GEOGRAPHY NOTES Hlatikulu Central High Year 2020

Compiled by: Mr S. C. S’CANDZA

THEME 3 ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

Agriculture

Definition of terms:

Agriculture (farming): this is the production of crops and livestock.

Subsistence farming: production is used to feed the family.

Commercial farming: growing crops and rearing livestock for the purpose of making
money.

Pastoral farming: it is the rearing of animals.

Arable farming: the ploughing and cultivation of land for the production of crops.

Mixed farming: farming that rears animals and cultivated crops.

Sedentary farming: farming that takes place in a permanent location. The farm and the
farmer stay in the same place every year.

Shifting cultivation: farming that moves from one location to another every couple of
years.

Plantation: it where one crop is grown extensively (monoculture) for export and not local
consumption. E.g. Tobacco, cocoa, and sugar plantations.

Extensive farming: when a farm covers a large area, and inputs of labour and capital
per hectare are low.

Intensive farming: where the farm is usually smaller and inputs per capita are high.

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Labour intensive: when work done is mainly by humans or animals (instead of
machines).

Cash crop: these are crops grown to generate money e.g. tobacco, sugar cane, cotton,
tea. These crops do not have nutritional value.

Food crop: crops grown for consumption. These crops have high nutritional value e.g.
maize, beans.

Hectare: is an area of measurement equivalent to 10 000 square meters

Yield: this is the amount of crop that is harvested, that is the crop output.

Tenure: this means land ownership.

TYPES OF FARMING SYATEMS (taken from an Indian source)

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 Preparing Virgin land for agriculture

Virgin land: this is land that has never been used before or altered by humans.

When a farmer prepares virgin land, they should follow the following rules to avoid causing
permanent damage to the environment, and to make sure that farming practices are
sustainable;

- Do not cultivate land with a slope of more than 12 degrees, unless terraces are
constructed.
- Protect cultivated land against water and wind erosion.
- Protect all natural vegetation remaining on the farm.

Main objectives of land preparation (why do we have to prepare the land?)

• To make the land level and to make planting, harvesting and other activities easy
and efficient.
• To reduce competition from unwanted plants (weeds).
• To reduce erosion.
• To improve the soil quality and water holding capacity of the soil.

Steps in land preparation for agriculture

The following steps should be undertaken when preparing land for agriculture:

❖ Remove the trees and the bushes: cut down the trees growing on the land.
❖ Saw or cut the fallen trees into smaller sections: this is done to remove the tree
trunks and branches after cutting.
❖ Destumping: after the trees have been cut down, you need to remove the tree
stumps and bole (the sections below ground). This is known as “destumping”.
Heavy machinery such as bulldozers, may be needed for this. It is also important
to remove small trees and saplings, pulling out their root system.
❖ Retain the cut vegetation: the cut vegetation should be left on the field or
ploughed in, it adds organic matter and keeps more rainwater in the soil.

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❖ Remove large rocks: you need to remove rocks and boulders because stones will
damage or break farm implements.
❖ Drag a harrower over the soil surface: this should be done after the rocks and
trees have been removed. The harrow consists of circular discs that cut through
the soil.
❖ Plough and level the soil: start by using a large disc. Then use a smaller disc in
order to unearth smaller stones. These should be removed by hand.
❖ Apply fertilizers to the soil when necessary: fertilizers are applied to make the
soil fertile. They may be organic or inorganic fertilizers. Apply lime on acid soils,
because lime increases the pH of the soils, meaning that it reduces acidity.
❖ Kill weeds and pests: use pesticides or herbicides to kill pests that have infested
the soil.
❖ Erosion control: following mechanical preparation, create the necessary erosion
control measures on any land that slopes, e.g. a placing of 2-meter-wide grass
strips along the contour on sloping land.

