CHAPTER ONE

1.0 PERFORMANCE OF DC MOTORS

INTRODUCTION
DC motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy and have
construction very similar to that of a DC generator. Generators are
operated in protected locations. Therefore, their construction is usually of
the open type. Since DC motors do not operate in protected locations,
they face dust, moisture, fumes and tend to get mechanical damage.
Hence, their construction is of closed type.

The operation of motors is based on the principle, ‘‘When a current-

carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
mechanical force’’.

The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule (also called
motor rule).

The magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the conductor is

given by F = BlL Newtons.

Where B is the field strength in tesla (wb/m2),

I is the current flowing through the conductor in amperes and

l is the length of the conductor in metres.

When the motor is connected to the dc supply mains, a direct current

passes through the brushes and commutator to the armature winding;
while it passes through the commutator it is converted into ac so that the
group of conductors under successive field poles carry currents in the
opposite directions.

When the motor armature continues to rotate due to motor action, the
armature conductors cut the magnetic flux, and, therefore, emfs are

1
induced in them. The direction of this induced emf, known as back emf,
is such that it opposes the applied voltage.

The magnitude of the back emf is given by

Eb = NPΦZ or ΦNZ x P ___ (i)

60A 60 A

Where Eb is the induced emf of the motor known as back emf

A is the number of parallel paths through the armature between
the brushes of opposite polarity
P is the number of poles
N is the speed
Z is the total number of conductors in the armature
Φ is the useful flux per pole.

Ia
Ra + Eb

V E
b

Ia V

Fig 1.1 Equivalent circuit of a motor armature

V = Eb + IaRa ______ (ii)

Where V is the applied voltage across the armature,

Eb is the back emf
Ia is the armature current
Ra is the armature resistance

from equation (ii),

Ia = V – Eb
Ra

2
It is evident that from equation, (i) & (ii), the induced emf in the armature
of a motor, Eb depends among other factors upon the armature speed
and armature current depends upon the back emf, Eb for a constant
applied voltage and armature resistance.
If the armature speed is high, back emf, Eb will be large and, therefore,
armature current small. If the speed of the armature is low, the back emf,
Eb will be less and armature current Ia more, resulting in development of
large torque.
The presence of back emf makes the dc motor a self-regulating machine
i.e. it makes the dc motor to draw as much armature current as is just
sufficient to develop the required load torque.

When the motor is operating on no load, small torque is required to

overcome the friction and windage losses, therefore, back emf is nearly
equal to the applied voltage and armature current is small. When the
motor is loaded, the driving torque of the motor is not sufficient to
counter the increased retarding torque due to load and the effect is to
cause the armature to slow down. With the decrease in the speed of the
armature back emf falls. The reduced back emf allows a larger current to
flow through the armature. The large armature current induces the large
torque in the armature, which is the need of the motor. Thus the motor
moves continuously at the new speed.
When the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque on
the motor is more than the load torque. The driving torque increases the
speed of the motor which also increases the back emf and reduces the
armature current. The small value of armature current develops less
driving torque, which is equal to the load torque. The motor then rotates
uniformly at the new speed.
It is evident that back emf, Eb acts like a governor i.e. it makes a motor
self-regulating so that it draws as much current as just required.

3
 TYPES OF DC MOTORS
(1) Series wound DC motors: In this type of motor, the field coils
consisting of few turns of thick wire, are connected in series with the
armature. Series field

+
DC supply
mains
Armature
Fig.1.2 Series motor
_

Armature current, Ia = series field current Ise

= Line Current, IL = I
Back emf developed, Eb = V – I (Ra + Rse)
Power drawn from supply mains = VI
Mech. power developed, Pm = Power input – losses in armature & field
Pm = VI – I2 (Ra + Rse)
= I (V – I) (Ra + Rse)
= EbI

(2) Shunt wound DC motors: In this type of motor, the field coils
consisting of a large number of turns of comparatively fine wire are
connected in parallel with the armature. The field current is much less
than the armature current due to the large resistance provided by the
wire.

IL Ish
Ia

+ Fig. 1.3 shunt motor

Dc supply mains Armature
_

Input line current, IL= Ia + Ish (Note Ia = IL – Ish)

4
 Shunt field current, Ish = V
Rsh

Back emf developed, Eb = V – IaRa

Power drawn from supply mains, P = VIL
Mechanical power dev, Pm = Power input – losses in armature & field
= VIL – Ia2Ra – VIsh
= VIL – VIsh – Ia2Ra
= VIa – Ia2Ra
= Ia (V – IaRa)
= EbIa
(3)Separately excited DC motors: These motors have field coils similar
to those of a shunt wound machine, but the armature and find coils
are fed from different supply sources and may have different voltage
rating.

If
DC +
Supply Armat
ure Field Dc supply source Fig. 1.4 Separately excited
mains
_ motor

Armature current, Ia = Line current, IL = I

Back emf developed, Eb = V – IRa
Power drawn from supply mains, P = VI
Mech. power developed, Pm = power input to the armature – power lost in
armature.
Pm = VI – IaRa
= I (V – IRa)
= EbI

(4) Compound wound DC motors: This type of DC motor has both shunt
and series field coils. The shunt field is normally the stronger of the two
(i.e. it has more ampere-turns).

5
 Compound wound motors are of two types namely cumulative
compound wound and differential compound wound motors.

(i) Cumulative compound wound motor:

In this type of compound wound motor, the field windings are connected
in such a way that the direction of flow of current is same in both of the
field windings. The flux due to series field winding strengthens the field
due to the shunt field winding.
Series field Shunt field
IL Ish
+ + Ia
Dc supply mains Armature
_
- -
_

(a) circuit diagram

Fig. 1.5 Cumulative compound motor

(ii) Differential compound wound motor

In this type of compound wound motor, the field windings are
connected in such a way that the direction of flow of current is
opposite to each in the two field windings. The flux due to series field
winding weakens the field due to the shunt field winding.

Series field

IL Ish
Shunt field
IL+ +
Dc supply mains Armature
Ia
_
- -
_

(a) circuit diagram

Fig. 1.6 Differential compound motor

6
Examples
1. The power input to a 230V dc shunt motor is 8.477 kW. The field
resistance is 230Ω and armature resistance is 0.28Ω. Find the
input current, armature current and back emf.

Solution:
P = 8.477 kW; V = 230 V, Rsh = 230 Ω, Ra = 0.28 Ω
P
I = /V
= 8.477 x 1000
230
= 8477 = 36.86A
230
Ish = V
Rsh
= 230 = 1A
230
Ia = I – Ish

= 36.86 – 1 = 35.86 A
Eb = V – IaRa
= 230 – 35.86 x 0.28
= 219.96 V

2). A 230V series motor is taking 50A. The resistance of the armature
and series field winding is 0.2Ω and 0.1Ω respectively.
Determine the (a) back emf
(b) power wasted in the armature and
(c) mechanical power developed.

Solution
V = 230v, I = 50A, Ra = 0.2Ω, Rse = 0.1Ω
(a) Eb = V – I (Ra + Rse)
= 230 – 50 (0.2 + 0.1)
= 230 – 15
= 215V
(b) Pa = I2Ra

7
 = 502 x 0.2
= 500W
(c) Mechanical power developed = EbI
= 215 x 50
1000

= 10.75 kW

(3) A 25kW, 250V dc shunt motor has armature and field resistances of
0.06Ω and 100Ω respectively. Determine the total armature power
developed when the motor is taking 25kW input.

Solution
P = 25 kW, V = 250V, Ra = 0.06Ω, Rsh = 100Ω
Ish = V
Rsh
= 250 = 2.5A
100
I = 25 x 1000
250
= 100 A
Ia = I – Ish
= 100 – 2.5
= 97.5 A
Eb = V – IaRa
= 250 – 97.5 x 0.06
= 244.15 V
Pm = EbIa
= 244.15 x 97.5
1000
= 23.80kW

8
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS
Types of motor Applications

1 Separately excited They are used for paper machines, diesel electric
DC motors propulsion of ships, and in steel rolling mills. This
is due to its very accurate speeds.

2 DC Series motors For drives requiring very high starting torque and
where adjustable varying speed is satisfactory.
These include hoists, cranes, trolley cars,
conveyors, electric locomotives etc.

3 DC shunt motors For constant-speed requiring medium starting

torque such as lathes, fans, centrifugal pumps,
reciprocating pumps, blowers, conveyors, wood
working machines, machine tools, printing
presses, spinning and weaving machines.

