝑧 ) 𝑊 ( 𝑧)

[ ]
𝜌0
1 2 𝜌 20
∫ 𝐼 ( 𝜌 , 𝑧 ) 2 𝜋𝜌 𝑑 𝜌 =1 − exp − 𝑊 2 ( 𝑧 )
𝑃 0

of total power is contained within a circle of radius .

 11

Gaussian Beam – Beam Width

At any transverse plane, the beam intensity assumes its peak value on the beam
axis, and decreases by the factor at the radial distance .

√ ( )
2
Beam width or 𝑧
Beam radius
𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑊 0 1+
𝑧0
𝑊 ( ± 𝑧 0 )= √ 2𝑊 0
Waist radius 𝑊 ( 0 )=𝑊 0
 12

Gaussian Beam – Beam Divergence

√ ( )
2
𝑧
𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑊 0 1+
𝑧0
𝑧
𝑧 ≫ 𝑧 0 →𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) ≈ 𝑊 0 =𝜃 0 𝑧
𝑧0
𝑊0 𝜆
𝜃 0= =
𝑧0 𝜋 𝑊0
 13

Gaussian Beam – Depth of Focus

√ ( )
2
𝑧
𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑊 0 1+
𝑧0

2 𝜋 𝑊 20
2 𝑧0 =
𝜆

𝜆=633 𝑛𝑚, 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒2 𝑊 0=2 𝑐𝑚 →2 𝑧 0 ≈ 1 𝑘𝑚

𝜆=633 𝑛𝑚, 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒2𝑊 0=2 𝜇𝑚→ 2𝑧 0 ≈ 1 𝑚𝑚
 14

Gaussian Beam – Phase

𝑘 𝜌2
𝜙 ( 𝜌 , 𝑧 )=𝑘𝑧 − 𝜁 ( 𝑧 )+
2 𝑅(𝑧 )
𝜙 ( 0 , 𝑧 ) =𝑘𝑧 − 𝜁 ( 𝑧 )

Gouy effect
 15

Gaussian Beam – Wavefronts

𝑘 𝜌2
𝜙 ( 𝜌 , 𝑧 )=𝑘𝑧 − 𝜁 ( 𝑧 )+ =2 𝜋 𝑞
2 𝑅(𝑧)

𝑧=0 → 𝑅 ( 𝑧 ) → ∞
𝑅 ( 𝑧 0 ) =2 𝑧 0

𝑧 ≫ 𝑧0 → 𝑅 ( 𝑧 )≈ 𝑧
 16

Gaussian Beam – Wavefronts

 17

Gaussian Beam - Quality

22𝑊 𝑚 ⋅2 𝜃𝑚
𝑀=
4 𝜆/ 𝜋
𝑀 2≥ 1

ISO Standard 11146

 18

Optical Components and Gaussian Beams

𝑊0
[ ] [ ]
2 2
𝜌 𝜌
𝑈 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴0 exp − 2 exp − 𝑗𝑘𝑧 − 𝑗𝑘 + 𝑗𝜁 (𝑧)
𝑊 ( 𝑧) 𝑊 (𝑧) 2 𝑅 ( 𝑧)

(
𝑡 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 ) ≈ h 0 exp 𝑗𝑘
2𝑓 )
𝑥2 + 𝑦 2
=h0 exp ⁡( 𝑗𝑘
𝜌2
2𝑓
)

