1/30/24, 4:21 PM Chapter 4 - Lecture notes 4

Chapter 4

Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals

“All art is at once surface and symbol. Those who

go beneath the surface do so at their peril.”

Oscar Wilde (1854 - 1900)

4.1 Line integrals

Rb
In ordinary calculus, the expression a f (x)dx means “the integral of f (x) from x = a along
the x-axis to x = b.”

In vector calculus this concept can be generalised. Instead of integrating along the x-axis,
we can integrate along any curve.

An integral along a curve is called a line integral (or path integral, or curve integral, or
contour integral).

There are several types of line integral.

4.1.1 Line integral of a scalar field

For a scalar field f (x, y, z), the line integral along a curve C is
Z
f ds (4.1)
C

where ds is an element of arc length along C. For example, Fig. 4.1 shows a curve C that
starts at a point A and ends at a point B, with P a general point on the curve. If arc length
is measured from point A, and sB is the arc length from A and B along C then
Z Z s=sB
f ds = f (P (s))ds, (4.2)
C s=0

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Figure 4.1: A scalar field line integral along a curve from A to B can be defined in terms of
the arc length from A but can be evaluated using a more convenient parameterisation of
the curve.

where points P (s) on C are parameterised by the arc length s and f (P (s)) denotes the
scalar field evaluated at the point P (s).

In general, arc length need not be measured from an endpoint of C. If arc length is mea-
sured from some other point D, then a line integral from A to B could be written as
Z s= sB
f (P (s))ds (4.3)
s=sA

where sA is the arc length from D to A and sB is the arc length from D to B. Choice of the
point from which arc length is measured does not influence the value of the line integral.

In practice, the curve is usually defined in terms of a parameter other than arc length. Sup-
pose that C is parameterised by t as r(t) = [x(t), y(t), z(t)] with A = P (tA ) and B = P (tB ).
For points on C, f (r(t)) is now a function of t only.

We have seen (section 2.1.4) that the arc length s along a curve C from a specified point
D where t = tD to a general point where t = t is
Z t  
 dr(τ ) dτ.

s(t) =  dτ 
tD

Then
   
ds  dr(t)   dr(t) 
=   ) ds =   dt.
dt dt  dt 
Hence the line integral along C from A to B can be written:
Z sB Z tB Z tB  
 dr(t) 
ds
Z
f ds = f (P (s)) ds = f (P (t)) dt = f (P (t))   dt. (4.4)
C sA tA dt tA dt 

Special case:
R R
If f (P ) = 1, then C f (P )ds = C ds is the arc length (or length) of the curve C .

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Figure 4.2: The curve C over which we integrate in example 4.1.

Figure 4.3: Diagram to illustrate example 4.2.

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Example 4.1. Evaluate the integral C x2 + y 2 ds where C is the shorter arc of the circle
R  

2 2

(x, y, z) : x + y = 1, z = 0
from (1, 0, 0) to (0, 1, 0).

Solution. We integrate along C as depicted in figure 4.2, from A (1, 0, 0) to B (0, 1, 0).
π
Parameterise C by r = [x, y, z] = [cos t, sin t, 0]. Then at A, t = 0, and at B, t = 2. Also
dr
dt = [ sin t, cos t, 0], so that
  p
 dr 
  = sin2 t + cos2 t = 1.
 dt 
Hence:
Z  
Z Z
 ds   dr
x2 + y 2 ds = x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2   dt
   
I = dt =
C C dt C dt
Z π Z π
2 2 π
π
cos2 t + sin2 t (1)dt =
 
= 1dt = [t]02 = .
0 0 2

RExample 4.2. If C is a curve in the x-y plane, and z = f (x, y) > 0 along C, then
C f (x, y)ds is the area of the “curtain” between C and f (x, y) along C (see figure 4.3).
Remark 4.1. A curve C is simple if it does not intersect itself. It is closed if by travelling
along it we can end up back we started. Figure 4.4 shows an example of a simple closed
curve.
Remark 4.2. When C is a simple closed curve, we use the following notation for a line
integral around C : I
f ds.
C
The orientation of C (direction we go round it) is important, in the same way that the order
of the lower and upper limits is important for ordinary integration. This remark applies to
all types of line integral.

Figure 4.4: The value of a (non-zero) line integral around a closed curve C is dependent
on the direction around which we traverse it.

