Revised by Siraj B

Underground Mining methods and Mine Development

6.1. Types of underground mining,

6.2. Unsupported - Room and Pillar, Slope and Pillar,

Shrinkage and sub level slopping,

6.3. Supported - Cut and Fill, Square set and Stull stopping

6.4. Caving - Long wall, Block and Sublevel caving

 Underground mining is used to extract ore from
below the surface of the earth safely, economically
and with as little waste as possible.
 The entry from the surface to an underground mine
may be through a horizontal or vertical tunnel,
known as adit, shaft or decline.
 Underground mining methods become necessary
when the stripping ratio becomes uneconomical, or
occasionally when the surface use of the land would
prohibit surface mining.
 Underground methods based on the competency of the
orebody and host rock are broken into three classes:
unsupported, supported, and caving methods.

 Unsupported methods require the addition of minimal

artificial supports to secure a stable opening, whereas

 Supported methods require the addition of major support

to keep the openings from caving.

 Finally the caving method is to create stable openings

underground.
 UNDERGROUND OPENING

 underground mining is used 1. For accessing and

exploiting ore bodies are not exposed on surface and

2. cannot be mined by open pit methods.

 Infrastructure of underground mines is more complex than

open pits.

 Underground mining is applied when:

 The ore deposit is deep.
 Ore body is steep.
 Grade is high enough to exceed costs.
 Raise: is underground opening driven
upward.

 Winze: is a small vertical excavation

which can be developed in underground
mines by driving it downward from one
level to another, or it can be driven from a
surface to a level.

 Pillar: is block of ore or barren rock left

intact in the mined out stope or between
two stopes to act as a mean of support.

 Draw point: is a place from which the ore

is extracted from the stope and loaded
onto trucks or conveyors for further
transportation.

 Adit: Horizontal or nearly horizontal

entrance to a mine.

 Shaft: Vertical or inclined underground

opening through which a mine is worked. 6
 Mine Access
1. Underground mine access
2. Ore access
 Accessing underground ore can be achieved via a
decline (ramp), inclined vertical shaft or adit.

 To make underground mining economically viable,

access must be well planned and efficient
 Access to the underground ore body is based on the
understanding of its characteristics and those of the
surrounding rock.

7
Development Mining Vs. Production Mining

There are two principal phases of underground

mining: development mining and production
mining.

Development Mining is composed of excavation

almost entirely in (non-valuable) waste rock in
order to gain access to the ore body.

8
 There are six principal steps in Development Mining :

1. Remove previously blasted material.

2. Scaling ( removing any unstable slabs of rock hanging from the

roof& sidewalls to protect workers and equipment damage

3. Support excavation,

4. Drill rock face,

5. Load explosives

6. Blast explosives.

9
Production Mining means the mining and transportation of
ore from the Pits to the Primary Crusher or run of mine
stockpiles.

Production Mining is further divided into two methods:-

i) Short hole mining- is similar to development mining,

except that it occurs in ore.

ii) Long Hole mining- there are several different methods

of long hole mining. Typically long hole mining requires
two excavations within the ore at different elevations
below surface (13-30m apart).

10
 Underground Mine Ventilation
One of the most important aspects of underground
hard rock mining is ventilation. Ventilation is required
to clear toxic fumes from blasting and removing
exhaust fumes from diesel equipment.

Indeep hot mines ventilation is also required for

cooling the workplace for miners.

Ventilation
raises are excavated to provide ventilation
for the workplaces, and can be modified for use as
emergency escape routes.
11
 Ground Support
Ground support is necessary when voids (empty
spaces) are created underground. Some means of
support is required in order to maintain the stability
of the openings that are excavated.

 The competency of the rock being mined will

determine how large a void may be created and what
ground support methods will be necessary to
maintain a safe working environment.

12
 Stoping
Stoping is the removal of the ore body from the
surrounding rock.
The underground stoping method used depends on
the nature and extent of the ore body.
Stoping is used for mining deposits with the following
characteristics.