4 Cumulative For drives requiring high starting torque and only

compound wound fairly constant speed such as shears, conveyors,
DC motors crushers, bending rolls, punch presses, hoist
elevators, heavy planers, ice making machines,
air compressors, rolling mills, printing presses etc.

5 Differential For experimental and research work

compound wound
DC motors

9
1.1 Speed equation
The expressions for back emf developed in the armature of a dc motor
are
Eb= ΦZN x P volts – (i) and
60 A
Eb = V – IaRa volts – (ii)

Comparing the two equations, we have

ΦZN x P = V – IaRa
60 A
N = V – IaRa x 60A
Φ PZ
N = k Eb
Φ
Where k = 60A is a constant for a particular machine
PZ
For a dc motor, if initial values of speed, armature current, back emf and
flux per pole are N1, Ia1, Eb1 and Φ1 respectively and corresponding final
values are N2, Ia2, Eb2 and Φ2 respectively, then

N1∝ Eb1
Φ1
N2∝ Eb2
Φ2
N2 = Eb2 x Φ1
N1 Eb1 Φ2
For dc shunt motor, the flux remains constant (i.e. Φ 1= Φ2)
N2/N1 = Eb2/Eb1
For dc series prior to saturation, Φ∝Ise∝Ia
N2/N1 = Eb2/Eb1 x Ia1 / Ia2
For dc series after saturation, flux is independent of Ise or Ia
N2 = Eb2
N1 Eb1

10
Example
A 4-pole, 500 V dc shunt motor has 720 wave connected conductors on
its armature. The full-load armature current is 60 A and the flux per pole
is 0.03 wb. The armature resistance is 0.2Ω and contact drop is 1V per
brush. Calculate the full-load speed of the motor.

Solution
V = 500 V, I a = 60 A, Ra = 0.2 Ω, Φ = 0.03 wb, Z = 720
P = 4, A = 2 (wave winding).

Back emf = V – IaRa – brush contact drop

= 500 – 60 x 0.2 – 2 x 1
= 486V

Full-load speed
Nf = Eb x 60 x A
Φ Z P

= 486 x 60 x 2
0.03 720 4

= 675rpm

11
1.1.1 SPEED REGULATION
Speed regulation of dc motor is the change in speed when the load on
the motor is reduced from full load to zero.
It is expressed in percentage of rated full-load speed.
Percentage speed regulation No – Nf x 100
Nf

Example
A 240V DC shunt motor takes a full-load current of 60A. Its armature and
shunt resistances are 0.25 Ω and 120 Ω respectively. The motor draws a
current of 6 A at no-load having a speed of 1000rpm. Determine
(i)the full-load speed
(ii) the speed regulation.

Solution
V = 240V, Ra = 0.25Ω, Rsh = 120Ω, No = 1000rpm, I = 60A
Ish = V = 240 = 2A
Rsh 120
Iaf = If – Ish = 60 – 2 = 58A
Ebf = V = IaRa
= 240 – 58 x 0.25 = 225.5V
At no load,
Io = 6A, Ish = 2A
Iao = Io – Ish = 6 – 2 = 4A
Ebo = V – IaoRa
= 240 – 4 x 0.25 = 239V
(i) Nf = Ebf (since Φ remains constant)
No Ebo
Nf = No x Ebf = 1000 x 225.5 = 943.5rpm
Ebo

(ii) Speed regulation = No – Nf x 100 = 1000 – 943.5 x 100

Nf 943.5
= 5.99%

12
1.2 Speed control using shunt field regulator, diverter
resistance, tapped field or armature voltage control
methods

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

Speed control refers to intentional change of the drive speed to a value
required for performing the specific work process.
It differs from the natural change in speed which occurs due to change in
the load on the drive shaft.
One of the attractive features the dc motor offers over all other types of
motors is the relative ease with which speed control can be achieved and
this makes dc motors indispensable for many adjustable speed drives.
The different methods of speed control depend on the expression of speed
for a dc motor with a slight modification where an external resistance is
included.

N = K V – Ia (R + Ra)
Φ
Speed control can be achieved by adjusting any of the following:
i. Applied voltage to the armature terminals, V
ii. External resistance in the armature circuit, R and
iii. Flux per pole, Φ.
The first two possibilities involve adjustment affecting the armature circuit
while the third involves change in the magnetic field. Therefore, speed
control methods are classified as armature control methods and field
control methods.
With armature control the speed decreases as the voltage applied to the
armature terminals is reduced, whereas with field control the speed
increases as the flux is reduced. Both methods can be combined.

13
1.2.1 SPEED CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTORS

1. Field control methods: Weakening of field causes increase in the

speed of a motor, and strengthening of field reduces the speed. Field
control of shunt motors can be achieved by any of the following.
(a) Field rheostat control: Here the speed variation is accomplished by
means of a variable resistance inserted in series with the shunt field. An
increase in controlling resistance reduces the field current with a
consequent reduction in flux and an increase in speed.

Ia Field rheostat

+ + Ia
DC
Ish
Supply Armat
mains ure Shunt
Field
- -

Fig. 1.7 Field rheostat control method of shunt motor

(b) Reluctance control: This requires that the motor be constructed with
special mechanical features so that the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit can be changed. The special features of a motor for reluctance
control make the motor more expensive, and since the same general
results can be obtained much more simply by means of a field rheostat,
the variable reluctance type of motor is seldom used.
(c) Field voltage control: This requires a variable voltage supply for the
field circuit which is separate from the main supply to which the
armature is connected. This can be obtained by means of control
generator or an adjustable electronic rectifier.
2. Armature control methods: This method involves changing the
voltage applied to the armature terminal, without altering the field
current. Thus can be achieved by any of the following:

14
(a) Armature resistance control: This involves the variation of the
voltage applied to the armature terminals by means of connecting a
variable resistance in series with the armature.

Ia
+ + Ish
DC
Supply Armat
mains ure Shunt
Field
- -

Fig. 1.8 Armature resistance control method of shunt motor

(b) Shunted armature control: In armature resistance control method the

speed changes with every change in load, because speed variation
depends not only upon the controlling resistance but on the load
current.
A more stable operation is obtained by using a diverter across the
armature in addition to series resistance. Now the changes in armature
current will not be so effective in changing the voltage across the
armature and hence the speed of the motor.
IL

R Series
1 rheostat

+
DC Ia
Supply Ish
_ mains +
Armature
Shunt
Diverter Field
-

Fig. 1.9 Shunted armature control of shunt motor

(c) Armature voltage control: This method requires a variable source of
voltage separate from the source supplying the field current. The

15
adjustable voltage for the armature is obtained from an adjustable
voltage generator or from an adjustment electronic rectifier. This
method is employed to provide excellent starting characteristics by
bringing the generator voltage gradually up from zero, stating and
bringing the motor upon speed with a comparatively slowly increasing
voltage.

(d) Ward Leonard method of speed control: This is an adjustable-

voltage armature control method of speed control accomplished by
means of an adjustable-voltage generator.
This system consists simply working the motor with a constant
excitation and applying a variable voltage to its armature to provide the
required speed. The variable voltage supply is obtained from a motor-
generator or converter set.
The Ward Leonard set brings about very fine speed control over the
whole range from zero to normal speed in both directions, and uniform
acceleration. The speed regulation is also good.
It is best suited where almost unlimited speed control in either direction
of rotation is required such as in steel rolling mills, paper machines,
elevators, cranes, mine hoists, diesel-electric propulsion of ships etc.

Fig. 1.10 Ward Leonard system of speed control of shunt motor

1.2.2 SPEED CONTROL OF DC SERIES MOTORS

16
 1. Field control methods: The speed of a dc series motor can be
controlled by varying the flux in any of the following ways:

(a)Field diverter method: The field flux can be reduced by shunting a

portion of motor current around the series field, thus reducing the
excitation magnetomotive force (mmf) and weakening the field. This
method is used in electronic drives in which the speed should rise
sharply as soon as the load falls.

Series field Ise

+ I + +
DC
Armature
Supply
mains

- -

Fig. 1.11 Field diverter method of series motor

(b) Tapped field control: Here, the speed is increased by reducing the
flux and it is accomplished by reducing the number of turns of the
field winding through which the current flows. This is done by
bringing outside a number of tapping from the field winding. When
all field turns are in circuit, the motor runs at the lower speed and
speed increases with cutting out some of the series field turns.
This method is employed in electric traction.

Fig. 1.12 Tapped field control method of series motor

17
c) Paralleling Field Coils method: In this method, several speeds can be
obtained by re-grouping of field coils. This is employed in fan
motors.