Problems encountered in preparing land

Clearing and preparation of the land may pose various challenges for the farmer.
Some of the problem’s farmers may encounter include:

❖ Lack of capital: large sums of money to clear a large area of land and prepare
it for commercial agriculture.
❖ Use of heavy machinery: heavy machinery, such as chainsaws, tractors and
even graders are needed to remove trees and rocks. These must be hired,
together with skilled operators.
❖ Lack of skills: farmers sometimes lack the scientific skill and knowledge to do
the clearing task efficiently. This lack of technological know-how may cause
problems.
❖ Soil problems: soil may be too acidic or too alkaline, or they may be saline
(salty). These problems must be corrected before planting can begin.

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❖ Drainage problems: poorly drained soils may lead to waterlogging, while other
soils may drain quickly or have low water absorption. Water-tarps or grass
canals may be needed to control run-off. Poor soil drainage often contributes
to the formation of salty soil.

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 Agriculture as a system

Inputs: these are all the things required to make farming possible. Inputs can be divided
into physical and human inputs.

Physical inputs: these are the natural things that are either found on a farm or are added
to a farm. They include the following;

➢ Soil: if soil is fertile then arable farming is likely to take place, if it is less fertile and
can only support grass then pastoral farming is likely to take place.
➢ Precipitation: moisture or water that helps water the crops.
➢ Sun: this is energy to help plants and animals grow.
➢ Relief: if land is gently undulating its easier for arable farming to take place. If the
land is hilly then pastoral farming is more likely to take place.

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 ➢ Drainage: it is important that fields are well drained so that they are not
permanently flooded.

Human inputs: these are all things that are built or made by humans and added to a
farm e.g.

➢ Labour (workers)
➢ Machinery (tractors, combine harvestors etc.)
➢ Buildings (barns, silos etc.)
➢ Seed to grow crops
➢ Animal feed
➢ Fertilizers and pesticides
➢ Calves, chicks, piglets etc.

Processes: these are the events or activities that take place on a farm to turn inputs to
outputs.

➢ Processes include the following;

- Rearing: this is the caring for and support of animals to maturity.

- Shearing: the removing of wool from animals, normally sheep.
- Slaughtering: the killing of the animals once they have reached maturity and are
ready to sell.
- Ploughing: this is turning over of the land and preparing it for planting seeds.
- Fertilization: its adding chemicals to the soil to try and make it fertile.
- Weeding: removing alien plants (plants other than crops you are growing) from
crop yields.
- Irrigation: watering the crops.
- Cultivation: to care for and grow crops.
- Harvesting: the collection of crops at the end of the season.
- Planting: putting seeds into the ground

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Output: an agricultural output refers to the farmer’s yield or what the farmer produces. It
could be crops or animals depending on the type of agriculture the farmer is practicing.

Feedback: is very important in order to decide on how the farming could be improved if
the farmer made a loss. If the farmer made profit, he has to decide on what to do with it.
He could re-invest it.

➢ This is when a farmer compares his production to other farms, he must be able to
get new information and technology leading to new improvements.

Decision Making: if a farmer has a really successful year, he may be able to change his
inputs the next year. For example, by;

- By buying more land

- Buying better and newer equipment
- Improving drainage or irrigation
- Buying new varieties of seed e.g. Genetically Modified (GM) seeds
- Building new buildings e.g. silos for wheat, barns or greenhouses
- Buying more animals or better breeds.

NB: Therefore, if a farmer has a really bad year, his choices may include;

- selling some of his livestock

- selling some of his land
- diversify by opening a shop or a small B&B (Bread & breakfast)
- He may try and farm more intensively

THE GREEN REVOLUTION

The Green Revolution is basically the introduction of modern western style farming
techniques in LEDC’s during the late 1960’s and 1970’s. The farming techniques include;

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 - High Yield Varieties (HYV): HYV were developed to end food shortages by
increasing yields. They (HYV) were first developed by cross pollinating different
varieties of rice. Increasingly, this is being done through genetic modification.

The success of the Green Revolution

➢ HYV did increase food production and made countries densely populated like India
more self-reliant.
➢ Food prices began to fall making food more affordable for the poor.
➢ More crops could be grown because of the shorter growing season.
➢ The yields were more reliable.
➢ Different crops were grown adding variety to the local diet.
➢ There were surpluses so crops could then be traded commercially.
➢ Many farmers became wealthier.