𝑘 𝜌2 𝜌2 𝑘 𝜌2
𝑘𝑧 − 𝜁 ( 𝑧 ) + −𝑘 =𝑘𝑧 − 𝜁 ( 𝑧 ) +
2𝑅 2𝑓 2𝑅
′

1 1 1
= −
𝑅 𝑅 𝑓
′
𝑊 (𝑧 )
=𝑊 0 𝑊

√
′
𝑊 =
( ) √
𝑊 ′ =𝑊 2
𝜋𝑊 (𝑧)
2 0

( )
2
1+ 𝜋𝑊2
𝜆 𝑅 (𝑧 ) 1+ ′
𝜆𝑅
 19

Thin Lens
𝑊
𝑊 ′0 =

√ ( )
2 2
𝜋𝑊
1+ ′
𝜆𝑅

′ 𝑅′
−𝑧 =

( )
′ 2
𝜆 𝑅 ( 𝑧)
1+ 2
𝜋𝑊 (𝑧)
 20

Limits of Ray Optics

( z−f )≫ z 0 Spherical Waves incident
upon the lens

W ' 0 ≈MW 0

1 1 1
+ ≈
z' z f

r ≪1 M≈ M r=| |
f
z−f
 21

Beam Shaping
𝑧0
𝑧=0 𝑟= 𝑀 𝑟 =1
𝑓

1
𝑀=

√ ( )
2
𝑧0
1+
𝑓

√ ( )
′ 𝑊0 𝑧0
2
𝑊 = ′
2 𝜃 0=2 𝜃0 1+

√
0

( )
2
𝑧 𝑓
1+ 0
𝑓
′ 𝑓
𝑧=
( )
2
𝑓
1+
𝑧0
 22

Beam Shaping
𝑧0 ≫ 𝑓 𝑧 0 =𝜋 𝑊 20 / 𝜆

′ 𝑓 ′ 𝜆
𝑊 ≈ 𝑊0 𝑊0= 𝑓 =𝜃0 𝑓
0
𝑧0 𝜋 𝑊0

𝑧′ ≈ 𝑓 𝜆 → 0 ⇒𝑊 ′0 → 0

′4𝜆 4 𝑓 4
2 𝑊 0 =𝐷 2𝑊 = 0 𝑓 = 𝜆 = 𝜆 𝐹#
𝜋 2𝑊 0 𝜋 𝐷 𝜋
 23

Reflection from Spherical Mirror

1 1 2
𝑊 1=𝑊 2 = +
𝑅 2 𝑅1 𝑅
 24

Self-Focusing (Kerr Lens)

n2 is usually positive and on the order of
𝑛 ( 𝐼 ) =𝑛0 +𝑛 2 𝐼
several 10-20m2W-1 in glasses.

[ ] ( )
2 2
2𝑃 2𝜌 2𝑃 2𝜌
𝐼 ( 𝜌 , 𝑧)= 2
exp − 2
≈ 2
1 − 2
𝜋 W (𝑧 ) 𝑊 ( 𝑧) 𝜋 𝑊 ( 𝑧) 𝑊 (𝑧 )

( ) ( )
2 𝑛2 𝑃 2𝜌
2
1 2 2
𝑛 ( 𝜌 )=𝑛 0 + 1 − ≈ 𝑛 1− 𝛼𝑔𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑟 𝜌
2
𝜋 W ( 𝑧)
2
𝑊 ( 𝑧)
0
2 GRIN lens

𝛼𝑔𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑟 = 2
2
√
2𝑛 2 𝑃
𝑊 ( 𝑧 ) 𝜋 𝑛0
1
𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑟
=𝑛0 𝛼
2
𝑔𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑟 𝑑=
8 𝑛2 𝑃𝑑
𝜋 𝑊 ( 𝑧)
4
 25

Self-Focusing
At sufficiently high power, this effect is strong enough to
focus the beam by (over)compensating its natural
divergence, a phenomenon called self-focusing. Inside the
medium, the beam then induces a channel of increased
propagation index that acts as a gradient index waveguide.
Total Internal Reflection to ensure guiding

𝜆
𝜃 0=
( )
2
𝜋𝑊0 𝜃0
𝑛 ( 0 ) cos 𝜃0 > 𝑛0 ⇒ 𝑛 ( 0 ) 1 − >𝑛 0
2

( )( )
2 𝑛2 𝑃 2 𝑛2 𝑃 𝜆
2
𝑛 ( 0,0 ) =𝑛0 + 2 𝑛0 + 2
1− 2 2
>𝑛0
𝜋𝑊0 𝜋𝑊0 2𝜋 𝑊0

𝑛0 𝜆 2 𝜆 20
𝑃> 𝑃 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =
4 𝜋 𝑛2 4 𝜋 𝑛0 𝑛2
 26

Self-Focusing
𝜆 20
𝑃 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =
4 𝜋 𝑛0 𝑛2

glass
𝜆0 =1 𝜇𝑚 𝑛0 =2 𝑛2=10−20 𝑚2 𝑊 −1 𝑃 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =4 𝑀𝑊
Air

𝜆0 =1 𝜇𝑚 𝑛0 =1 𝑛2=4 × 10− 23 𝑚2 𝑊 −1 𝑃 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =2 𝐺𝑊