Remark 4.3. If a curve C can be decomposed into several smaller curves then we can
integrate over each smaller curve separately. For example, if C = C1 [ C2 [ C3 , then
Z Z Z Z
f ds = f ds + f ds + f ds.
C C1 C2 C3
This remark applies to all types of line integral.

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Figure 4.5: An infinitesimal displacement dr locally tangent (parallel) to a curve C, and a

general vector field F at the same point.

4.1.2 Line integrals of a vector field

An important class of line integral arises when the scalar function to be integrated is the
component of a vector field locally tangent (i.e. parallel) to the curve, i.e. f = F · û where
û is a unit vector locally tangent to the curve.

Suppose that the curve C is parameterised by t as r(t) and has endpoints A = r(tA ) and
B = r(tB ). We recall from Chapter 2 that dr/dt is tangent to C. Writing this vector as the
product of a magnitude and a unit vector,
 
dr  dr
= û   .
dt dt

Substituting f = F · û into the formula for the line integral of a scalar field (equation 4.4),
we obtain
 
 dr  dr
Z Z Z
f ds = F · û   dt = F· dt
C C dt C dt

We obtain a compact notation by noting that

dr
dr ⌘
dt
dt
is an infinitesimal displacement along the curve in the direction of increasing t (Fig. 4.5):
Definition 4.1. For a vector field F(x, y, z ), we define the vector field line integral along a
curve C to be Z
F · dr
C
where dr represents an infinitesimal displacement along C .

This is usually calculated using

dr
Z Z
F · dr = F· dt.
C C dt

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Figure 4.6: The curve C over which we integrate in example 4.3.

Application 1: Work done by a force

Consider a particle moving along a curve C through space (its trajectory ) parameterised
by time t, so that the position of the particle at any time is r(t). If the particle experiences
a force F(r(t)) then the work done on the particle by that force is
Z
W = F · dr.
C

Work has units of energy. Examples of work include the work that gravity does to accelerate
a falling object and the work that air resistance does to slow the object or resist gravity; if
the object starts from rest and there are no other forces, then the final kinetic energy is the
difference between these works.

Example 4.3. A particle experiences a force F = F0 (2ex + 3ey ), where F0 is a constant,

as it moves along the circumference of the circle C given by

(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 = a2 , z = 0


in the first quadrant of the x-y plane from A (a, 0, 0) to B (0, a, 0). Find the work done W
by the force on the particle.

Solution. The curve C is shown in figure 4.6.

R
We need to find W = C F · dr. To do this, we first parameterise C. One possibility is

r(t) = [a cos t, a sin t, 0],

π
where t = 0 at A and t = 2 at B. Then,

dr
= [a sin t, a cos t, 0].
dt

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Hence,
t= π2
dr
Z Z
W = F · dr = F· dt
C t=0 dt
Z π
2
= F0 [2, 3, 0] · [a sin t, a cos t, 0]dt
0
Z π
2
= F0 (2a sin t + 3a cos t) dt
0
π
= F0 [2a cos t + 3a sin t]02
= F0 [(3a)  (2a)] = 5aF0 .

Application 2: Topology of magnetic fields

The Solar MHD group at Dundee have pioneered the use of line integrals to quantify the
topology of magnetic fields. When A is a vector potential for a magnetic field B = r ⇥ A,
the integral I
A= A · dr
C
measures the amount of magnetic flux linking linking the closed curve C. This result comes
from Stokes’ theorem, which we will encounter in a later chapter.

4.1.3 Other types of line integral

The line integrals seen so far in this course produced a scalar result. Some other types of
line integral produce a vector result, and we consider two of these.

First, consider a curve C that starts at a point A and ends at a point B. Having introduced
dr as the infinitesimal displacement along a curve, the line integral
Z
dr = r(B)  r(A)
C

gives the vector from point A to point B. If the curve is parameterised by t this can be
evaluated as
dr
Z Z
dr = dt.
C C dt

The final line integral form we consider is

Z
F ⇥ dr
C

for a vector field F defined along a curve C . If the curve is parameterised by t this can be
evaluated as
dr
Z Z
F ⇥ dr = F⇥ dt
C C dt

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Figure 4.7: The curve C in example 4.4.

An example of an application is the Lorentz force acting on a current carying wire in a

magnetic field, for which F ⌘ IB where I is the electric current flowing along the wire and
B is the magnetic field.
R
Example 4.4. Evaluate C F ⇥ dr where F = xex  xyzey + xzez and C is the straight line
from A (1, 0, 0) to B (0, 1, 0).