Failures of the Green Revolution.

➢ Large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides were needed that could then pollute
water sources.
➢ The HYV were more susceptible to disease and drought.
➢ More water had to be diverted to growing crops through irrigation.
➢ Many poorer farmers could not afford to buy the more expensive HYV seeds.
➢ Mechanization has taken place leading to unemployment.
➢ Many natural varieties got lost.
➢ Countries and farmers became dependent on foreign companies for the supply of
seed.

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 SUBSISISTENCE FARMING

Solutions to challenges of subsistence farmers

NB: the main problem or challenge of subsistence farmers is low yields. To increase
the yields, subsistence farmers can do the following:

➢ Use HYV or Genetically Modified (GM) crops: these should increase the
average yield, but the crops can be expensive to buy. Also, intensive farming may
degrade the soil overtime.
➢ Buy more land: although this is not always possible but if a farmer has money
then he could try and buy more land to produce more crops.
➢ Land reform: changing traditional practices of dividing land can ensure that plots
of land remain big enough to make farming sustainable.
➢ Use of fertilizers and pesticides: use of fertilizers so that it is possible to grow
more intensively. And use of pesticides to stop plants from being killed by
infestations.

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➢ Grow 2 crops: in some countries it is possible to grow two sets of crops each year
(these might be the same crops or different crops). Even if climatic conditions are
favourable, by changing some of the inputs like irrigation and drainage, then it may
become possible to increase the yield.
➢ Using modern machinery: modern machinery might not always be possible on
small plots of land, but it may be possible if neighboring farmers are cooperating.
Mulching should make farming more efficient and may increase yields by
ploughing better and harvesting quicker.
➢ Irrigation: by watering the crops more frequently it makes it possible to grow over
a longer season, grow for 2 seasons or farm land that was previously too arid.
➢ Cooperatives: by joining together with nearby farms, farmers can share
technology and possibly even land to try and increase production.
➢ Terracing: by terracing on hillsides farmers increase the size of their land.
Terracing can also reduce the use of water and erosion.
➢ Diversification: this means to increase the range of products e.g. moving to mixed
farming or adding new crops.

Main features or characteristics of a subsistence farm.

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The following are the typical characteristics of a subsistence farm:

➢ Small size farmland: subsistence farming is usually carried out on a small

area of land.
➢ Mixed farming: a wide mix of mainly staple food crops is grown. Animals are
also reared.
➢ Reliance on rainwater: crops are rainfed or watered by hand as there is often
no access to irrigation.
➢ Few inputs: fertilizers, pesticides, etc. are rarely used as they are too
expensive.
➢ Little mechanization: machines are not often a feature of subsistence
farming due to their cost and small size of farmland.
➢ Farming is manual labour intensive and dependent on family labour. Paid
labour is too expensive.
➢ Limited access to credit. Yields are very low and no market produce prevent
farmers from obtaining loans.
➢ Lack of insurance: subsistence farmers cannot afford to insure their crops;
this makes them very vulnerable to poor conditions.
➢ Low yields: the lack of inputs, modern farming technology and tools result in
low yields and often, poor quality crops.

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Problems experienced in subsistence farming