Note that the self-focusing condition is independent of the beam

diameter and refers to the power and not to the beam intensity.
 27

Transmission Through an Arbitrary System

𝐴𝑞1 + 𝐵
𝑞2 =
𝐶 𝑞1 + 𝐷
𝑞 ( 𝑧 ) =𝑧+ 𝑗 𝑧 0
1 1 𝜆
= −𝑗
𝑞 (𝑧 ) 𝑅 ( 𝑧) 2
𝜋 𝑊 (𝑧 )

Transmission Through Free Space

𝑀=
[ 1
0
𝑑
1 ] 𝑞2 =
𝑞 1+ 𝑑
0 ⋅ 𝑞1 +1
=𝑞 1+ 𝑑=( 𝑧 +𝑑 ) + 𝑗 𝑧 0
 28

Transmission Through a Thin Optical Component

𝑦 2 =𝑦 1 𝑊 2 =𝑊 1
𝜃 2=𝐶 𝑦 1+ 𝐷 𝜃1 𝜃1≈
𝑦1
, 𝜃2 ≈
𝑦2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛 1 𝜆2
𝐷= = 1 𝐷
𝑛 2 𝜆1 =𝐶 +
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑀=
[ 1
𝐶
0
𝐷 ] 1 𝐷
=𝐶 + → 𝑞2 =
1 ⋅ 𝑞1 +0
𝑞2 𝑞1 𝐶 𝑞1 + 𝐷
 29

Dielectric Half-Space
2 ′ 2 2
𝜌 𝑗𝑘 𝜌 𝜌 𝑗 𝑘 𝜌2
′2
− ′ 2 −
𝑊 2𝑅 𝑊 2𝑅
𝑒 𝑒 =𝑒 𝑒

′ 𝑘′
′ 𝑛′
𝑊 =𝑊 𝑅 = 𝑅= 𝑅
𝑘 𝑛

[ ]
1 0
𝑀= 𝑛
0
𝑛′

𝑛′′
𝑞= 𝑞
𝑛
 30

Beam Expander

[ ] [ ][ ]
1 0 1 0
1 𝑑
𝑀= 1 1
− 1 0 1 − 1
𝑓2 𝑓1

[ ( ) ]
𝑑
1− 𝑑
𝑓1
=
1 𝑑 1 𝑑
− 1− − 1−
𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2

[ ]
−𝑓2
𝑑
𝑓1
=
−𝑓1 𝐶=0 ′𝑓2
𝑊 = 𝑊0 ′
𝜃 0=
𝑓1
𝜃0
0 0
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓2
−𝑓2 Such systems are frequently used to expand a
𝑞+ 𝑑
𝐴𝑞+ 𝐵 𝑓 beam waist and reduce the divergence.
𝑞′ = = 1
𝐶𝑞 + 𝐷 − 𝑓1
𝑓2
 31

Hermite-Gaussian Beams
• Paraboloidal wavefronts are of interest, because they are
able to match the curvature of spherical mirrors of large
radius, such as those that form optical resonator, and
reflect between them without being altered.

𝐴1
[ ]
2 2
𝑥 +𝑦
𝐴 𝐺 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )= exp − 𝑗𝑘
𝑞( 𝑧) 2𝑞 ( 𝑧 )

𝐴 ( 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑧 )= 𝑋
[ ][ ]
√ 2 𝑥 𝑌 √ 2 𝑦 exp [ 𝑗𝑍 ( 𝑧 ) ] 𝐴 ( 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑧 )
𝑊 ( 𝑧) 𝑊 (𝑧)
𝐺
 32

Hermite-Gaussian Beams

[ ][ ]
𝐴 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 ,𝑧 )= 𝑋
√ 2𝑥
𝑊 ( 𝑧)
𝑌
√ 2𝑦
exp [ 𝑗𝑍 ( 𝑧 ) ] 𝐴𝐺 ( 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑧 )
𝑊 (𝑧)

• The phase is the same as that of the underlying Gaussian wave,

except for an excess phase Z(z). If Z(z) is a slowly varying
function of z, both waves have paraboloidal wavefronts with the
same radius of curvature R(z). These two waves are therefore
focused by thin lenses and mirrors in precisely the same manner.
• The magnitude is a function of x/W(z) and y/W(z) whose widths in
the x and y directions vary with z in accordance with the same
scaling factor W(z). As z increases, the intensity distribution in the
transverse plane remains fixed, except for a magnification factor
W(z).
 33