Steep dip, the footwall inclination must exceed the

angle of repose.
Stable rock in both hanging wall and foot wall.
Both competent ore and host rock
Regular ore boundaries
13
Underground mining methods
The mining method used will depend on the
characteristics of the ore body, particularly thickness
and dip, and the competency of the surrounding rock.

Differentmethods can be used in different mine. This

type of planning is done continuously as mining
proceeds and more date are acquired on the ore body
configuration through underground drilling.

14
Underground mining use;
 Specialised designed machinery for
effective operation including blast
holes in development or
production workings.
 Variety are Jumbo drilling rigs.
 Hand held drilling called air-legs.
 Load-haul-dump machine (LHD)
 Strength of rocks is not always
sufficient for safe excavation to
prevent a collapse of the rocks in
underground workings they must
be strengthened and reinforced
Underground machineries and equipment: (a)
using the common roof support two beams Jumbo; (b) air leg; (c) LHD truck;(d)
techniques of rock bolting and supported by meshing and rock bolting (RB)

wire meshing.
 Underground mining methods

(i) Soft rock mining methods

a) Long wall mining

b) Room and pillar mining (or continuous mining)
c) Blast mining
d) Shortwall mining
e) Coal skimming

16
 (ii) Hard rock mining methods
1. Selective mining methods:-
1.1 unsupported mining methods:
a, Room and Pillar mining (for continuous mining).
b, Shrinkage stoping
1.2 Supported Mining Methods:
a, cut and fill mining
b, Square-set stoping
c, stull mining
2. Caving (or Bulk) mining methods:-
a, longwall mining
b, sublevel caving stoping
c, Block caving stoping
17
 1. Selective Mining Methods
1. Unsupported Mining Methods:
Unsupported methods of mining are used to extract mineral
deposits that are roughly tabular (flat or steeply dipping) and are
generally associated with strong ore and surrounding rock.
These methods are termed unsupported because they do not use
any artificial pillars to assist in the support of the openings.
However, generous amounts of roof bolting and localized support
measures may often used.
a. Room (Board) and pillar mining
b. Shrinkage Stopping.
The room (board) and pillar mining methods account for almost
all of the underground mining in horizontal deposits in the united
states and very high proportion of the underground tonnage as
well.
18
 Room-and-pillar Method

 Recover bedded deposits horizontal or nearly horizontal when the

orebody and the surrounding rock are reasonably competent.
 Parallel openings are mined in the ore, i.e., rooms, and blocks of ore,
i.e., pillars, are left in place to support the overlying strata.
 Other than the pillars, little artificial support is required and often
consists of bolts placed into the overlying strata to pin the layers
together, making them behave like a strong laminated beam.
 A few examples of commodities mined by this method would include
coal, lead, trona, limestone, and salt.
 It is preferred to apply for sedimentary deposits (such as shales,
limestone, dolomite or sandstone) containing copper, lead, coal
seams, phosphate layers, and evaporate (salt and potash) layers
 The flat ore body and large open areas allows to establish several
production areas with an easy communication between different
sites.
 In room-and-pillar series of parallel drifts are
driven, with connections made between these
drifts at regular intervals.
 When the distance between connecting drifts
is the same as that between the parallel
drifts, then a checkerboard pattern of rooms
and pillars is created, as shown in the figure.
 The pillars of ore are left to support the
overlying rock, but in some mines, after
mining has reached the deposit’s boundary,
some or all of the pillars may be removed.
 In room and pillar mining, seams of coal are
mined partially, leaving large pillars of coal
intact to support the overlying layers of rock. Figure Room-and-pillar
 Mining by this method creates a network of
alternating open spaces and large pillars of coal
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 21
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 22
 SHRINKAGE STOPING
 Recover steeply dipping orebodies
when the ore and host rock are
competent.
 Similarly to cut-and-fill method,
shrinkage stoping starts from the
bottom of the ore body and advances
upward excavating the ore in horizontal
slices.
 The difference is the broken ore is not
removed completely in shrinkage stope.
 Broken ore remaining in the stope,
serves as support for the stope walls.
 Shrinkage stoping is highly selective and
cost effective mining method.
 However, its application is limited to the
steeply dipping regular ore bodies in the
very stable host rocks.
Shrinkage stoping
 Regular shape of the ore body is also
important for effective use of this
technique.
Vertical Crater Retreat
 Used at the deposits of steeply
dipping ore hosted by the
competent wall rocks .
 It is based on the crater blasting
by firing the large diameter
holes drilled downward from
the overcut developed on the top
of a stope.
 Blast holes are charged by
explosives into the short
sections of the holes
 Explosive is positioned in the
each hole at the same distance
above open surface.
 The blasting loosens the ore
slice of ore creating a crater
which is vertically retreated.
 Ore is continuously extracted
from the draw points together
with rigorous recording of the
blasting progress in each hole.
Room and pillar mining Vs. Shrinkage stoping

COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 25
2. Supported Mining Methods
A) Cut and fill Mining Method
It is one of the more popular method used for vein
deposits and has recently grown in use

It is an expensive but selective mining method, with

low ore loss and dilution (allows selective mining and
avoid mining of waste or low grade ore)

It is a method of short hole mining used in steeply

dipping or irregular ore zones and scattered
mineralization, in particular where the hanging wall
limits the use of long hole methods.
26
 CUT-AND-FILL METHOD
 Cut and fill is used to recover ore
from weaker strength materials
,openings not remain stable after
the ore is removed, and overlying
strata cannot be allowed to cave.
 A slice of the orebody is mined
and immediately after the ore is
removed, backfill is placed into
the opening to support the ore
above.
 Selective mining of the steeply
Cut-and-fill mining procedure
dipping veins, in particular for the
narrow high-grade ore bodies.
 Every slice is mined by drilling
and blasting the face after which
Drilling of the stope face can be done by
the broken ore (muck) is removed
from the stope. either a Jumbo or an air-leg, depending on
 The process is repeated until the the thickness of the ore-body and the
entire slice (lift) is excavated
permissible external dilution.
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 28
 B) Square Set Stoping
The square-set stoping method is used where the ore
is weak and the walls are not strong enough to
support themselves.
The value of the ore must be relatively high, for
square-setting is slow, expensive, and requires highly
skilled miners and supervisors.
In square-set stopping, one small block of ore is
removed and placed by a set or cubic frame of timber
which is immediately set in to place.
 The timber sets interlock and are filled with broken
waste rock or sand fill, for they are strong enough to
support the stope walls.
29
The waste rock or sand fill is usually added after on
tier of sets, or stope cut, is made.

Square-set stopping also involves backfilling mine

voids; however, it relies mainly on timber sets to
support the walls during mining.

This mining method is rapidly disappearing in North

America because of the high cost of labor.

However, it still finds occasional use in mining high

grade ores or in countries where labor costs are low.
30
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 31
C) Stull Stoping
Is a supported mining method using timber or rock
bolts in tabular, pitching ore bodies.

Isone of the methods that can be applied to ore

bodies that have dips between 10 degree and 45
degree.

Often utilize artificial pillars of waste to support

the roof.

32
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 33
 2) Caving (or Bulk) Mining Methods

Caving methods are used in settings where the ore or

the host rock is so weak that it cannot support its own
weight for any period of time; the methods only work if
the rock or the ore will readily cave under its own
weight.
Caving methods include block caving, sublevel caving,
and longwall mining.
Caving methods are varied and versatile and involve
caving the ore and/or the overlying rock
Subsidence of the surface normally occurs afterward.

34
A. Longwall stoping
Is caving method particularly well adopted to
relatively flat-lying, thin, planar deposits or horizontal
seams, usually coal.