Solution. The curve C is shown in figure 4.7 and it is given by y = 1  x (and z = 0) from
(1, 0, 0) to (0, 1, 0). We can parameterise C as

r(t) = [x, y, z] = [t, 1  t, 0],

where t = 1 at A and t = 0 at B. Then,

t=0
dr(t)
Z Z
I= F ⇥ dr = F⇥ dt.
C t=1 dt

dr(t)
Now F = [x, xyz, xz] = [t, 0, 0] and dt = [1, 1, 0]. Then:
 
ex ey ez 
dr(t)  
F⇥ =  t 0 0  = ex (0)  ey (0) + ez (t).
dt  1 1 0 

Then:
0
1 0
Z 0 Z 0 
dr(t)
Z 
I = F⇥ dt = (tez ) dt = ez tdt = ez  t2
1 dt 1 1 2 1
✓ ◆  
1 1

1
= ez 0   = ez = 0 , 0 , .
2 2 2

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Figure 4.8: We can integrate a scalar field over a surface S with general point P .

4.2 Surface integrals

4.2.1 Definition and derivation

In section 4.1 we saw that a line integral generalises the idea of integrating along the x-
axis. In this section we generalise the ideaRRof integrating over a planar region, such as a
region D in the x-y plane as in the integral D f (x, y)dxdy, to any surface S .

Consider a surface S described in terms of parameters u and v, that is, a general point P
in the surface can be written as

r = [x, y, z] = [x(u, v), y(u, v ), z(u, v)] = r(u, v ).

Let f (P ) be a scalar field defined at all points P in S. Then

ZZ
f dS
S

denotes a surface integral over S, where dS is an element of surface and denotes integra-
tion with respect to surface area (see figure 4.8).

We can evaluate a surface integral by splitting the surface into small surface elements.
If we hold one parameter fixed then the surface equation r(u, v) describes a curve; for
example, if u = u0 = constant, then r(u, v) = r(u0 , v) is a curve.

Let P = r(u0 , v0 ) be a general fixed point in S. Here u0 and v0 are constants. Consider the
region ABCP on S (see figure 4.9) bounded by the curves u = u0 , u = u0 + δu, v = v0 ,
v = v0 + δv, i.e., the curves r(u0 , v), r(u0 + δu, v), r(u, v0 ), and r(u, v0 + δv).

We seek to approximate this surface area element ABCP . We call the element dS and
depict it in figure 4.10. As we see in figure 4.11, we can approximate dS by two triangles:

dS = area of ABCP ⇡ area of ∆P AB + area of ∆P BC.

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Figure 4.9: In a surface parameterised by u, v, we obtain curves by holding one of the

parameters fixed. The curves determined by setting, respectively, u = u0 , u = u0 + δu,
v = v0 , v = v0 + δv, where δu and δv are small, define an element of surface or surface
area.

Figure 4.10: A surface area element dS with corners A, B , C, P .

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Figure 4.11: A surface area element can be approximated by two triangles.

Figure 4.12: The area of a triangle with sides a and b is 12 |a||b| sin θ where θ is the angle
1
between a and b. Hence, using the definition of the cross product, the area is |a ⇥ b|.
2

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Expressing the area of each triangle as a cross-product (figure 4.12), we have:

1 1
dS ⇡ |(rA  rP ) ⇥ (rB  rP )| + |(rB  rP ) ⇥ (rC  rP )| ,
2 2
where

rP = r(u0 , v 0 ) = [x (u0 , v 0 ) , y (u0 , v0 ) , z (u0 , v 0 )] ,

rA = r(u0 + δu, v0 ) = [x (u0 + δu, v0 ) , y (u0 + δu, v0 ) , z (u0 + δu, v 0 )] ,
rB = r(u0 + δu, v0 + δv) = [x (u0 + δu, v0 + δv) , y (u0 + δu, v0 + δv) , z (u0 + δu, v 0 + δv)] ,
rC = r(u0 , v 0 + δv) = [x (u0 , v0 + δv) , y (u0 , v 0 + δv) , z (u0 , v0 + δv)] .