Fig. 1.13 Paralleling field coils method of series motors

2. Armature control methods

a) Armature Resistance Control: This is achieved by connecting the

control resistance in series with the armature. In this case the
control resistance may be connected directly in series with the
supply to the complete motor.

Fig. 1.14 Armature resistance control

b) Shunted Armature Control: This combination of a rheostat shunting

the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is used to

18
 give slow speeds at light loads. This lowers the voltage applied to
the armature and at the same time varies the flux.

Fig. 1.15 Shunted Armature Control

c) Armature Terminal Voltage Control: The speed control is achieved

by supplying power to the motor from a separate variable-voltage
supply.

3. Series parallel control method

When two or more similar series motors are employed in pairs, as in

electric traction, speed control can be obtained by combining series
resistance with series and parallel connections. This method provides
two speeds without wastage of power and it has a higher reliability of
operation.

Fig. 1.16 Series parallel control method

19
1.3 Torque equation
TORQUE
This is the measure of causing the rotation of a wheel or the turning or
twisting moment of a force about the axis.
Torque is measured by the product of force and the radius at which this
force acts.
A wheel of radius r metres is acted upon by a circumferential force F
Newtons. Let the force F cause the wheel force to rotate at n rps. Then
Torque, T = F x r newton metres.
Workdone per revolution = F x distance moved = Fx2 πr joule
work per second = F x 2 πr x n
= F x r x 2 π n joules/second or watts
Since F x r = Torque, T and 2 π n = ω (angular vel. in rad/s),
Workdone per second = Tω joules per second or watts
Power developed, P = Tω = T x 2 πN
60
= 0.105NT watts

1.3.1 ARMATURE TORQUE

Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature rotating at a speed
n rps, the mechanical power (Pm) developed is given by,
Pm = Ta x (2 πn)
where Pm = EbIa
Ta x 2 πn = EbIa
Ta = EbIa = 0.159 EbIa N-m
2 πn n

If speed (N) is in rpm, the torque is given by

Ta = 9.55 EbIa i.e. EbIa
N 2 πN /60

Substituting Eb = ΦZ N x P in equation
60 A
20
Ta = 9.55 x Φ x Z x N x P x Ia
60 A N

= 0.159 ΦZP Ia newton-metres

A

=0.159Z P Φ Ia
A

Since Z, P, and A are constant for a particular machine

T = k ΦIa
Where K = 1 Pz
2π A

Or T ∝Φ I a

From the above expressions, we can conclude that:

i. The electromagnetic torque developed by the armature is
proportional to the product of flux per pole and armature current.
ii. The direction of electromagnetic torque developed by armature
depends upon the direction of flux or mag. field and the direction of
flow of current in the armature conductors.

In case of shunt wound motors and separately excited motors, the field
strength i.e. Φ remains practically constant, therefore
Ta∝Ia

In case of series wound motors, flux is directly proportional to armature

current, therefore Ta∝Ia

Considering the same kilowatt output and speed, a dc series motor

develops the highest starting torque and the dc shunt motor the least.

1.3.2 SHAFT TORQUE

This refers to the net torque i.e. gross torque less torque lost in iron and
frictional losses. The armature torque is the gross torque, which is
developed by the armature, but the whole of this torque is not available

21
at the pulley, since certain percentage of torque developed by the
armature is lost to overcome the iron and frictional losses.
Tsh = Ta – Tf
where Ta is the torque developed by armature
Tf is the torque lost in iron & friction losses, and
Tsh is the shaft torque or useful torque.

Recall Ta = EbIa = 9.55 EbIa N. m

2 πN N
60

Tf = Iron and frictional losses in watts

2 πN
60

= 9.55 (Iron and frictional losses in watts)

N

Tsh = Ta - Tf
= EbIa– iron and frictional losses
2 πN
60
= Output in watts
2 πN
60

= 9.55 x output in watts N.m

N

Shaft power = Pm – Rotational losses

Pshaft = EbIa – Rotational losses

Examples

1. A dc motor having armature resistance of 0.24Ω takes an armature

current of 80 A at 300V. The machine has 8 poles and lap-connected
conductors. The flux per pole is 0.042wb. Calculate the speed and gross
torque developed by the armature.

Solution

22
Ra = 0.24Ω, Ia = 80A, V = 300V, P = 8, Z = 800
A = 8, Φ = 0.042wb
Eb = V – IaRa
= 300 – 80 x 0.24
= 280.8V

Recall Eb= ΦZN x P

60 A
N = Eb x 60 x A
Φ Z P
= 280.8 x 60 x 8
0.042 800 8

= 501.43 rpm

Ta = 0.159 Z P ΦIa
A

= 0.159 x 800 x 8 x 0.042 x 80

8
= 427.39 N m

(2) If a 250V, 4-pole series motor with 750 conductors wave-connected

supplies a load of 7.8kW and takes a current of 40A from the supply
mains. The flux per pole is 22mwb and armature circuit resistance is
0.48Ω. Calculate the developed torque and shaft torque.
Solution
V = 250V, P = 4, Z = 750, A = 2, Ra=0.482Ω, P = 7.8kw, Ia = 40A, Φ = 22mwb
Ta = 0.159Z P ΦIa
A

= 0.159 x 750 x 4 x 0.022 x 40

2
= 209.88 N-m

Eb = V – IaRa

= 250 – 40 x 0.48 = 230.8 V

23
Eb = ΦZN x P
60 A

N = Eb x 60 x A
Φ Z P

= 230.8 x 60 x 2 = 419.64 rpm

0.022 750 4

Output power = 7.8kW = 7.8 x 103 W

Tsh= Output power x 60

2 πN

= 7.8 x 103x 60 = 177.5 N m

2 x 3.142 x 419.64

OR

Tsh = 9.55x output power

N

= 9.55 x 7.8 x 103 = 177.5 N m

419.64

Exercise

A 250v, 4-pole wave wound dc series motor has 782 conductors on its
armature. It has armature and series field resistance of a 0.75Ω.
The motor takes a current of 40A. Estimate its speed and gross torque
developed if it has a flux per pole of 25mWb.

Solution
V = 250V, P = 4, A=2, Z = 782, Ra + Rse = 0.75Ω
I= 40A, Φ =25x10-3Wb

Eb = V – I (Ra+Rse)

24
 = 250 – 40 x 0.75
= 220v

N = Eb x 60 x A
Φ Z P

= 220 x 60 x 2
0.025 782 4

= 337.6rpm

Ta = 0.159 Z PΦI
A
= 0.159 x 782 x 4 x 0.025 x 40
2
= 248. 7Nm

1.4 Torque/armature current, speed/armature

current characteristics, torque/speed curves for
shunt, series and compound motors (cumulative
only)

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

The performance and, therefore, suitability of a dc motor is determined
from its characteristics. The important characteristics of dc motors are:
1. Torque-Armature current characteristic: This characteristic curve
gives relation between torque developed in the armature, T and
armature current Ia. This is also known as electrical characteristic.
2. Speed-Armature current characteristic: This characteristic curve
gives relation between speed N and armature current Ia. This is
also known as speed characteristic.

25
 3. Speed-Torque characteristic: This characteristic give relation
between speed N and torque developed in armature, T. This is
also known as mechanical characteristic. This curve may be
derived from the two characteristic curves mentioned above.

1.4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT OR SEPARATELY EXCITED DC

MOTOR
For shunt and separately excited DC motor, the field winding is supplied
from a constant voltage, so the field flux remains constant. Thus both
shunt and separately excited DC machine have the same characteristic.

N∝Eb
Φ
But Eb=V – IaRa

N ∝ V – IaRa
Φ
Since Φ is constant for a DC shunt motor
N ∝ (V – IaRa)

Since Ra is very small, IaRa is also small.

N Ta

Ta

Tsh

Ia
Ia
(a) Speed vs armature current (b) Torque vs armature current

T = 0.159 ΦZ PIa Nm
A

26
 Ia
Speed vs Torque
Fig. 1.17 Characteristics of dc shunt motor

CHARACTERSITICS OF DC SERIES MOTOR

The speed of a DC series motor is given by
N ∝ V – Ia (Ra + Rse) can be neglected compared to V, then
N ∝V
Φ
In a series motor, flux (Φ) is proportional to the armature current (Ia)
N∝ 1
Ia

T
N

Tsh
Ta

Ia Ia

(a)Speed vs armature current (b) Torque vs armature current

T
(b) Speed vs Torque

27
Fig. 1.18 Characteristics of dc series motor

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUND MOTOR

Fig. 1.19 Characteristics of compound motor

SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF DC

MOTORS

Fig. 1.20 Speed-torque characteristics of different types of dc motors

NB: From speed-current characteristic curve of a dc series motor, it is

obvious that the series motor is a variable speed motor i.e. speed
varies with the variation in line current. With the decrease in load on
a dc series motor, the speed increases and may become
dangerously high at very light loads.