Is suitable for tabular ore bodies, with moderate dip

(e.g., coal and stratiform hard rock ores like diamond
deposits)
Need to divide ore body to face or the working face.
The collection of cuts, cross cuts and pillars all
together make up a “panel” and all the equipment that
goes together to operate in that panel is a “unit or
longwall units”
35
Inthis method a face of considerable length (a long
face or wall) is maintained, and as the mining
progresses the overlying strata are caved, thus
promoting the breakage of the coal itself.

Applied to longer (100 m) and longer diameter

blast holes (thus requiring less drilling than
sublevel stoping)

Require high ground support cost, non-selective

and not stress friendly.

36
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 37
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 38
COMPILED BY ASSNAKE 39
B) Sub level caving stoping
Itis used to mine large ore bodies with steep dip
tabular or massive deposit and continuation at
depth

The ore is extracted via sublevels which are

developed in the ore body at regular vertical
spacing

Each sub level has a systematic layout of parallel

drifts, along or across the ore body.

Sublevelstoping recovers the ore from open stopes

separated by access drifts each connected to a ramp
40
 SUBLEVEL OPEN STOPING
 Strong and massive orebodies in the very weak host rock and
quickly caves into the void created by removing the core.
 Both big-hole open stoping&
sublevel open stoping methods
subdivide the ore body into several
large stopes.

 Each of the stopes are mined either

using sublevels (sublevel open
stoping) or as big hole open stoping.

 Stopes are developed using the

sublevel drives prepared inside the
ore body between the main levels .

 Blast holes are drilled from the

sublevel drives distributed as a tight
fan pattern covering the whole
The ore body is divided in to sections about 100 m
high and further divided laterally into alternating
stopes and pillars.

A main haulage drive is created in the foot wall at

the bottom, with cut-outs for draw-points
connected to the stopes above. The bottom is v-
shaped and funnel the blasted material into the
draw-points

Long hole rig drill the section above a drift. The ore
in the stope is blasted, collected in the draw points,
and hauled away.
42
 C) Block Caving Stoping
Block-caving method is employed generally for
steeply dipping ores, and thick sub-horizontal seams of
ore.
The method has application, for example in sulphide
deposits and underground kimberlite (diamond)
mining.

It is most applicable to:

A large-scale or bulk mining method that is highly

productive, low in cost, and used primarily on massive
steeply dipping ore bodies that must be mined
underground.
43
EQUIPMENT
Thank your for your attention
 Oldest rocks in Ethiopia are late Proterozoic age (900-540Ma) exposed
in the northern, western and southern parts of Ethiopia. A scattering
of such rocks, however, can be also found in Harar in the east.
 Mesozoic (251-66Ma) and some slightly older marine, continental and
sedimentary rocks cover another 25% of the country. These Mesozoic
formations include rocks like sandstone, shale, limestone and gypsum.
Eastern Ethiopia contains exceptionally large areas of these kinds of
rock - most notably in the Ogaden Basin. There are also two
sedimentary basins in the centre and to the north of the country.
 The remaining 50% of the country is covered by Tertiary (65 - 2.6Ma)
and Quaternary (2.6Ma - present time) volcanic and sedimentary
rocks. These originate from the formation of the Ethiopian rift, a
subsection of the greater East African rift. The Ethiopian rift runs
from northeast to southwest across Ethiopia. As such, the Ethiopian
highlands are underlain mainly by thick sequences of flood basalt that
erupted 65-13 million years ago, while the rift valley itself is covered
mainly by Quaternary (<2.6Ma) volcanic rocks and associated
sedimentary rocks.
 Quaternary sediments also occur in other parts of the country and
tertiary sediments in the far east.
Ethiopia has known occurrences of more than 30 minerals. These
include:
 Metallic minerals (gold, platinum, iron, nickel, chromite and base
metals);
 Energy minerals (lithium, graphite, tantalum and coal);
 Cement raw minerals (limestone, gypsum, clay, pumice);
 Fertiliser raw minerals (potash and phosphate);
 Ceramics raw minerals (kaolin, feldspar);
 Glass raw minerals (silica sand);
 Dimension stones (marble, granite, limestone, sandstone,
diatomite, bentonite, soda ash, salt, graphite and sulphur);
Gemstones (opals, emeralds, sapphires).
 Background of the Mining sector of Ethiopia