We can expand the components of rA as a Taylor series, so that:

∂x
(u0 , v0 ) δ u + O((δ u)2 )
2
x (u0 , v0 ) + ∂u
3 2 3
x (u0 , v0 )
∂y
rA  rP = 4y (u0 , v 0 ) + ∂u (u0 , v0 ) δ u + O((δ u)2 ) 5  4y (u0 , v 0 ) 5
∂z
z (u0 , v 0 ) + ∂u (u0 , v0 ) δ u + O((δ u)2 ) z (u0 , v 0 )

where O((δu)2 ) denotes terms in (δu)2 or higher powers in δu. In other words, we have:

∂r
rA  rP = δ u + O((δ u)2 ),
∂u
∂r
where ∂u is evaluated at P where u = u0 and v = v0 .

Similarly,

∂r ∂r
rB  rP = δu + δ v + O((δ u)2 ) + O((δ v)2 ) + O(δ uδ v),
∂u ∂v
∂r
rC  rP = δ v + O((δ v)2 ),
∂v
∂r ∂r
where ∂u and ∂v are evaluated at P .
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
Therefore, since ∂u ⇥ ∂u = 0 and ∂v ⇥ ∂v = 0, we find:
✓ ◆ 
1  ∂r
 ∂r 
dS ⇡ ⇥ δ uδ v + (terms in δu, δv of cubic or higher order)
2  ∂u ∂v
✓ ◆ 
1  ∂r ∂r 
+  ⇥ δ uδ v + (terms in δu, δv of cubic or higher order) .
2 ∂u ∂v

Then for small δu, δv ,  

 ∂r ∂r 
dS ⇡  ⇥  δ uδ v,
∂u ∂v 
and in the limit as δu, δv ! 0, we find
 
 ∂r ∂r 
surface area element = dS =  ⇥  dudv.
∂u ∂v 

Therefore: u2
v2
 
 ∂r
ZZ Z Z
∂r 
f dS = f (u, v)  ⇥ dudv, (4.5)
S v1 u1 ∂u ∂v 
where u1 (v)  u  u2 (v), v1  v  v2 defines S .

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Remark 4.4. If u and v are coordinates of an orthogonal coordinate system and the surface
S is a coordinate surface (defined by the remaining coordinate w = constant on S), then
∂r/∂ u and ∂r/∂ v are parallel to the coordinate directions (see derivation of unit vectors)
and they are therefore orthogonal. In this special case,
    
 ∂r ∂r   ∂r   ∂r 
 ∂u ⇥ ∂v  =  ∂u   ∂v  = hu hv .


Note that this simplification relies on the third coordinate being constant: it doesn’t work
when a surface is parameterised using a pair of orthogonal coordinates u, v and the re-
maining coordinate w(u, v) is not constant, e.g. the paraboloid r(x, y) = [x, y, x2 + y 2 ] has
dS 6= 1 (try it).

4.2.2 Application 1: Surface area

RR RR
If f (P ) ⌘ 1, then S f (P ) dS = S dS = surface area of S .

Example 4.5. Find the surface area of a sphere of radius a.

Solution. One parameterisation of this surface (c.f. standard spherical polar coordinates)
is:
r = [x, y, z] = [a cos u sin v, a sin u sin v, a cos v], u 2 [0, 2π), v 2 [0, π].
Then:
∂r
= [a sin u sin v, a cos u sin v, 0],
∂u
∂r
= [a cos u cos v, a sin u cos v, a sin v].
∂v

Hence
 
 ex ey ez 
∂r ∂r 
⇥ = a sin u sin v a cos u sin v 0 
∂u ∂v  a cos u cos v a sin u cos v a sin v
= ex a2 cos u sin2 v  ey a2 sin u sin2 v
   
 2 2 2 2

+ ez a sin u sin v cos v  a cos u sin v cos v
= a2 sin v[cos u sin v, sin u sin v, cos v].
 
 ∂r ∂r 
= a2 sin v.

Then  ⇥
∂u ∂v 

Thus:
ZZ Z π Z 2π Z π
dS = a2 sin vdudv = 2πa2 sin vdv
S 0 0 0
= 2πa 2
[ cos v]π0 = 2π a [(1)  (1)] = 4π a2 .
2

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For this example, the solution from first principles can be shortened by noting that u ⌘ φ
and v ⌘ θ are coordinates of an orthogonal coordinate system, and we integrate over a
RR r = constant.
coordinate surface R π R 2π The scale factors are hu = r sin θ ⌘ a sin v and hv = r ⌘
a, which gives S dS = 0 0 a2 sin vdudv, from which the final answer is obtained as
before.
Example 4.6. Find the surface area of the paraboloid of revolution z = x2 + y 2 between
z = 0 and z = 9.