28
 Since on no-load, the speed is dangerously high, the machine may
get damaged due to heavy centrifugal forces set up in the rotating
parts. This is the reason that series motors are never started on no-
load. To start a dc series motor, mechanical load is first put and
then the motor is started.

Dc series motors are not suitable for the services:

i. Where the load may be entirely removed and

ii. For driving by means of belts because mishap to the belt
would cause the motor to run on no-load.

The motors are suitable for gear drive, because gears provide some
load on account of the frictional resistances of the gear teeth in case
of sudden release of load.

1.5 Problems involving changing load, field and/or

circuit conditions
Examples

1. A 230V dc series motor has an armature resistance of 0.08Ω and field

resistance of 0.05Ω. The magnetization characteristic of the machine
at 700rpm is as follows:
Field current 30 60 90 120 150 A
Emf 70 125 180 210 230 V
The motor is run on a 230 V supply. An additional resistance of 1.5Ω
is connected in series with the armature. Determine the torque and
speed when the motor draws a current of 90 A.
Solution
29
 Rm = Ra + Rse = 0.08 + 0.05 = 0.13Ω
Field current, If = Line current I1 = 90 A
Additional resistance inserted in armature circuit, R = 1.5 Ω
Back emf developed, Ebf = V – I1(Rm + R) = 230 – 90(0.13 + 1.5)
= 83.3 V
Let speed be N1
From given data for magnetisation curve when field current is 90 A
Emf developed, E2 = 180 V
Speed, N2 = 700rpm
Since N∝Eb
Φ
N1 = Eb1 x Φ2 = Eb1 :. Φ2 = Φ1, (field current being the same)
N2 E2 Φ1 E2

or N1 = N2 x Eb1 = 700 x 83.3 = 324 rpm

E2 180

Torque developed, T = 9.55 x EbIa = 9.55 x 83.3 x 90 = 221 Nm

N 324

2. A 230 V dc shunt motor with constant field drives a load whose torque
is proportional to its speed. When running at 750 rpm, it takes 30 A.
Find the speed at which it will run if a 10 Ω resistance is connected in
series with it armature. The resistance of armature may be neglected.
Solution
Armature current, Ia = Line current, IL = 30 A
Neglecting shunt field resistance
Speed, N1 = 750 rpm
Let the speed be reduced to N2 rpm where N2 = KN1 after inserting
additional resistance of 10 Ω in the armature circuit.
Since with constant field excitation, torque developed is proportional to
armature current i.e.
T ∝Ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

30
 Load torque, T ∝ N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .ii
From eqns i and ii, we have
Ia∝ T ∝ N
or Ia2 = Ia1 x N2 = K Ia1 = 30 K . . . . . .iii
N1

Since N ∝ [V – Ia(Ra + R)] flux remaining the same

N2 = V – Ia2R
N1 V Armature resistance is negligible

Substituting N2 = K, Ia2 = 30 K from eqn. iii, and R = 10Ω

N1

We have K = 230 – 30K x 10

230

or K = 230 = 0.434
230 + 300

New speed, N2 = KN1 = 0.434 x 750 = 325 rpm.

1.6 Losses in dc motors

There are three major types of losses

1. Electrical (or copper) losses: This is divided into armature copper

loss and field copper loss.
2. Iron (or magnetic) losses: This is also known as core losses. This
is divided into hysteresis loss and eddy current loss
3. Mechanical losses: This is divided into frictional loss due to
friction of the bearings and windage loss due to consumption of
power by the circulation of air or other cooling gas in the machine

1.7 Problems on Losses and efficiency of motor

Efficiency of a machine
31
The ratio of useful output to the total input is called the efficiency of the
machine. It is expressed as ƞ = output = input – total losses
Input input

= output
output + total losses

Exercises

1. A 200V shunt motor has Ra = 0.1 Ω, Rf = 240 Ω and rotational loss

236W. On full-load, the line current is 9.8 A with the motor running
at 1450 rpm.
Determine:
i. The mechanical power developed
ii. The power output
iii. The load torque
iv. The full-load efficiency

Solution
Supply voltage, V = 200V
Full-load line current, IFL = 9.8 A
Shunt field current, Ish = V = 200 = 0.833 A
Rsh 240
Full-load armature current, Iaf = IFL – Ish
= 9.8 – 0.833 = 8.96667 A
Back emf, Ebf = V – IaRa
= 200 – 8.96667 x 0.1 = 199.1 V
Speed, N = 1450 rpm

i. Mechanical power developed,

Pmech = EbfIaf watts =199.1 x 8.96667
= 1785 W

32
 ii. Power output, Pout = Pmech – rotational loss
= 1785 – 236 = 1549 W

iii. Full-load torque, TFL = Pout = 1549 x 60

2 πN /602 π x 1450

= 10.2 Nm
iv. Full-load efficiency = Pout x 100 = 1549 x 100
Pin 200 x 9.8
= 79 %
2. A 250V, 4-pole, dc shunt motor has two current armature winding
with 500 conductors. The armature circuit resistance is 0.25Ω, field
resistance is 125 Ω, the flux per pole is 0.02Wb and it draws a
current of 14A from supply mains. Calculate the following:
i. Speed and internal (total or gross) torque developed and
ii. The shaft power, shaft torque and efficiency with rotational (iron
& frictional) losses equal to 300W.

Solution
V = 250V, P = 4, A = 2, Z = 500, Ra = 0.25, Rsh = 125Ω
Φ = 0.02Wb, I = 14A, Pf = 300W

Ish = V/Rsh = 250 = 2A

125

Ia = I – Ish = 14 – 2 = 12A
Back emf,
Eb= V – IaRa
= 250 – 12 x 0.25
Eb = 247V
Speed,
N = Eb x 60 x A
Φ Z P
= 247 x 60 x 2
33
 0.02 500 4
= 741rpm
Gross torque
Ta = 0.159ZP ΦIa
A
= 0.159 x 500 x 4 x0.02 x 12
2
= 38.2Nm

Shaft power (output)

Pshaft = Pm – Pf
= EbIa – Pf
= 247 x 12 – 300
= 2964 – 300
= 2664W

Shaft torque,
Tshaft = Power in watts
2 πN /60

= 2664 x 60
2 x 3.142 x 741
= 34.33 Nm

Efficiency = output power x 100%

input power

= 2664 x 100%
250 x 14

= 2664 x 100%
3500

= 76.1%

34
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 PERFORMANCE OF AC MOTORS
Three-phase induction motor is the most widely used ac motor due to its
low cost, simple and rugged construction, absence of commutator, good
operating characteristics etc.

35
The distinguishing feature of an induction motor is that it is a singly
excited machine, although it is equipped with both field and armature
windings. The field (or stator) winding is connected to an AC supply and
there is no electrical connection from the armature (or rotor) to any
source of supply.

Currents are made to flow in the armature (or rotor) conductors by

induction which interact with the field produced by the field (or stator)
winding. Such motors are called asynchronous motors as they run at a
speed other than the synchronous speed of the rotating field developed
by the stator currents.

2.1 Production of a magnetic field rotating at

synchronous speed by a three- phase stator
winding.
The fundamental principle of ac machine operation is that if a three-
phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude and differing in phase by
120o, flows in a three-phase winding, then it will produce a rotating
magnetic field of constant magnitude.

The mode of operation of the machine is determined by the speed of the

rotating field in relation to the rotor. An asynchronous machine may be
considered to be a transformer in the sense that the power is transferred
from the stator (primary) to the rotor (secondary) winding only by mutual
induction. That is why asynchronous machine is often called an induction
machine.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

When the stator or primary winding of a 3-phase induction motor is

connected to a 3-phase ac supply, a rotating magnetic field is
established which rotates at synchronous speed. The direction of
36
rotation of this field depends upon the phase sequence of the primary
currents, and, therefore, will depend upon the order of connection of the
primary terminals to the supply.

The direction of rotation of the field can be reversed by interchanging the

connection to the supply of any two leads of a 3-phase induction motor.

The number of magnetic poles of the revolving field will be the same as
the number of poles for which each phase of the primary or stator
winding is wound.