The oldest rocks to be found in Ethiopia are from late Proterozoic age (900-540Ma), and
cover slightly less than 25% of the country. Mainly, these rocks are exposed in the
northern, western and southern parts of Ethiopia. A scattering of such rocks, however,
can be also found in Harar in the east.
Ethiopia’s Proterozoic basement sits partly in the Arabian-Nubian shield that continues
north into Sudan, Egypt and Saudi Arabia and south into the Mozambique Belt, which
comprises much of the geological basement
throughout eastern and southern Africa. Mesozoic (251-66Ma) and some slightly older
marine, continental and sedimentary rocks cover another 25% of the country. These
Mesozoic formations include rocks like sandstone, shale, limestone and gypsum. Eastern
Ethiopia contains exceptionally large areas of these kinds of rock - most notably in the
Ogaden Basin. There are also two sedimentary basins in the centre and to the north of the
country.
The remaining 50% of the country is covered by Tertiary (65 - 2.6Ma) and Quaternary
(2.6Ma - present time) volcanic and sedimentary rocks. These originate from the
formation of the Ethiopian rift, a subsection of the greater East African rift. The
Ethiopian rift runs from northeast to southwest across Ethiopia. As such, the Ethiopian
Gold in Ethiopia
 Significant gold mineralization has been found in three regions:
 The Western greenstone belts
 .The most promising gold occurrences are located in the Tulu-Kapi and Ankore
areas.
 The Northern greenstone belts
 greenstone belt is the Terakimiti trenching and drilling has revealed grades of up to
16 grams a tonne. The deposit contains an estimated total of 20 million tonnes of
ore with a grade of 0.29 grammes per tonne and there is also 6 million tonnes of ore
that contain 2.24% copper.
 The Southern greenstone belts
 The Lega Dembi mine has two active sites already in production – one open pit
and an underground gold mine. The Sakaro mine is an underground mine
 GOLD MINING IN ETHIOPIA
 Ethiopia's only primary gold mines are Lega Dembi and Sakaro, both are located in
southern Ethiopia in the Adola Gold Belt. Since commencing operations in 1998, Lega
Dembi has produced 2.1 million ounces of gold. The remaining gold resource is
estimated at 2.5 million ounces.
 Sakaro mine is an underground mine
 Tulu Kapi gold in Wollega
 Akobo gold in Gambella
 Terakimti Gold in Tigray
 Kurmuk Gold in Benshangul
 Potash mining in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia’s mineral potential, potash has garnered the greatest interest.95% of the
world’s potash is mined for use in fertilizers
 The potash reserves will be mined using solution mining technology, which is
considered as the lowest risk mining method based on the geology of the region,
followed by solar evaporation.
 Solution mining involves injecting brine solution through a well, which is equipped with
the piping and pumps required to extract potash from the deposit. The brine mix with
the potash-bearing salts below the ground and form a cavity.
 The dissolved brine then be extracted from the ground and evaporated in solar ponds to
recover the contained minerals in the form of potash crystals. The harvested crystals
from the ponds further refined in a processing plant to produce SOP and MOP.
 Kaolin resources of Ethiopia
 Economic kaolin resources of Ethiopia are mostly associated with acidic intrusive
rocks (e.g., granites and pegmatites) and gneissic rocks.
 Sedimentary hosted kaolin is found in Blue Nile river basin, Ogaden basin and
Mekele Outlier.
 Bombowha and Kombolcha l Kaolin deposits are top suppliers to domestic ceramic
industries.
 Unfortunately, the kaolin deposits in Ethiopia remain wholly untapped.
 Lack of marketing, limited knowledge of the mineral, and inadequate research are
the reasons behind the country’s underdeveloped kaolin mineral sector.