Solution. One parameterisation of this surface is:

r = [x, y, z] = [x, y, x2 + y 2 ] = [r cos φ, r sin φ, r 2 ], φ 2 [0, 2π), r 2 [0, 3].

Then:
∂r ∂r
= [cos φ, sin φ, 2r], = [r sin φ, r cos φ, 0].
∂r ∂φ

Hence
 
 ex ey ez
∂r ∂r 
⇥ =  cos φ sin φ 2r 
∂r ∂φ 
r sin φ r cos φ 0 


= ex 2r cos φ  ey 2r sin φ + ez r cos2 φ + r sin2 φ

2
   2   

= [2r2 cos φ, 2r2 sin φ, r].

1 1
 
 = 4r4 cos2 φ + 4r4 sin2 φ + r2 2 = r 4r2 + 1
 ∂r ∂r
 
Then  ∂r ⇥ ∂φ 2
and


Z 2π Z 3 1
r 4r2 + 1 2 drdφ

surface area =
0 0
3 3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 
1 2  2
= 2π 4r + 1 2
8 3 0
π h 2  3 i3 πn 3
o
= 4r + 1 2 = (37) 2  1 .
6 0 6

For this example, the surface isn’t a coordinate surface because z depends on x and y ,
so we can’t replace  ∂r ∂r 
∂r ⇥ ∂φ 
with scale factors. We can, however, reduce the amount

∂r ∂r
of calculation by noticing that ∂r · ∂φ = 0, i.e. the tangent vectors are orthogonal, which
means     
 ∂r ∂r   ∂r   ∂r 
 ∂r ⇥ ∂φ  =  ∂r   ∂φ


in this example. Using this, we can swap evaluating a cross product and simplifying its
magnitude (standard working) for taking an extra magnitude (usually a good exchange).

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4.2.3 Application 2: Flux through a surface

In applications, the integrand f (P ) is often the component of a vector field v normal to the
surface S, i.e., f (P ) = v · n where n is a unit normal to S. Then:
ZZ ZZ
f (P ) dS = v · n dS
S
Z vS2 Z u2  
 ∂r ∂r 
= v · n  ⇥ dudv
v1 u1 ∂u ∂v 
Z v 2 Z u2 ◆
∂r
✓
∂r
= v· ± ⇥ dudv,
v1 u1 ∂u ∂v
∂r ∂r
where the sign is chosen so that ± ∂u ⇥ ∂v is in the same direction as n.
RR RR
Remark 4.5. Sometimes S v · dS is used to denote S v · n dS.
Definition 4.2. The integral
ZZ
F = v · n dS
S

is called the flux of the vector field v through the surface S. For example, if v = ρu where
ρ is the density of a fluid and u its velocity, then F is the “mass flux”: the mass per unit time
transported through S by the flow.
RR
Example 4.7. Evaluate S r·n dS where n is the outward unit vector normal to the surface
S, which is composed of a hemisphere S1 given by

(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z > 0 ,


and a flat base S2 given by

(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2  a2 ,

z=0 .

Solution. The surface S is depicted in figure 4.13.

Given that S = S1 [ S2 , we can treat S1 and S2 separately by writing:

ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ
r · n dS = r · n dS = r · n dS + r · n dS.
S S1 ∪S2 S1 S2

Starting with S1 , we can find a unit normal from rf /|rf | where f = x2 + y 2 + z 2  a2 = 0

defines S1 implicitly. Here,
rf 1
= [x, y, z]
|rf | a
which is an outward normal that we take as n (note that this is simply er ). We also have
r = [x, y, z], so the integrand r · n = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )/a = a2 /a = a.

To take the surface integral, we need to parameterise S1 . One option (c.f. spherical coor-
dinates) is
h πi
x = a cos φ sin θ, y = a sin φ sin θ, z = a cos θ, φ 2 [0, 2π), θ 2 0, ,
2

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Figure 4.13: The surface S in example 4.7.

from which
∂r
= [a sin φ sin θ, a cos φ sin θ, 0],
∂φ
∂r
= [a cos φ cos θ, a sin φ cos θ, a sin θ],
∂θ
and so (by the same working as for Example 4.5)
 
 ∂r
 ⇥ ∂r  = a2 sin θ.