➢ Lack of capital: subsistence farmers cannot afford to buy important inputs

such as HIV and GM seeds, fertilizers, herbicides, machinery such as
irrigation systems. This result in low yields and poor-quality seeds.
➢ Lack of mechanization: productivity is low because subsistence farmers
cannot afford machinery such as tractors, irrigation systems etc.
➢ Lack of information: due to a lack of resources and limited access to
electricity, subsistence farms cannot get short-term and long-term weather
reports or market information. This means that they cannot plan or plant
the correct crops at the correct time.
➢ Lack of financial support: access to credit is very difficult to obtain, which
means that subsistence farmers cannot invest in inputs that will increase
productivity of their farms or allow them to adopt new farming systems.
➢ Poor markets: it is very difficult for subsistence farmers to find reliable
outlets or markets for their surplus products. This is because the yields are
very unreliable, they cannot deliver a reliable supply to retailers.
➢ It is also not always easy to get markets because of distance, or lack of
transport.
➢ Dependence on rainfall: since subsistence farmers cannot afford
irrigation systems or lack access to piped water, the harvests are very
unreliable. Droughts can result in the loss of all crops.
➢ Small land area: subsistence farms are often too small to support large
families or to introduce mechanical farming methods.
➢ Over-reliance on 1 crop: many subsistence farmers prefer to grow maize,
but maize is more sensitive to water shortages than other crops e.g.
sorghum.
➢ Poor nutrition: subsistence farmers often have little or no income and may
suffer poor nutrition, because their yields are low and of poor quality. This
reduces their energy and causes a cycle of poor or low productivity.

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Solutions to subsistence farming limitations

➢ Provide information education and training to farmers: this will allow farmers to
follow the best farming practices, develop their livestock, conserve the soil, and
grow crops best suited for the market and climatic conditions.
➢ Improve access to credit on good terms (in other words with manageable
repayment rates): this will allow farmers to invest in farming technologies and
equipment.
➢ Improve access to farm inputs: if farmers have access to fertilizers and improved
varieties of seeds that are drought tolerant, it will improve their yields.
➢ Improve access to water: by constructing small dams, boreholes, rainwater
collection tanks or by providing piped water.
➢ Provide storage and transport facilities and help farmers find market outlets.
➢ Improve road systems to help farmers transport their marketable goods.

Efforts to improve subsistence farming in Eswatini (Case Study)

In Eswatini the government introduced a programme called the rural Development Area
Programme (RDAP) which began in the 1970’s and the Eswatini Agricultural
Development Project (EADP) which was launched in 2007/8.

The objectives of the RDAP are to:

- Increase the production of crops

- Increase the production of livestock
- Protect natural resources such as soil
- Improve the living the living standards of the rural people

➢ To achieve the above objectives the programmes included the provision of

subsidized fertilizers and hybrid seeds, provided tractors for hire, provided
agricultural extension workers, provided credit facilities and the building of roads
and dams.

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 NB: unfortunately, many of these schemes are no longer available due to funding
problems but the areas that were targeted showed improvement in subsistence
farming productivity.

➢ The following strategies have also been implemented in Eswatini in recent years:
- Formation of sugar cane growing cooperatives in the Lowveld: farmers
combine their land to grow sugar cane, and are given access to training,
irrigation, credit and market outlets (local sugar mills).
- Cattle sale yards have been established to encourage farmers to sell their
excess cattle and to promote the rearing of cattle for sale.
- Establishing sale yards called “flea markets” for chicken to promote the
commercialization of indigenous chicken.
- The creation of an Early Warning Unit to alert farmers to climatic
conditions that could impact on production.
- Recognizing and supporting “Champion Framers” who practice
successful conservation agriculture. Their knowledge and successes can
then be passed on to other farmers

EXTENSIVE vs INTENSIVE FARMING

Extensive farming: it is a type of farming that requires relatively few inputs and
possibly few outputs per hectare of land.

Features or characteristics of Extensive farming

➢ Normally done on a large farm.

➢ Requires relatively few inputs per hectare.
➢ Requires relatively few workers.
➢ Relatively low yield per hectare’
➢ Generally high yield (because the farm is large)

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Intensive Farming: this is a type of farming that requires high inputs and high outputs
per hectare of land. Note: It aims at getting maximum production from a relatively
small size of land. It is common in MEDC’s.

Features or characteristics of Intensive farming.

➢ It is normally practiced on a smaller farm.

➢ Relatively high inputs per hectare are used.
➢ Relatively high number of workers per hectare are required.
➢ There is relatively high yield per hectare.

Advantages of Intensive farming

➢ Crop production is high.

➢ Yields are reliable.
➢ Because of the high output, farms produce has become less expensive.
➢ More food can be produced using less land.