Map of Geology and Kaolin

resources of Ethiopia
 KAOLIN DEPOSITS OF ETHIOPIA

Exploration for kaolin in Ethiopia was carried out mainly at the granites and pegmatites.
Intensive exploration have been carried out at Bombowha and Kombolcha areas and both of them
are related to acidic intrusive rocks (Haile Michael,, 1998).
The main sources of kaolin for the ceramic industry in Ethiopia are the weathering products of
granites and pegmatites. Acidic volcanics rocks (such as rhyolite or trachyte) in central and
northern Ethiopia, and the coal related clay sediments of northwest Ethiopia, near Chilga are a
source of kaolin in Ethiopia

OUTCROPS OF KAOLIN OCCURRENCES SOUTH

EXPLORATION PITS OF SOUTHERN KOMBOLCHA
OF KOMBOLCHA.
 Bombowoha kaolin deposit is located in Southern
Ethiopia, Borena Zone, Bore District, at the locality
called Bombowoha.

 Kombolcha kaolin deposit is located in the East

Hararghe Zone of Oromia Regional State. Kombolcha
is found at about 16 kilometers distance to the north
of Harar town along all-weather road from Harar to
Exposures of Ansho Kaolin occurrence
Ejersa Goro town. Kaolinized granite occurrences are
scattered within kilometers radius from Kombolcha. The Ansho kaolin deposit is found in
SPNNRS, Hadiya zone, Duna Woreda.
 Belesa kaolin deposit is found in north east of
Hosanna town, 230 km south of Addis Ababa, near The Ansho kaolin deposit can be
the village of Belesa, Southern Ethiopia. All the reached through 232 km long, all
occurrences are located at an accessible location and asphalted road from Addis Ababa to
can be reached by both four-wheel drive cars and Hosaina
trucks.
 Soda Ash mining in Ethiopian

 Abijata-Shalla Soda Ash Share Company in the central Main

Ethiopian Rift is producing soda ash (Na2CO3) by
evaporating brine water from Abijata Lake.
 Presently, 5000t of soda ash is produced annually with a
grade of about 90% against the expected 20,000t with 97%
grade.

Soda Ash
 TANTALUM MINING IN ETHIOPIA
 Kenticha tantalum deposit is located approximately 550km south of Addis Ababa and
is owned by Ethiopian Minerals, Petroleum and Bio Fuel Corporation (EMPBFC)
 Ethiopia presently supplies close to ten percent of the World production of
tantalum
 Ethiopia is the sixth biggest producer of tantalum in the world
 Produce is around 70 tonnes of Ta metal per year (120 tonnes of concentrate at 60
percent Ta2O5.
 Probable reserve of primary ore is 17,000 tonnes at Ta2O5 at a grade of 0.017 percent
Ta2O5 , whereas the reserve of Ta2O5 in the weathered zone calculated to 2400 tonnes
at 0.015 percent Ta2O5.
 Opals
 Opal, the hydrated amorphous variety of silica, commonly precipitates from silica-
supersaturated fluids. Among opals, purely amorphous opal (opal-A) differs from poorly
crystallized opal (opal-CT or -C) based on its atomic structure.
 Ethiopia is well on course to become the first challenger to Australian opals. In 2008, the
discovery of spectacular Wollo opals in northern Ethiopia changed the game.
 Opals from Wegel Tena (Wollo province) are pedogenetic origin, hence related to
continental weathering . Wegel Tena opals were precipitated from silica-rich waters fed by
the weathering of ignimbrite, specifically the weathering of glass and feldspar.
 Opals from Wegel Tena characterized by high quality, structurally stable and strikingly
beautiful opal
 Between 2000 and 2014 alone, Ethiopia’s exports of opals increased by 136.6%.
Geographical origin of the analyzed samples. Left: Cenozoic volcanic provinces in Ethiopia with
the location the Wegel Tena plateau as a part of the Ethiopian traps. Right: opal mines along the
Wegel Tena plateau where samples were collected (GPS positions are available in Table 1).