 ∂θ ∂φ

Thus:
π
2π
ZZ  
∂r 
Z Z
2  ∂r
r · n dS = r · n  ⇥  dφdθ
S1 0 0 ∂θ ∂φ
Z π Z 2π
2  2 
= a a sin θ dφdθ
0 0
Z π
2 π
= 2πa3 sin θdθ = 2πa3 [ cos θ] 02 = 2πa3 .
0

For the flat base S2 , a unit outward normal is n = [0, 0, 1] and a parameterisation of S2 is
r = [x, y, 0] (with x and y the two parameters). Hence r · n = [x, y, 0] · [0, 0, 1] = 0. Thus,
ZZ ZZ
r · n dS = 0 dS = 0.
S2 S2

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∂r 
 ∂r 
In this case there is no need to calculate  ∂r ⇥ ∂θ because the integrand is zero.

Putting these together,

ZZ ZZ ZZ
r · n dS = r · n dS + r · n dS = 2πa3 .
S S1 S2

4.2.4 Surface integrals of vectors

We can integrate vector fields as surface integrals. The result is a vector. For example, if
v(P ) = v1 (P )ex + v2 (P )ey + v3 (P )ez is a vector field defined over points P in a surface S ,
then ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ
v(P ) dS = ex v1 (P ) dS + ey v2 (P ) dS + ez v3 (P ) dS.
S S S S
Applications include the vector field v representing the electric field at each point on an
electronically charged surface or gravity at each point in a sheet of material.

4.3 Volume integrals

RRR RRR
P ∈V f (P )dV or, more concisely, V f dV denotes the volume integral of f (P ) over all
points P in a volume V . Here dV denotes integration with respect to volume.

Volume integrals are calculated in a manner analogous to other types of integral. We

can approximate the integral by summing the integrand over small volume elements dV ,
obtaining accuracy in the limit as dV ! 0.

In Cartesian coordinates we can use small cuboid boxes as our volume elements (see
figure 4.14): volume element dV = dxdydz. Then:
X Z z 2 Z y2 Z x2
lim f (P )dV = f (x, y, z)dxdydz.
dV →0 z1 y1 x1

Figure 4.14: A small cuboid serves as a volume element in Cartesian coordinates.

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Figure 4.15: A cylinder, height h, radius a.

Application 1
RRR RRR
If f (P ) ⌘ 1 then P ∈V f (P )dV = V dV is simply the volume of V .

Example 4.8. Find the volume of a cylinder, radius a, height h.

RRR R z 2 R y2 R x2
Solution. The volume is V dV = z1 y1 x1 dxdydz for appropriate limits.

Using figure 4.15, we can assume 0  z  h. Also, for each fixed value of z, the limits for x
and y are determined by a circle (shown in figure 4.16). Using figure 4.16, we
pcan assume
y is from a to a. Then, for a fixed value Y of y, we see that x is from  (ap 2  Y 2 ) to
p
(a 2 2 2 2
p  Y ). Hence the limits for x corresponding to a general value y of y are  (a  y )
2 2
to (a  y ). Hence:
Z h Z a Z p(a2 −y2 )
volume = p dxdy dz
0 −a − (a2 −y 2 )
Z a p
= 2h (a2  y 2 )dy = πa2 h. (4.6)
−a

The last step of the calculation is left as an exercise. (Hint: use psubstitution y = a sin θ
R athe
and the identity cos2 θ = 12 (1 + cos 2θ) to evaluate the integral −a (a2  y 2 )dy.)

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Figure 4.16: Cross section of the cylinder in figure 4.15 in the x-y plane.

4.3.1 Volume integrals in general coordinates

It is often easier to evaluate a volume integral if we use a coordinate system other than
Cartesian coordinates. Suppose we use coordinates u, v, w related to Cartesian coordi-
nates x, y , z by the paramerisation:

r = [x, y, z] = [x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w)] = r(u, v, w).

Consider a general point P with position vector r(u, v, w) in a volume V . Define points A,
B, C near P by increasing some or all of the coordinates u, v, w by small amounts δu, δv ,
δw, as in figure 4.17.

We can use the distorted cuboid thus obtained as our volume element dV . For suitably
small δu, δv, δw, this volume element will be approximately a parallelepiped, as in fig-
ure 4.18.

We can write:
! ! ! 
 ⇣ ⌘
volume dV ⇡ volume of parallelepiped = P A · P B ⇥ P C  .