The speed at which the field produced by the primary currents will
revolve is called the synchronous speed of the motor and is given by

Ns = 120f/P

Where f is the supply frequency and p is the number of poles on motor.

As the rotating magnetic field produced by the primary currents sweeps

across the rotor conductors, an emf is induced in these conductors just
as emf is induced in the secondary winding of a transformer by the flux
set up by the primary current.

Since the rotor winding is either directly shorted or closed through some
external resistance, the emf induced in the secondary by the revolving
field causes a current to flow in the rotor conductors. Hence, torque is
set up in the rotor which causes it to rotate.

2.2 Calculation of slip given number of poles,

frequency and motor speed
SLIP

37
The speed of a polyphase induction motor is always less than the
synchronous speed and, as the load is increased, the speed of the
motor will decrease.

The difference between the speed of the stator field, known as

synchronous speed (Ns), and the actual speed of the rotor (N) is known
as the slip and it is denoted by s.

It is usually expressed as a fraction or percentage of the synchronous

speed.

Fraction slip, s = Synchronous speed – Rotor speed

Synchronous speed
s = Ns – N
Ns

And percentage slip = Ns – N x 100

Ns

At normal load, the slip of an induction motor is usually between 2 and 5

percent. At no-load the slip is as small as 0.5 percent and for many
purposes the machine may then be considered to be running at
synchronous speed.

Example 1

A 3-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz, induction motor runs at 1460rpm. Determine its

percentage slip.

Solution

N = 1460 rpm

Ns = 120f
P

= 120 x 50 = 1500 rpm

4

Slip, s = Ns – N x 100

38
 Ns

= 1500 – 1460 x 100

1500

= 2.667%

Example 2

A 12-pole, 3-phase alternator is coupled to an engine running at 500

rpm. This alternator supplies an induction motor running at 1450 rpm.
Find slip and number of poles of the induction motor.

Solution

Frequency of the generated emf, f = Pa x Na

120

= 12 x 500 = 50 Hz
120

NB: The number of poles even in number and to give a synchronous

speed nearest higher than actual speed of motor (i.e. 1450 rpm) that the
motor must have is 4.

:. Pm = 120f = 120 x 50 ~4
Nm 1450

Synchronous speed of motor, Ns = 120f = 120 x 50 = 1500 rpm

P 4

Slip, s = Ns – N = 1500 – 1450 = 0.0333 or 3.33%

Ns 1500

2.3 Rotor frequency

FREQUENCY OF ROTOR CURRENT (OR EMF)

39
Rotor emf frequency, f’ = Relative speed in rpm
120/P

= Ns – N
120/P
Since slip, s = Ns – N
Ns

Or Ns – N = sNs

= s x 120f
P
Substituting Ns – N = s x 120f in equation (1) we have
P
Rotor emf frequency, f’ = s x 120f x P
P 120
= sf

:. The frequency of rotor current (or emf) in an induction motor is given

by the product of slip, s and the supply frequency. It is called the slip
frequency.

2.4 Rotor output and rotor resistive power loss

calculation.
Power transferred from stator to rotor or input power to rotor or air-gap
power is given as

 Rotor input, P2 = 2 πN s T watts (where Ns is the synchronous speed in rpm)

60

Total mechanical power developed by rotor is given as

 Pmech = 2 πN T watts (where N is the speed of rotor at full-load in rpm)

60

Rotor copper loss = Power input to rotor – output power of rotor (or Pmech)

 RCL = 2 πN sT – 2 πN T

40
 60 60

= 2 π T (Ns – N) (recall that Ns – N = sNs)

60
= 2 π T sNs = s x 2 π Ns x T
60 60
= s x power input to rotor

RCL = sP2

i.e. Total copper loss in rotor = slip x power input to rotor

Therefore, Power input to rotor = Total copper loss in rotor

Slip
P2 = RCL
s

 Pmech = Power input to rotor – rotor copper loss

= Power input to rotor – s x power input to rotor

= (1 – s) x power input to rotor

= (1-s)P2

Examples

1. The power input to a 3-phase, 50Hz induction motor is 50 kW. The total
stator loss is 800 W. Find the total mechanical power developed, if the
rotor emf makes 90 complete cycles per minute.

Solution

Power input to motor, P1 =50 kW or 50,000 W

Total stator losses = 800 W

Power input to rotor, P2 = Power output from stator

= Input to motor – stator losses

= 50,000 – 800 =49,200 W

Rotor emf frequency, f ’ = 90 = 1.5 Hz

41
 60

Slip, s = f ‘ =1.5 = 0.03

f 50

Total mechanical power developed,

Pmech = P2(1 – s)

= 49,200 (1 – 0.03) = 47,724 W or 47.724 kW

2. The power input to the rotor of a 440 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase, 6-pole induction
motor is 50 kW. The rotor emf makes 120 cycles per minute. Friction
and windage losses are 2 kW. Calculate (i) slip (ii) rotor speed (iii) rotor
copper losses (iv) mechanical power developed (v) output power (vi)
output torque.
Solution
Supply frequency, f = 50 Hz
Rotor emf frequency, f ’ = 120 = 2 Hz
60
(i) Slip, s = f ‘ = 2 = 0.04
f 50

(ii) Rotor speed, N = Ns (1 – s)

= 120 x f (1 – s) = 120 x 50 (1 – 0.04)

p 6

= 960 rpm

Power input to rotor, P2 = 50 kW

(iii) Rotor copper losses = sP2 = 0.04 x 50 = 2 kW

(iv) Mechanical power developed, Pmech = P2(1 – s)
= 50(1 – 0.04) = 48 kW
(v) Output power, Pout = Pmech – friction and windage losses
= 48 – 2 = 46 kW
(vi) Output torque, T = Pout x 60 = 46 x 1,000 x 60
2 πN 2 π x 960

42
 = 457.57 Nm

2.5 Motor output and efficiency calculation

Example 1

The power input to a 6-pole, 50Hz, 3-phase induction motor is 700 W at

full-load. The no-load copper losses may be assumed negligible while
the full-load stator and rotor copper losses are 295 W and 310 W
respectively. Find the full-load speed, shaft torque and efficiency of the
motor assuming rotational and core losses to be equal.

Solution

Full-load input, Pin = 10 kW or 10,000 watts

Power input on no-load = Core loss + rotational losses
:. No-load copper losses are negligible
or 700 W = 2 x core loss (or rotational loss)
:. both the rotational loss and core loss are equal
or Rotational loss = Core loss = 700 = 350 W
2

Stator core loss = Core loss = 350 W

Assuming rotor core loss to be negligible

Power input to rotor, P2 = Pin – stator core loss – stator copper loss

= 10,000 – 350 – 295 = 9,355 watts

Rotor output power = P2 – rotor copper loss

= 9,355 – 310 = 9,045 W

Full-load speed, N = Ns x Rotor output power

Power input to rotor

= 120 x 50 x 9,045 = 967 rpm

6 9,355

Motor output power = Rotor output – mechanical loss

= 9,045 – 350 = 8,695 watts

43
Shaft torque, Tsh = Motor output power in watts
2 πN
60

= 8,695 = 85,865 Nm
2 π x 967
60

Motor efficiency, ƞ = Output x 100 = 8,695 x 100

Input 10,000

= 86.95%

1.6 Construction of single, double-cage and slip

ring motors
The three phase induction motor is the most widely used electrical
motor. Almost 80% of the mechanical power used by industries is
provided by three phase induction motors because of its simple and
rugged construction, low cost, good operating characteristics,
absence of commutator and good speed regulation. In three phase
induction motor the power is transferred from stator to rotor winding
through induction. The Induction motor is also called asynchronous
motor as it runs at a speed other than the synchronous speed. Like
any other electrical motor induction motor also have two main parts
namely rotor and stator. A 3-phase induction motor has two main
parts (i) stator and (ii) rotor. The rotor is separated from the stator by
a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the
power of the motor. Other parts include:

i. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made
up of steel.
ii. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.

44
iii. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of
heat during its rotation. In order to overcome this problem, we
need fan for cooling.
iv. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is
needed.
v. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which
usually varies from 0.4 mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is called
air gap.