Disadvantages of Intensive farming

➢ It involves the use of greater quantities of pesticides and insecticides. This can
pollute the environment and affect the health of humans and animals.
➢ By practicing monoculture (farming just 1 type of crop on the same land) it quickly
depletes soils of their nutrients.
➢ It drives down the price of food, making it difficult for traditional and subsistence
farmers to compete.
➢ Animals are not able to roam freely and kept in small spaces. Diseases spread
easily and more antibiotics are used.

Strategies of the Eswatini government to promote Intensive Farming (Case

study)

Cooperative Smallholder sugar-cane farming in Eswatini

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 NB: remember that intensive farming requires capital, labour and technology, as well
as a reliable market for products. The products also need to have a high market
value in order to generate profit.

➢ Eswatini already has a highly developed sugar cane industry with 3 big sugar
mills that are a secure market for sugar cane growers. To bring subsistence
farmers into the sugar cane industry, the government has 2 major irrigation
schemes on Swazi Nation Land (SNL) which is communal land, next to
Mhlume and Ubombo Sugar mills. These schemes are the Komati Downstream
Development Project (KDDP) on the Komati river, and the Lower Usuthu
Irrigation Project (LUSIP) on the Usuthu river.
- On these irrigation schemes farmers, subsistence farmers are able to
farm cooperatively managed farms where sugar cane is grown
using intensive farming methods.
- Farmers are also provided with technical and financial advice to
help them move from subsistence rain-fad agriculture to irrigated
commercial agriculture.
- Because the farmers have a reliable market (the sugar mills) they
have also been given access to credit loans to help them purchase the
necessary inputs.
➢ KDDP was established in the year 2000, and currently has about 2 500
smallholders cultivating 3 095 hectares of irrigated land. The project is
estimated to provide irrigation to 7 400 hectares of SNL.
➢ LUSIP on the other hand was established in 2003, and currently has about 15
200 people intensively farming the land. The project is designed to irrigate 11
500 hectares.

Other strategies to promote intensive farming in Eswatini include:

➢ The Cotton Board of Eswatini (ECB) helps SNL cotton farmers to obtain
pesticides and seeds, and provide education and training through extension

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 officers. The ECB also runs Sikhulile cotton ginnery at Big Bend, which provides
a market for all cotton farmers in Eswatini.
➢ The Swaziland Citrus Board provides advice and information to citrus
growers, and coordinates transport of citrus crops to international markets

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 SHIFTING CULTIVATION

Shifting agriculture: is farming that involves clearing the area of land (deforestation)
in order to farm. This is usually small-scale subsistence farming, once the land is
cleared farming will take place. After a few years of cultivation, the land is abandoned
to replenish itself, because as it is cultivated it loses its fertility (fallow). This type of
farming is mostly done by indigenous groups in the tropical rainforests e.g. in Amazon
in Brazil.

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Problems caused by shifting cultivation

➢ It kills or disturbs flora and fauna, that is, plants and animals.
➢ It results in the breaking of the Nitrogen cycle, causing the soil to lose its fertility
very quickly.
➢ It breaks the stability of the soil and cause top soil erosion. Tree roots are very
good at holding soil in place, so if you remove their roots then water and wind
erosion is more likely to happen.
➢ More flash floods happen which are caused by the reduced interception, faster
saturation of the ground and increased surface run-off (this may lead to
flooding)

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 ➢ Silting of rivers caused by top soil being washed into rivers. The silt can then
be washed into the sea blocking shipping channels.

LARGE-SCALE COMMERCIAL FARMING

Commercial Framing: is a type of farming where crops are grown and animals are reared
for profit or sale. In large-scale commercial farming crops are produced in large scale
and distributed to large wholesalers and retailers. The type of crop to be grown is
decided by the market not the needs of the farmer. Inputs in a commercial farm are
high e.g. farming equipment’s, fertilizers, pesticides etc. However, the inputs are
not as high relative to the area of land that is cultivated, as they are on an intensive
farm. The number of workers employed relative to the land area is much less on a
commercial farm than on an intensive farm.

