‫د‪ .

‬أحمد البرشة‬
‫‪Signals and Systems‬‬

‫اإلشارات هي دالة زمنية تمثل تطور متغيرات مثل درجة حرارة الفرن أو سرعة السيارة أو موضع عمود المحرك‬
‫أو الجهد‪ .‬هناك نوعان من اإلشارات‪ :‬إشارات الوقت المستمر وإشارات الوقت المنفصل‪.‬‬
‫مستمرا أو منفص ًًل ‪ ،‬على التوالي‪.‬‬
‫ً‬ ‫يمكن تصنيف اإلشارات إلى وقت مستمر أو وقت منفصل اعتمادًا على ما إذا كان المتغير المستقل‬
Representation of discrete signals

0 1 2
Graphical representation. -3 -2 -1 3 4 5
 n
0 2 3 4 5
1
Representation of discrete signals

𝑛 …. -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Tabular representation. 0 0 0 2
𝑥(𝑛) …. 1 4

2
1

n
-1 0 2 3 4 5
1
Sequence representation. 𝑥 𝑛 ={…,0,0,1, 3, 1,0,0,..}

n=0

1 1

n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 3 3
Example
x[n] = { 3, −3, 1, 6}

means x[−2] = 3, x[−1] = −3, x[0] = 1, and x[1] = 6.

This finite-length (duration) signal is defined only on the interval

N1 ≤ n ≤ N2
where N1 = −2 and N2 = 1 in this example.
The length of this signal is clearly N = N2 − N1 + 1 = 4 samples.
Representation of discrete signals
Classification of signals

1. Continuous Signals & Discrete Signals

2. Even & Odd Signals (Symmetry And Asymmetry)
3. Periodic & Aperiodic (Non-periodic)
4. Deterministic & Random Signal
5. Energy And Power Signals
 Classification of signals
Continuous Signals & Discrete Signals

x(t)

Amplitude
Continuous-time signals are functions
of a continuous variable (time).
time

Discrete-time signals are functions of a discrete variable, i.e., they are defined
only for integer values of the independent variable (time steps).

Example: The value of a stock at the

end of each month
 Classification of signals
Even & Odd Signals

Even signal

The even part of x(t) determined as

Odd signal

The odd part of x(t) determined as

 Classification of signals
Even & Odd Signals

The signal x(n) can be given by x(n) = xe(n) + x0(n)

Even and odd functions have the following properties:

Even * odd = odd.
Odd * odd = even.
Even * even = even.
 Classification of signals Example:
Even and Odd
Find the even and odd components of each of the following signal:
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝒏]
Solution:
First, let’s determine what is 𝒙 −𝒏
𝒙 −𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝒏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 −𝒏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 −𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬[−𝒏]
𝒙 −𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝒏]
Now, we can evaluate what are the even and odd components of 𝒙 𝒏

using the formulas 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙[−𝒏] 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝒙[−𝒏]

𝒙𝒆 𝒏 = 𝒙𝒐 𝒏 =
𝟐 𝟐
 𝒙 𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝒏]
𝒙 −𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝒏]

1
𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 + cos 𝑛 − sin 𝑛 − sin 𝑛 cos[𝑛]
2
𝑥𝑒 𝑛 = cos[𝑛]

1
𝑥𝑜 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 cos[𝑛]
2
𝑥𝑜 𝑛 = sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
Classification of signals
Even and Odd Example:
Find the even and odd components of each of the following signal:
 Classification of signals
Periodic & Aperiodic (Non-periodic)

A signal is said to periodic if it repeats again and again over a certain period of time.

a signal x(t) is a periodic signal if and only if this condition is satisfied:

x[n]=x(n+N) where, N is the fundamental period time
2𝜋𝑘
𝑁=
𝜔
k is called integer number.

but if the previous condition isn't satisfied, in this case the function is considered
a non-periodic signal.
 Classification of signals
Example:
Periodic & Aperiodic (Non-periodic)

Determine whether or not the signal below are periodic, if so, determine the fundamental
period
𝜋
𝑥 𝑛 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 + 12
4
𝜋
solution 𝜔 = 2𝜋 𝑓 =
4
Yes, it is periodic 1
𝑓=
8
The fundamental period is N= 8
1
𝑁= =8
𝑓
 Classification of signals
Example:
Periodic & Aperiodic (Non-periodic)