Fig. 2.1 Three phase induction motor

2.6.1 Stator

As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A

stator winding is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three
phase supply is given to it. Stator is made up of number of stampings

45
in which different slots are cut to receive 3 phase winding circuit
which is connected to 3 phase AC supply. The three phase windings
are arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce a
rotating magnetic field after AC supply is given to them. The windings
are wound for a definite number of poles depending upon the speed
requirement, as speed is inversely proportional to the number of
poles, given by the formula:

Ns= 120f/p

Where Ns = synchronous speed

f = Frequency

p = no. of poles

It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core

made up of thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and
eddy current losses. A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on
the inner periphery of the laminations. The insulated connected to
form a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected circuit. The 3-phase
stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per
requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the
speed of the motor and vice-versa. When 3-phase supply is given to
the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is
produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by
electromagnetic induction.

The stator of the three phase induction motor consists of three

main parts:.

i. Stator Frame

It is the outer most part of the three phase induction motor. Its main
function is to support the stator core and the field winding. It acts as a

46
covering and it provide protection and mechanical strength to all the
inner parts of the induction motor. The frame is either made up of die
cast or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction motor
should be very strong and rigid as the air gap length of motor is very
small, otherwise rotor will not remain concentric with stator, which will
give rise to unbalanced magnetic pull.

ii. Stator Core

The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In
order to reduce the eddy current loss, the stator core is laminated.
These laminated types of structure are made up of stamping which is
about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. All the stampings are stamped together to
form stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The stamping
is generally made up of silicon steel, which helps to reduce the
hysteresis loss occurring in motor.

iii. Stator Winding or Field Winding

The slots on the periphery of stator core of the motor carries three
phase windings. This three phase winding is supplied by three phase
ac supply. The three phases of the winding are connected either in
star or delta depending upon which type of starting method is used.
The squirrel cage motor is mostly started by star – delta stator and
hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is delta connected. The slip
ring three phase induction motor are started by inserting resistances
so, the stator winding of slip ring induction can be connected either in
star or delta. The winding wound on the stator of three phase
induction motor is also called field winding and when this winding is
excited by three phase ac supply it produces a rotating magnetic field.

47
Fig. 2.2 exploded view of a motor

48
2.6.2 Rotor

The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected

to the mechanical load through the shaft. Rotor consists of cylindrical
laminated core with parallel slots that carry conductor bars.
Conductors are heavy copper or aluminium bars which fits in each
slots. These conductors are brazed to the short circuiting end rings.
The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are
slotted a little skewed for the following reason, they reduce magnetic
hum or noise and they avoid stalling of motor. The rotor, mounted on
a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery.
The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of
the following two types: Squirrel cage type and Wound type

Squirrel cage rotor.

Squirrel cage three phase induction motor: The rotor of the squirrel
cage three phase induction motor is cylindrical in shape and have
slots on its periphery. The slots are not made parallel to each other
but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown in the figure of squirrel
cadge rotor beside) as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of
stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of motor more smooth
and quieter. The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium, brass or
copper bars. These aluminium, brass or copper bars are called rotor
conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor.
The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the copper or
aluminium rings called the end rings. In order to provide mechanical
strength these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence
form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and hence got
its name as “squirrel cage induction motor”.

49
Fig. 2.3 Squirrel cage rotor

The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As the bars are
permanently shorted by end rings, the rotor resistance is very small
and it is not possible to add external resistance as the bars are
permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the
construction of Squirrel cage three phase induction motor very simple
and robust and hence widely used three phase induction motor.
These motors have the advantage of adapting any number of pole
pairs. The below diagram shows squirrel cage induction rotor having
aluminium bars short circuit by aluminium end rings. It consists of a
laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer periphery.
One copper or aluminium bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are
joined at each end by metal rings called end rings. This forms a
permanently short-circuited winding which is indestructible. The entire
construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and
hence the name. The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply
but has current induced in it by transformer action from the stator.
Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are called
squirrel cage induction motors. Most of 3-phase induction motors use
squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably simple and robust
construction enabling it to operate in the most adverse
circumstances. However, it suffers from the disadvantage of a low
starting torque. It is because the rotor bars are permanently short-

50
circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the
rotor circuit to have a large starting torque.

Fig. 2.4 Squirrel cage rotor construction

Advantages of squirrel cage induction rotor

i. Its construction is very simple and rugged.

ii. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors require less
maintenance.

Applications: Squirrel cage induction motor is used in lathes, drilling

machine, fan, blower printing machines etc.

Wound rotor.

Slip ring or wound three phase induction motor: In this type of three
phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of
poles as that of stator but it has a smaller number of slots and has
less turns per phase of a heavier conductor. The rotor also carries
star or delta winding similar to that of stator winding. The rotor
consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these
slots. The three end terminals are connected together to form star

51
connection. As its name indicates three phase slip ring induction
motor consists of slip rings connected on same shaft as that of rotor.
The three ends of three phase windings are permanently connected
to these slip rings. The external resistance can be easily connected
through the brushes and slip rings and hence used for speed control
and improving the starting torque of three phase induction motor. The
brushes are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding.
These brushes are further connected to three phase star connected
resistances. At starting, the resistance is connected in rotor circuit
and is gradually cut out as the rotor pick up its speed. When the
motor is running the slip rings are shorted by connecting a metal
collar, which connect all slip ring together and the brushes are also
removed. This reduces wear and tear of the brushes. Due to
presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor construction becomes
somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel
cage induction motor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and
carries a 3- phase winding, similar to the one on the stator. The rotor
winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually star-
connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and
joined to three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one
brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes are connected to a
3-phase star-connected rheostat.

Fig. 2.5 Wound rotor

At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to

give a large starting torque. These resistances are gradually reduced
to zero as the motor runs up to speed. The external resistances are

52
 used during starting period only. When the motor attains normal
speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor
runs like a squirrel cage rotor.

Advantages of slip ring induction motor -

i. It has high starting torque and low starting current.

ii. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.

Application:

Slip ring induction motors are used where high starting torque is
required i.e. in hoists, cranes, elevator etc.

2.7 Typical torque/slip curves for single, double-

cage and slip ring induction motors

53
Fig. 2.6 Torque/slip curves

1.7 AC Motor starters (DOL and Star/Delta)

Starting of three phase induction motor
A 3-phase induction motor is theoretically self-starting. The stator
of an induction motor consists of 3-phase windings, which when
connected to a 3-phase supply creates a rotating magnetic field.
This will link and cut the rotor conductors which in turn will induce
a current in the rotor conductors and create a rotor magnetic field.
The magnetic field created by the rotor will interact with the
rotating magnetic field in the stator and produce rotation.
Therefore, 3-phase induction motors employ a starting method not
to provide a starting torque at the rotor, but because of the
following reasons;
1) Reduce heavy starting currents and prevent motor from
overheating.
2) Provide overload and no-voltage protection.
There are many methods in use to start 3-phase induction motors.
Some of the common methods are;
i. Direct On-Line Starter (DOL)
54
ii. Star-Delta Starter

1.Direct On-Line Starter (DOL)

The Direct On-Line (DOL) starter is the simplest and the most
inexpensive of all starting methods and is usually used for squirrel
cage induction motors. It directly connects the contacts of the
motor to the full supply voltage. The starting current is very large,
normally 6 to 8 times the rated current. The starting torque is likely
to be 0.75 to 2 times the full load torque. In order to avoid
excessive voltage drops in the supply line due to high starting
currents, the DOL starter is used only for motors with a rating of
less than 5KW. There are safety mechanisms inside the DOL
starter which provides protection to the motor as well as the
operator of the motor.
The DOL starter consists of a coil operated contactor K1M
controlled by start and stop push buttons. On pressing the start
push button S1, the contactor coil K1M is energized from line L1.
The three mains contacts (1-2), (3-4), and (5-6) are closed. The
motor is thus connected to the supply. When the stop push button
S2 is pressed, the supply through the contactor K1M is
disconnected. Since the K1M is de-energized, the main contacts
(1- 2), (3-4), and (5-6) are opened. The supply to motor is
disconnected and the motor stops.

55
Fig.2.7 Direct on line starter

2.Star-Delta Starter
The star delta starting is a very common type of starter and
extensively used, compared to the other types of the starters. This
method used reduced supply voltage in starting. The method
achieved low starting current by first connecting the stator winding
in star configuration, and then after the motor reaches a certain
speed, throw switch changes the winding arrangements from star
to delta configuration. By connecting the stator windings, first in
star and then in delta, the line current drawn by the motor at
starting is reduced to one-third as compared to starting current
with the windings connected in delta. At the time of starting when
the stator windings are start connected, each stator phase gets
voltage VL /√3 , where VL is the line voltage. Since the torque
developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of
the applied voltage, star- delta starting reduced the starting torque
to one – third that obtainable by direct delta starting.