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Features of a large-scale commercial farm.

➢ Each farm occupies a large area of land, and usually only 1 type of crop is
farmed from year to year (monoculture).
➢ Commercial farms are highly mechanized: that is machines are used to do much
of the work
➢ Modern farming techniques are used, such as the use hybrid seeds, large
irrigation systems, mechanized planting, fertilizing and weeding.
➢ Commercial farms have high chemical inputs e.g. fertilizers and pesticides.
➢ Semi-skilled and skilled labour are used to do manual labour, operate farm
equipment’s, perform marketing, accounting and administrative roles.
➢ Workers are often housed on farms.
➢ Large commercial farms have storage facilities for agricultural produce and
some even have their own seed nurseries and processing plants to prepare and
package the produce for sale.
➢ Large commercial farms require large amounts of capital investment to cover
inputs, machinery, wages, transports and marketing.

Main difference between Commercial and subsistence farms

➢ Commercial farms have many inputs than subsistence farming and inputs are
more technologically advanced.
➢ Commercial farms also have an extra feedback box in their system, that is,
(Inputs – Processes – Outputs – Feedback).

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Differences between commercial farming in LEDC’s and MEDC’s

LEDC’s MEDC’s
Higher labour outputs: Farms in LEDC’s Labour outputs are smaller: there is a
have more people working in them. greater reliance on machinery and
technology.
Labour costs are lower in LEDC’s. Labour costs are higher.
Commercial farming provides an important Commercial farming is not a major source
source of formal wage – labour of formal labour in MEDC’s.
employment.
Farms are less mechanized Farms are highly mechanized and use
advanced technology
Infrastructure is limited and farms have to Infrastructure is well developed
develop much of their own infrastructure
e.g. roads, power, bridge.
Support services (such as marketing and Support services are well developed.
research) are limited.
Local markets are small Local markets are large and well
developed.
LEDC’s are very sensitive to exchange MEDC’s are less vulnerable to exchange
rates fluctuations. rates fluctuations.
Disease such as HIV/AIDS have a big Diseases have little impact on productivity.
impact on productivity.
Many commercial farms in LEDC’s are Commercial farms in MEDC’s are often
owned by multinational companies family run, though some are often run by
(MNC’s) or local corporations. Private corporations.
individuals do not usually have the
resources or the access to credit that is
needed to start a large commercial farm.

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The impacts of large-scale commercial farming on people and the environment.

Positive Impacts

➢ Commercial food farming is more economically viable than traditional subsistence

farming, so farmers earn more money.
➢ Commercial farming contributes to the national economy (GDP) and is a source of
foreign exchange.
➢ Commercial farming provides formal wage employment to farm labourers, they
earn money that can be saved, or spent on education, housing etc. this is
especially important in LEDC’s where employment is scarce.
➢ Commercial farming produce employment opportunities for skilled workers such
as technicians, machine operators, accountants etc.
➢ Commercial farming provides agricultural experience and skills transfer to farm
labourers.
➢ Yields are more reliable on commercial farms as a result of irrigation, high yielding
seeds and use of fertilizers and other chemicals. This means that food shortages
are less common.
➢ High yields and increased efficiency can result in reduced costs and lower food
prices for the consumer.
➢ High yields and increased efficiency also mean that less land is needed to produce
the same output as traditional and subsistence farms.
➢ Commercial farmers have the resources to invest in alternative farming methods
such as organic farming or crop farming using hydroponics (that is farming without
soil by using mineral nutrient solutions)

Negative impacts of large commercial farming on people

➢ Labourers earn low wages and have little or no job security as jobs are often
seasonal. Seasonal workers do not have benefits such as medical aid.
➢ In LEDC’s where subsistence farmers seek seasonal work on commercial farms,
the subsistence farms are neglected and productivity goes down.

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Negative impacts of commercial farming on the environment

❖ Loss of soil fertility and soil erosion: crops use most of the nutrients in soil
during farming.
- Intensive farming of a single crop (monoculture) leads to a decline in soil nutrients,
minerals and other organic matter.
- It also weakens the soil structure, when the soil becomes degraded nothing can
grow on it, soil degradation leads to soil erosion.
- Removal of vegetation and deep ploughing also leaves the soil exposed to erosion.