Determine whether or not the signal below are periodic, if so, determine the
fundamental period
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 𝑛 = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 + 2 + 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 + 2
solution 4.5 6
Yes, it is periodic N=36
𝜋 𝜋
𝜔1 = 2𝜋 𝑓 = 𝜔2 = 2𝜋 𝑓 =
4.5 6
1 1 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑁=
𝐺𝐶𝐷 𝑁1 𝑁2
9 12
1 1 (12)(9)
𝑁1 = = 9 𝑁2 = = 12 𝑁= = 36
𝑓 𝑓 3
 Classification of signals
Deterministic & Random Signals

a) a signal is deterministic if and only if we can specify its values for any
given time completely. a signal is random if their values at any given time
is random.

b) deterministic signals or waveforms are modeled by explicit mathematical

expression, such as x(t)=5cos10t, but random signal not limited by any
function.
 Classification of signals
Energy and Power Signals

a signal x[n] is a energy signal if and only if, it has non zero but finite energy for all times
0 < E < ∞. Also any signal limited between two values is considered energy signal. In
other words any non-periodic (aperiodic) signal is considered energy signal.
∞
2
𝐸= ෍ 𝑥𝑛
𝑛=−∞

Energy Signals non-periodic Signal P=0

 Classification of signals
Energy and Power Signals

• a signal x[n] is a power signal if and only if, it has non zero but finite power for all times
" 0 < P < ∞". Also any signal not limited between two values is considered power signal.
In other words any periodic signal is considered power signal.

𝑁
1 2
𝑃 = lim ෍ 𝑥𝑛
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

Power Signals periodic Signal E=∞

Example. 𝒙 𝒏 =ቊ
𝟏, 𝒏 ≥ 𝟎,
(periodic signal)
𝟎, 𝒆𝒍𝒔𝒆𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
1
𝑁+1 1+
∞ ∞
𝑃𝑥 = = 𝑁
𝑬𝒙 = ෍ 𝒙[𝒏] 𝟐 = ෍1=∞ 2𝑁 + 1 2 + 1
𝒏=−∞ 𝑛=0 𝑁

𝑵 𝑎𝑡 𝑁 = ∞
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ෍ 𝒙[𝒏]
𝑵→∞ 𝟐𝑵 + 𝟏
𝒏=−𝑵 1
1+ 1
1 𝑃𝑥 = ∞ =
2
𝑁=0 𝑃0 = 𝑥[0] =1 1 2
1 2+
∞
1
1 1 1 2
𝑁=1 𝑃1 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] 2 = + = 1
3 3 3 3 ∴ lim 𝑃𝑁 =
𝑛=−1
2 𝑁→∞ 2
1 2
1 1 1 3
𝑁=2 𝑃2 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] = + + =
5 5 5 5 5
𝑛=−2
Example.
1 𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑢[𝑛] (non periodic signal)
2

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑛 2 𝑛 𝟏
2
1 1 1 4 ෍ 𝒂 𝒏 =
𝐸 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] =෍ =෍ = = 𝟏−𝒂
2 4 1 3 𝒏=𝟎
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0 𝑛=0 1−
4

𝑵
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟒
𝑷𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ෍ 𝒙[𝒏] = =𝟎
𝑵→∞ 𝟐𝑵 + 𝟏 ∞ 𝟑
𝒏=−𝑵
Signal Manipulations x[n] 2

Shifting 1 1

n
0 1 2

x[n-2] 2
x[n+1] 2
1 1
1 1

n n
2 3 4 -1 0 1

delay advance
Signal Manipulations
x[n]
2
Reversal 1 1

n
0 1 2

x[-n]
2

1 1

n
-2 -1 0
Signal Manipulations 4
x[n] 3
3
Time Scaling 2 2
1

n
-2 -1 0 1 2 3

4 4
x[n/2] x[2n]
3 3
2 2 2
1 1

n n
-4 -3 2 4 -1 0 1
-2 -1 0 1 3 5 6
Dawn-sampling
Up-sampling
Elementary Signals

1) IMPULSE
2) UNIT
3) SIGNUM
4) RAMP
5) EXPONENTIAL
6) SINE AND COSINE
 Elementary Signals
The unit Impulse Function

the delta function is also called the dirac’s delta

function, we define the unit delta function in discrete
time domain as:

(n) = 1, n=0

= 0, elsewhere
The unit-impulse function (also known as the Dirac delta function or delta function), denoted d, is
defined by the following two properties:
 Elementary Signals
The Delta Or Impulse Function

1 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜
𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 =ቊ
0 𝑛 ≠ 𝑛𝑜
The unit-step function (also known as the Heaviside function), denoted u, is defined as
Example x[n] = { 3, −3, 1, 6}
↑

Means x[−2] = 3, x[−1] = −3, x[0] = 1, and x[1] = 6.