Hermite-Gaussian Beams
𝑢= √ 2 𝑥 /𝑊 (𝑧) 𝑣= √ 2 𝑦 /𝑊 (𝑧)

( ) ( )
2 2
𝜕 𝑌 𝑘 𝑊 ( 𝑧) 𝜕 𝑍
2 2
1 𝜕 𝑋 𝜕𝑋 1 𝜕 𝑌
−2 𝑢 + − 2𝑣 + =0
𝑋 𝜕𝑢 2
𝜕𝑢 𝑌 𝜕𝑣 2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕2 𝑋 𝜕𝑋
− +𝑢 =𝑙𝑋 𝑋 ( 𝑢 ) =𝐻 𝑙 ( 𝑢 ) , 𝑙=0,1,2 , …
2 𝜕𝑢 2
𝜕𝑢
1 𝜕2 𝑌 𝜕𝑌
− +𝑣 =𝑚𝑌 𝑌 ( 𝑣 ) =𝐻 𝑚 ( 𝑣 ) ,𝑚=0,1,2 , …
2 𝜕 𝑣2 𝜕𝑣

[ ( )]
2
𝑧 𝑑𝑍 −1 𝑧
𝑧 0 1+ =𝑙+𝑚 𝑍 ( 𝑧 ) =( 𝑙+𝑚 ) 𝜁 ( 𝑧 ) =( 𝑙+𝑚 ) tan
𝑧0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧0

Z(z) varies slowly between -(l+m)π/2 and +(l+m)π/2 as z varies between

-∞ and +∞.
 34

Hermite-Gaussian Beams
𝐻 𝑙+1 ( 𝑢 )=2 𝑢 𝐻 𝑙 ( 𝑢 ) −2 𝑙 𝐻 𝑙− 1 ( 𝑢 )

𝐻 0 ( 𝑢 )=1 𝐻 2 ( 𝑢 )=4 𝑢 2 −2
𝐻 1 ( 𝑢 )=2 𝑢 𝐻 3 ( 𝑢 )=8 𝑢3 −12 𝑢

[ ]
2
𝑢
𝐺𝑙 ( 𝑢 )=𝐻 𝑙 ( 𝑢 ) exp −
2
 35

Hermite-Gaussian Beams

[ ] [ ] [ ]
2
2 𝑊0 2 √2 𝑥 2 √2 𝑦
𝐼 𝑙,𝑚 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) =| 𝐴𝑙 ,𝑚| 𝐺𝑙 𝐺𝑚
𝑊 (𝑧) 𝑊 (𝑧) 𝑊 (𝑧 )

Because of their small longitudinal electric field components, these waves

are also called TEMlm-modes.
 36

Laguerre-Gaussian Beams
W0 ρ l l 2 ρ2 −ρ2
U l , m ( ρ , ϕ , z )= A l ,m [ ]( ) Lm ( 2 )exp ( 2 )
W ( z) W ( z) W (z) W (z)
ρ2
exp (− jkz− jk ∓ jl ϕ + j (l +2 m+1) ζ ( z))
2 R( z )

( )
−𝑙 𝑥 𝑚
𝑥 𝑒 𝑑
𝑙
𝐿 ( 𝑥 )=
𝑚 ( 𝑥 𝑒 )
𝑙+𝑚 −𝑥
Generalized Laguerre polynomial function
𝑚! 𝑑𝑥
𝑚

𝐿𝑙0 ( 𝑥 )=1
𝐿10 ( 𝑥 )=1 − 𝑥
0 𝑥2
𝐿 ( 𝑥 )=1 −2 𝑥+
2
2
 37

Laguerre-Gaussian Beams
 38

Superposition of Two Laguerre-

Gaussian beams
 39

Bessel Beams
2
𝛻 𝑈 +𝑘 𝑈=0 2
𝑈 ( 𝑟⃗ )= 𝐴 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 ) 𝑒− 𝑗 𝛽 𝑧

𝐴 ( 𝑥 , 𝑦 )= 𝐴𝑚 𝐽 𝑚 ( 𝑘𝑇 𝜌 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝑚 𝜙 𝑘2𝑇 + 𝛽 2=𝑘2

Diffraction-free beams
 40

Airy Beams