Now note that:

!
P A = r(u + δu, v, w)  r(u, v, w)
∂r
δ u + O δ u2 (by Taylor series expansion).
 
=
∂u
Similarly:
! ∂r
δv + O δv2 ,
 
PB =
∂v
! ∂r
δ w + O δ w2 .
 
PC =
∂w

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Figure 4.17: Volume element dV in a general coordinate system with coordinates u, v, w.

Figure 4.18: Parallelepiped approximation to the volume element dV in figure 4.17.

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Then:
⌘  ✓ ◆
! ! !   ∂r ∂r ∂r 
 ⇣
dV ⇡ P A · P B ⇥ P C  =  · ⇥ δ uδ v δ w
∂u ∂v ∂w 
+ terms in δu, δv, δw of fourth or higher order. (4.7)

In the limit as δu, δv , δw ! 0, this approximation becomes accurate with the terms of fourth
or higher order becoming negligible. Then the volume element is
 ◆
 ∂r ✓ ∂r ∂r 
dV =  · ⇥ dudv dw,
∂u ∂v ∂w 
and we can write:
w2 Z v 2 u2
 ◆
ZZZ Z Z  ∂r ✓ ∂r ∂r 
f (P )dV = f (P )  · ⇥ dudvdw,
P ∈V w1 v1 u1 ∂u ∂v ∂w 
where P in f (P ) is written in terms of u, v, w (P has position vector r(u, v, w)), and where
V is the region such that u1  u  u2 , v1  v  v2 , w1  w  w2 .

Since r = [x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w ), z(u, v, w)], it is easy to verify that:

  ex ey ez   ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂x ∂x 
   
∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂v ∂w 
✓ ◆ 
∂r ∂r ∂r
· ⇥ = , , ·  ∂v ∂v ∂v  =  ∂x ∂y ∂z  =  ∂y ∂y ∂y  ,
∂u ∂v ∂w ∂u ∂u ∂u  ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂v ∂v
∂y
∂v 
∂z 
∂u
 ∂z
∂v
∂z
∂w 
∂z 
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂v ∂w

(recalling for the last step that the determinant of a 3x3 matrix, det(A), is the same as the
determinant of the matrix’s transpose, det(AT )).

This determinant is defined

⇣ as the Jacobian of the transformation from (x, y, z) to (u, v, w)
⌘
x,y,z ∂(x,y,z)
and is denoted J = J u,v,w = ∂(u,v,w) . Hence:

volume element dV = |J|dudvdw,

Therefore: ZZZ Z w2 Z v 2 Z u2
f (P )dV = f (P )|J|dudvdw.
P ∈V w1 v1 u1

A final comment is that if ∂r/∂u, ∂r/∂v and ∂r/∂w are all orthogonal, i.e. (u, v, w) make
an orthogonal coordinate system, then (and only then)
 ◆      
 ∂r ✓ ∂r ∂r   ∂r   ∂r   ∂r 
 · ⇥ = = hu hv hw ,
∂u ∂v ∂w   ∂u   ∂v   ∂w 
making |J| the product of the scale factors.

Example 4.9. Find the volume of a cylinder, radius a, height h, using cylindrical polar
coordinates.

Solution. The volume has previously been depicted in figure 4.15.

Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) can be written in terms of cylindrical polar coordinates

(r, θ, z) as follows:
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z.

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Then the Jacobian is

 ∂x ∂x ∂x 
   
 cos θ r sin θ 0
∂(x, y, z)  ∂r ∂θ ∂z 
=  ∂y ∂y ∂y 
 
J = =  sin θ r cos θ 0
∂(r, θ, z)  ∂r
∂z
∂θ
∂z
∂z 
∂z   0
∂r ∂θ ∂z
0 1
= cos θ(r cos θ)  (r sin θ)(sin θ)
= r cos2 θ + sin2 θ = r.
 

Hence |J| = r.

Hence the volume element is dV = |J|drdθdz = rdrdθdz .

The limits of integration are 0  r  a, 0  θ  2π , 0  z  h.

Then: Z h Z 2π Z a
✓
1 2
◆
volume = rdrdθdz = (h)(2π) a = πa2 h.
0 0 0 2

Application 2
RRR
If f (P ) = div v for some vector field v representing flow of a liquid, gas, etc., then
RRR V f (P )dV =
V div vdV is the net outflow of material from the volume V (recall the physical meaning
of divergence, chapter 3).

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