❖ Water depletion: large scale farming methods use a lot of water for irrigation. This
reduces river run-off which results in the loss of river species and ecosystems that
are dependent on the water.

❖ Water Pollution: chemical fertilizers wash into rivers (either directly or through the
soil). Once they enter into reivers and other water bodies, they cause a dangerous
decrease in the level of oxygen in water. This happens because the nutrients in
the fertilizers cause large amounts of algae to grow (this process is called
eutrophication).
- The algae block sunlight from entering the water, so water plants die. When algae
die, they sink into the bottom. The bacteria that decomposes the dead algae then
use the remaining oxygen for respiration. This causes fish and other life forms in
water to suffocate and eventually die.
- Pesticides also wash into rivers and other water supplies; this can make people
and other animals sick because pesticides carry toxins or poisonous substances
meant for killing pests.

❖ Air pollution: most commercial farms use pesticides to kill pests. Spraying release
pesticides into the air, which can make people sick. These pesticides can also kill
animals e.g. pollutants such as bees.

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 ❖ Loss of habitats: clearing natural vegetation and wetlands for farms leads to a
loss of habitat for wildlife and the destruction of ecosystems. Many natural pest’s
enemies (that is animals that prey on agricultural pests) are also lost to habitat
destruction and monocultural practices.

❖ Climate change: commercial agriculture contributes significantly to climate

change in 3 ways;

- Through consuming or burning fossil fuels releasing methane and nitrous

oxide (both greenhouse gases) and through land uses.
- Fossil fuels are used to power large machinery and transport vehicles.
- Methane is released by farming of cattle and rice.
- Nitrous oxide is releases by fertilizers,
- Land use: converting forested land to farms results in the release of carbon
dioxide that was previously stored in the natural vegetation.

Large-Scale Commercial farming in an LEDC (Eswatini) (Case Study)

Large-scale commercial sugar cane farming in Eswatini is practiced on 3 large,

commercial sugar estates namely; Mhlume, Simunye and Ubombo Sugar Estates. These
3 estates produce 77% of all sugar cane in Swaziland.

Characteristics of sugar cane farming on the large, commercial sugar estates

➢ Size: Mhlume and Simunye have about 15 607 ha under cane while the Ubombo
has about 8 600 hectares under cane.
➢ Location: all three sugar mills are in the Lowveld. The Lowveld is gentle
undulating and has suitable temperatures for sugar cane growing and fertile soils.
But rainfall is inadequate, very low to support sugar cane growing without the use
of large-scale irrigation.

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➢ Growing conditions: sugar cane grows best in hot conditions with plenty of
rainfall about 1 500mm per year. Sugar cane does well in deep well drained soils
and does not tolerate frost.
➢ Ownership: all 3 sugar estates are owned by corporations.
➢ Capital investment: Large amount of capital are needed to buy inputs and for
operation costs.
➢ Labour: unskilled labour is needed for cutting, irrigation, harvesting and
maintenance of the cane. However, cane can be cut by hand or by large combine
harvesters. In Eswatini most harvesting is done by hand and this provides more
employment. Semi-skilled labourers are needed for operating machinery and
transporting produce. Skilled labourers are needed for management and scientific
crop production, sugar processing at the mills, research, engineering projects and
technical support.
➢ Infrastructure: all 3 estates have a well-developed infrastructure e.g. have sugar
mill, sugar refineries, ethanol plants and electricity generating biomass power
plants. All 3 sugar estates use large-scale irrigation systems to provide enough
water for crops.
➢ Marketing: marketing is done by the Eswatini Sugar Association (ESA). The ESA
is a company made up of growers and millers of sugar cane in Eswatini. All sugar
in Eswatini is sold through ESA.