We could also write this sequence as

x[n] = 3δ[n + 2] − 3δ[n + 1] + δ[n] + 6δ[n − 1]

If the sequence is given without an arrow, e.g.

x[n] = {3,−3, 1, 6},
it is implied that the first element is at n = 0.
 Elementary Signals
The unit step Function

The unit step function u(n) is defined by

1 n ≥ no
u n − no =ቊ
0 n < no
 Elementary Signals
Relation between Impulse and unit step Function

𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 = 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 − 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 − 1

𝑛−𝑛𝑜

𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 = ෍ 𝛿(𝑘)
𝑘=−∞
 …
-3 -2 -1
0 1 2
1 𝑛>0 …
3
𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑛 = ቐ 0 𝑛=0
−1 𝑛<0
The signum function, denoted sgn, is defined as
 Elementary Signals
The unit ramp Function

𝑛 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛𝑜
𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 =ቊ 0 1 3
0 𝑛 < 𝑛𝑜 2 4

𝑛−𝑛𝑜 −1

𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 = ෍ 𝑢(𝑘)
Question 𝑘=−∞
Draw:
−1 𝑛 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛𝑜
𝑠 𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 =ቊ
0 𝑛 < 𝑛𝑜
Elementary Signals
The Sinusoidal Function

X 𝑛 = 𝐴 COS(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜙) Question:
𝜋 7𝜋
1
/4
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑣𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠( 𝑛)
0.8
7/4 4 4
0.6
which One has faster oscillation?
0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
EXAMPLE

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 − 1 + 2𝛿 𝑛 − 2 + 3𝛿 𝑛 − 3
OR
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑢[𝑛 − 4]
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4
Example.
Given the sequence 𝑥 𝑛 = 5 − 𝑛 [𝑢 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑢 𝑛 − 4 ]

Make a sketch of

𝑎) 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑛 b) 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑛 − 1

𝑐) 𝑦3 𝑛 = 𝑥 5 − 2𝑛 d) 𝑦4 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛2 − 2𝑛 + 1
Solution 𝑥 𝑛 = 5 − 𝑛 [𝑢 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑢 𝑛 − 4 ]
x[n]
6
5
4
3
2

n
-1 0 1 2 3
6 6
5
4 4
3 2
2

n n
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2

𝑎) 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑛 b) 𝑦2 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑛 − 1
Solution x n = 5 − n [u n + 1 − u n − 4 ]
x[n]
6
5
4
3
2

n
-1 0 1 2 3

6
4 5
4 4
2

n
1 2 3 n
0 1 2

c) y3 n = x 5 − 2n d) y4 n = x n2 − 2n + 1
 Sequence Boundedness and Summability

1 A sequence {x[n]} is said to be bounded

|𝑥[𝑛]| ≤ ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛.
2 A sequence {x[n]} is said to be absolutely summable if
∞

෍ |𝑥[𝑛]| < ∞
𝑛=−∞
3 A sequence {x[n]} is said to be square-summable if
∞

෍ 𝑥𝑛 2 < ∞
energy signal.
𝑛=−∞
 Note that

δ[n] = u[n] − u[n − 1].

1
δ[n] is bounded, finite length, absolutely summable, and square summable

2 u[n] is bounded, infinite length (one-sided), not absolutely summable, and not square
summable.
H.W
1) Draw time reversal signal of unit step signal 𝑢(−𝑛)

2) Draw 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 + 2 − 𝑢(𝑛 − 3)

3) Check whether the following is periodic or not. If periodic, determine fundamental time
period
𝑥 𝑛 = 3 cos 4𝜋𝑛 + 2 sin(𝜋𝑛)

4) Draw 𝑥 𝑛 = 0.3𝑛 𝑢[𝑛]

5) Sketch the following sequence, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 + 1 + 0.5𝛿 𝑛 − 1 + 2𝛿[𝑛 − 2]

H.W x[n]
6
4
3
6) Find the even and odd of the x[n]
n
-2 -1 0 1 2
-2

-5

7) Find the multiplication of u[n] with x(n) (the x[n] from previous question)

8) Find the energy or the power of ∞

1
𝑥𝑛 =෍
𝑛
𝑛=1