56
Fig. 2.8 Star Delta starter

2.9 Single-phasing
For proper working of a 3 phase induction motor, it must be connected to
a 3 phase alternating current (ac) power supply of rated voltage and
load. Once these three-phase motors are started, they will continue to
run even if one of the three-phase supply lines gets disconnected. The

57
loss of current through one of these phase supplies is described as
single phasing.

The ship is fitted with hundreds of motors which are responsible for
running different pumps, machinery, and systems. The critical machinery
such as steering gear, main engine, generator, boiler etc. have 3 phase
motors attached to them which run one or the other main or auxiliary
system for them.

Causes of Single Phasing

Single phasing is a power supply-related electrical fault in case of an

induction motor. It occurs when one of the 3 phase circuits in a three-
phase motor is opened; hence the remaining circuits carry excess
current. This condition of Single Phasing is usually caused when:

– One or more out of the three back up fuse blows (or fuse wire melts
if the fuse is of wire type)

– One of the motor circuit contactors which supply current is open

circuited.

– A wrong or improper setting of any of the protection devices provided

on the motor can also lead to single phasing

– If contactor routines are not performed regularly, they might get

covered or get coated with oxidation layer leading to single phasing.

– The relay contacts for the motor is damaged or broken

– One of the wire for the motor circuit is broken

58
Fig. 2.9 Single-phasing of a 3-phase motor

2.10 Effect of a motor “single-phasing”

During working of a 3-phase induction motor, if single phase occurs, the
motor will continue to run as a single-phase machine. There will be a
peculiar noise which results from large current increase in the two
running lines and also in all the three windings till it is isolated by the
overload device or the single-phase preventer. Single-phase working of
the motor reduces the capacity of the motor and also places extra duty
on the windings if this condition persists for a long time and ultimately
this will burn out the coil.
If the motor is non-working and single phase occurs, the motor will fail to
start. It results in humming sound if it is connected to 3-phase supply
lines and current drawn under this condition will be 87% of the starting
current under normal conditions. If the supply voltage is applied for a
long time, the motor will burn out.
Single phasing can be identified by special protective relays which can
identify and isolate the connected loads. Smaller motors rely on
overcurrent and negative phase sequence relays. Motor protection
relays for larger motors come readily fitted with protection against single
phasing.
To protect the motor against single-phasing, it is preferred to incorporate
a combined overload and single-phasing relay or a phase failure relay in
the control gear and starter.
59
3.2 VARYING SPEED OF AC INDUCTION MOTORS

The speed of ac induction motor is compared with that of dc shunt

motor in that the speed essentially remains constant between no-
load and full-load. The speed of the dc motor can be changed by
simply controlling the field current or armature voltage of the
motor. Unfortunately, the speed of the induction motor is not so
simply controlled. The simplest method involves a loss of
efficiency and is therefore not economical, the other methods
involves added complications.

It has been seen that the speed of the induction motor is

determined by its synchronous speed, i.e. the speed of the rotating
magnetic field, which is expressed as N = 120f thus N ∝ f and
can be p p
changed by changing the frequency of the supply and the number
of poles.
METHODS OF VARYING SPEED OF AC INDUCTION MOTORS

FREQUENCY CONTROL

As N ∝ F the speed of induction motor will change in proportion to

the supply frequency. The major disadvantage of this method is
that each motor will require its own variable frequency supply
otherwise all of the motors connected to the main supply would
change their speeds simultaneously. This is impracticable
although the method is used for controlling the speed of the main
propulsion motor for turbo-electric ship propulsion.

It is worthy to note that the standard shore supply frequency is

50Hz but some ships have a 60Hz frequency. Thus, when in a dry
dock operating from the shore supply the electric motors on these
ships will run slower than when at sea. In this connection it should
also be noted that under these conditions the terminal voltage of
60
the motors should be reduced in proportion to the frequency in
order not to overload the motors.

VARIATION BY POLE CHANGING METHOD

The speed of induction motor is inversely proportional to the

number of poles produced by the stator winding. This fact is
widely used to obtain some speed control of the motor.

It is usual for the motors on board ship to have two speeds and
this is obtained by fitting two separate windings onto the stator
slots, each winding arranged to give a different number of poles.
By a simple switching operation, the supply is connected to that
winding which gives the desired speed.

An alternative method of obtaining two speeds is to use one stator

winding and a special switching arrangement which re-connects
the coil of the windings to give a different number of poles. This
however is limited to give a simple 2:1 ratio i.e. an 8-pole winding
can be re-connected to give 4-pole or a 12-pole winding to give 6-
pole. This method can be taken a stage further by fitting two
separate windings in the stator both capable of being reconnected
to give different pole arrangements. In this way the motor would
have 4 different pole arrangements to give 4 different synchronous
speeds. Thus, for the example mentioned the machine could have
either 4,6,8 or 12 poles giving synchronous speeds of 1500, 1000,
750 or 500 rpm at 50Hz.

ROTOR RESISTANCE

As resistance is added to the rotor circuit the speed at which full-

load torque is developed is reduced. For example, without any
resistance added to the rotor circuit full load torque is developed at
about 2% slip. With some external resistance added, full load

61
torque is developed at about 20% slip and with external resistance
added such that R2 = X2 full load torque was developed at about
45% slip. Remember that as the slip increases the speed must
decrease. Thus, the speed of an induction motor can be reduced
from normal speed to crawling speed simply by increasing the
resistance of the rotor circuit. This of course requires the use of
the slip-ring type rotor and while it is the simplest method of speed
control it is very inefficient. The added resistance of the rotor
circuit increases the losses in the rotor and reduces the efficiency.
The method is sometimes used when reduced speeds are required
for short periods only.

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SHORE SUPPLY CONNECTION
Shore power or shore supply is the provision of shore side electrical
power to ship at berth while its main and auxiliary engines are
shutdown.
A shore-supply is also required so that the ship's generators and their
prime-movers can be shut down for major overhaul during a dry-
docking period.
The source for land-based power may be grid power from an electric
utility company, but also possibly an external remote generator.
These generators may be powered by diesel or renewable energy
sources such as wind or solar.
Shore power saves consumption of fuel that would otherwise be used
to power vessels while in port, and eliminates the air pollution
associated with consumption of that fuel.
A port city may have anti-idling laws that requires ships to use shore
power. Use of shore power may facilitate maintenance of the ships
engines and generators, and reduces noise.
There must be a suitable connection box conveniently located to
accept the shore supply cable. The connection box is often located at
the entrance to the accommodation or in the emergency generator
room.
The connection box must have suitable terminals to accept the shore
supply cable, including an earthing terminal to earth the ship's hull to
the shore earth.
The connection box must have a circuit breaker or an isolator switch
and fuses to protect the cable linking the connection box to the main
switchboard, with a data plate giving details of the ship's electrical
system (voltage and frequency) and showing the method for
connecting the shore supply cable. A voltmeter is fitted to indicate
polarity of a dc shore supply.

63
For an ac shore supply a phase-sequence indicator is fitted to
indicate correct supply phase sequence. This indicator may be
arranged as two lamps connected as an unbalanced load across the
three phases via resistors and capacitors. The sequence is "right" (or
correct) when the right side lamp is bright and the other is dark. An
alternative P.S.I. indicator is a rotary pointer driven by u small 3-
phase induction motor.
At the main switchboard an indicator is provided, usually a lamp, to
indicate that the shore supply is available for connection to the bus-
bars via a connecting switch or circuit-breaker. It is not normally
possible to parallel the shore supply with the ship's generators. The
ship's generators must, therefore, be disconnected before the shore
supply can be connected to the main switchboard.
Normally, the shore supply switch on the main switchboard is
interlocked with the generator circuit breakers so that it cannot be
closed if the generators are still connected.
It is essential to know if the phase sequence of the incoming shore
supply is correct i.e. it is the same sequence as the ship’s supply
(red-yellow-blue). A reversed phase sequence (red-blue-yellow) will
produce a reversed shaft rotation in all three phase motors because
the direction of their rotating magnetic fields will be reversed with
disastrous results.
The fault is remedied by interchanging any two conductors of the
shore supply cable at the connection box.
The shore supply may be connected directly to the emergency board
which then back-feeds to the main switchboard
The shore supply may have a different frequency and/or voltage to
that of the ship's system.
A higher frequency will cause motors to run faster, be overloaded and
overheat.

64
 A higher voltage will generally cause equipment to take excess
current and overheat. It will also cause motors to accelerate more
rapidly and this may overstress the driven loads.

A lower voltage is generally not so serious but may cause motors to

run slower and overheat, and may cause motors to stall.

If the shore supply frequency differs from the ship's normal frequency
then, ideally, the shore supply voltage should differ in the same
proportion.

For example, if your ship is designed for 60 Hz at 440 V, and the

shore supply is operating at 50 Hz, then the supply voltage should be
reduced to about 380V.

Fig. 2.10 Shore Connection box

65
MOTOR ENCLOSURES
It is essential under normal working conditions to provide the rotor
and stator windings with adequate protection against overheating,
mechanical damage, the ingress of water. Various types of
enclosures have been designed to give the necessary protection for
any particular working condition:

The main types of enclosures are as follows:

1. Ventilated, Drip proof

2. Totally Enclosed – Fan Cooled

3. Totally Enclosed – Weatherproof

4. Pipe Ventilated, Drip proof

Ventilated Drip Proof

This is intended to give protection against falling water by fitting a

canopy to deflect the water away from the motor casing. The end
shields of the casing fitted with ventilating openings so that air can be
drawn into the motor and circulated through the ducts in the rotor core
and through the passages between the stator core and the casing. In
larger motors the circulation of the air is increased by fitting a
centrifugal fan inside the casing on one end of the motor shaft. The
ventilating opening are usually covered with expanded metal to keep
out vermin, but often the diagonally opposite openings are blanked off
to give a definite direction of air circulation through the machine. This
reduces the risk of hot spots occurring anywhere in the windings,
reduces the average working temperature and increases the factor of
safety. Motors with this type of enclosure can be used in the majority
of positions below deck.

66
Totally Enclosed-Fan cooled

In general, this type of enclosure has to be dust tight so that there are
no openings in the casing. Cooling of the winding is therefore
achieved by radiating the heat away from the outside of the casing.
For the smallest machines the casing is “ribbed” or “corrugated” to
enlarge the surface area and thereby increase the heat dissipation.
For larger machines cooling is assisted by a fan fitted to the non-
driving end of the rotor shaft, outside the motor casing. To ensure that
the air is blown over the ribbed casing a cowl is fitted over the fan.
The air is then drawn in through a central opening in the cowl, and

directed over the motor casing. The motor is also fitted with both an
internal fan an external fan with a cowl. The internal fan circulates air
through the internal ducts to the stator and rotor windings and during
its passage through the ducts it is cooled by the air being blown
through the external ducts by the external fan.

For the largest machines frame cooling is used. The casing is actually
a double walled casting and the space between the walls is divided
by ribs to and from alternate internal and external ducts.

Totally Enclosed-Fan Weatherproof

These enclosures are used for machines situated in exposed

positions, such as deck machinery. They are completely watertight
and used special sealing glands where the shaft passes into the
bearing housing and where the electric cables are usually cooled by
radiation from the casing but no fans are fitted. They are therefore
short rated machines.

Pipe Ventilated Drip proof

67
 These enclosures are in general of the totally enclosed type with
ventilating in the end shields. The openings however are flanged for
the fitting of a trunking to pipe the cooling air to and from the motor.
This arrangement is ideal for use in tropical areas where the
surrounding engine room suitable point, by the action of an internal
fan, circulated through the machine and ejected through the outlet
trunking. Usually however a cowl is fitted over the motor outlet
openings so that warm air is blown into the engine room.

Enclosures for Electrical equipment are now normally assigned an ingress

protection rating in accordance with IEC 529 (BS5490).
This rating is expressed as letters IP (International/Ingress Protection)
followed by Two (2) “characteristic’’ numerals. The first numeral indicates the
degree of protection afforded against people and solid objects as shown in
Table 1.
The second numeral indicates the degree of protection afforded by an
enclosure against the ingress of water as shown in Table 2.
Where one (1) of the characteristic numeral is replaced by X, it signifies that
only the other class of protection is defined. For example, an enclosure stated
as being IP6X would be dust-tight, but its degree of water protection
unspecified.
NOTE: Equipment in vessel’s machinery space would generally be
satisfactory having enclosures rated at IP44, although for specific locations a
higher rating may be appropriate. Equipment on deck should have a minimum
rating of IP56.

68
 DEGREE OF PROTECTION INDICATED
NUMERAL
1st Degree of Protection of persons against contact
Numera with live or moving parts inside the enclosure and
l protection of equipment against ingress of solid
bodies
0 No protection of persons against contact with live
or moving parts inside the enclosure. No protection
of equipment against ingress of solid foreign
bodies.
1 Protection against accidental or inadvertent
contact with live or moving parts inside the
enclosure by a large surface of the human body, for
example, a hand but not protection against
deliberate access to such parts. Protection against
ingress of large solid foreign bodies.
2 Protection against contact with live or moving parts
inside the enclosure by fingers. Protection against
ingress of medium size solid foreign bodies.
3 Protection against contact with live or moving parts
inside the enclosure by tools, wires or such objects
of thickness greater than 2.5 mm. Protection
against ingress of small solid foreign bodies.
4 Protection against contact with live or moving parts
inside the enclosure by tools, wires or such objects
of thickness greater than 1 mm. Protection against
Ingress of small solid foreign bodies.
5 Complete protection against contact with live or
moving parts inside the enclosure. Protection
against harmful deposits of dust. The ingress of
dust is not totally prevented, but dust cannot enter
in an amount sufficient to interfere with
satisfactory operation of the equipment enclosed.
6 Complete protection against contact with live or
moving parts inside the enclosure. Protection
against ingress of dust.
BY 1ST AND 2ND
2nd Degree of Protection against ingress
Numeral of liquids
0 No protection
1 Protection against drops of
condensed water:
Drops of condensed water falling on
the enclosure shall have no harmful
effect.
2 Protection against drops of liquid:
Drops of falling liquid shall have no
harmful effect when the enclosure is
tilted at any angle up to 15 " from the
vertical.
3 Protection against rain:
Water falling in rain at an angle up to
50" with respect to the vertical shall
have no harmful effect.
4 Protection against splashing:
Liquid splashed from any direction
shall have no harmful effect.
5 Protection again water-jets:
Water projected by a nozzle from any
direction under stated conditions shall
have no harmful effect.
6 Protection against conditions on
ships' decks (deck watertight
equipment):
Water from heavy seas shall not enter
the enclosure under prescribed
conditions.
69
 7 Protection against immersion in
Note that the higher the numeral of the 1st and 2nd water: It must not be
characteristic. the greater degree of protection the enclosure possible for water to enter the
offers: enclosure under stated conditions of
e.g. Jet-proof lP55 meets all the less onerous degrees such as pressure and time.
1P22, 1P23, lP34 and 1P54 8 Protection against indefinite
immersion in water under specified
pressure:
It must not be possible for water to
enter the enclosure

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Instrument Transformers (IT) are specially constructed accurate ratio
transformers used when it is necessary to measure comparatively high
values of current or voltage.
They are used to transform the primary voltage or current to values that
can safely operate measuring instruments such as ammeters,
voltmeters, wattmeters, energy meters, power factor meters, frequency
meters, etc. and protection relays and control equipment.
They act as an isolation between the instruments and high voltage
circuits.
Types of Instrument Transformers
1. Current (series) transformers – CT: These are used to transform
current whenever the current of an ac exceeds the safe current of
the measuring instruments. The primary of current transformer is
connected in series to the line while the secondary which is usually
designed to carry a current of 5A is connected to the measuring
instrument, control or protection devices. They are usually step-up
transformers.

70
 2. Potential (parallel) Transformers – PT: They are used to
transform voltage wherever or whenever the voltage of an ac
circuit exceeds 750V, as it is not easy to provide adequate
insulation on measuring instruments for voltage exceeding 750V.
They are always step-down transformers.
The primary winding of a PT is connected in parallel with the load
for which the voltage is to be measured or controlled while the
secondary winding is connected to the measuring instrument or
control devices.
The output voltage of potential transformers has been
standardized at 110V irrespective of the high input voltage.

Advantages of Instrument transformer (IT)

1. They isolate measuring instruments and control circuits from
high voltage circuits.
2. They ensure safe operation of instruments and operating
personnel.
3. Several instruments can be connected to a single instrument
transformer.

71
Note: The general safety practice in the use of instrument
transformers is that the secondary circuit (i.e. one terminal of
secondary winding) should be earthed so that the potential of
the instrument never rises above that of the secondary voltage.
The secondary terminal of a Current Transformer (CT) must
never be open circuited, while the secondary terminal of a
Potential Transformer (PT) must never be short circuited.

72