Challenges

➢ Investments in infrastructure are high: because of poor infrastructure the

sugar mills invested a lot of capital in building roads and bridges, developing
irrigation canals, constructing processing plants and electricity generating
plants, and even providing health care, education, housing and recreational
facilities for staff.
➢ Changing exchange rates: the local currency (Lilangeni) is vulnerable to
changing exchange rates, which means the prices earned on overseas sales
are not stable.

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 ➢ Limited access to capital: large sums of money need to be borrowed, and it
is difficult to source the money locally so it has to be obtained from outside the
country at high costs.
➢ High transport costs: poorly developed transport infrastructure in some parts
of the southern African region makes it very difficult for estates to sell sugar to
regional markets such as DRC. Since Eswatini is a landlocked country it also
expensive to transport sugar cane to ports so freight handling and storage costs
are high.
➢ Drought: sugar cane in Eswatini is under irrigation. In dry years when it
becomes necessary to ration water, this reduces the yield.
➢ Labour problems: strikes and acts of sabotage by striking workers can cause
the sugar companies to lose millions.
➢ HIV/AIDS: the high HIV and AIDS rate in Eswatini result sin absenteeism, ill
health and loss of workers, all of which reduces productivity. More money has
to be spent on recruiting and training new workers.

Products of sugar cane

Every part of the sugar cane plant and all the byproducts of the sugar manufacturing
process are used:

➢ Leaves and fibre: are used to make animal feed.

➢ Bagasse (the fibre): is used as biomass and mulch, and to make paper products,
and used in the manufacture of chemicals.
➢ Filter cake: used to make agricultural fertilizer.
➢ Molasses: used to make animal feed additives and to make ethanol, baker’s
yeast, citric acid, rum and syrup.
➢ Ethanol: an industrial alcohol that can be used as a motor fuel, as a solvent and
as an antiseptic.
➢ Refined and unrefined sugar: used for cooking sweetening and baking, also
used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and chemicals.

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PASTORALISM

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Pastoralism/Pastoral Farming

Pastoralism refers to the rearing of animals or livestock. This type of farming relies
on pastures for animals. Pastoralism may also be called animal husbandry. Example of
animals reared are

- Sheep
- Cattle
- Goat
- Pigs
- Poultry

INPUTS, PROCESSES AND OUTPUT OF PASRORAL FARMS

INPUTS (natural and human)

Natural inputs

• Land
• Soil
• Water
• Relief
• Climate

Human inputs

NB: there is low human inputs in subsistence pastoral farming and medium to high
inputs in commercial pastoral farming:

• Capital
• Buildings
• Transport
• Machinery
• Animal feed
• Market

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PROCESSES

Livestock farmers perform the following processes:

• Milking
• Feeding
• Breeding
• Dipping
• Vaccinating

OUTPUT

The outputs (products) from pastoralism are;

• Milk
• Meat
• Wool
• Eggs
• Animals etc.

Feature of subsistence pastoral farming

- there is small output from subsistence pastoral farming farms

- little is produced for sale to the market.
- Livestock is mainly reared for milk, meat, and draught power for the family.
- Livestock are also kept as payment for bride price, funeral, marriages
ceremonies and school fees.

Features of commercial pastoralism

• Output for commercial pastoral farms is extensive.

• Livestock are sold at the market and to abattoirs.

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 • They earn large amount of money.

Impacts of subsistence and commercial pastoral farming on people and the

environment

Positive impacts

- Pastoral farming is a source of income for people.

- Export of products produced by pastoral farming contributes to the national
economy (GDP).
- Pastoral farming provide employment for the people.
- Pastoral farming supplies people with things that they need such as meat, milk
products, draught animals, skins, manure and dowry for marriage.

Negative impacts on the environment

1. Deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification

Overgrazing (the main challenge) is a serious threat to the pastoral farmers and
the environment, since it leads to the loss of vegetation cover, soil erosion,
degradation of land, and eventually desertification

Overgrazing is mainly caused by OVERSTOCKING.

Overstocking occurs when the number of livestock grazing in an area is too large
for the vegetation to recover. As a result, plants are weakened to the point whereby
they can’t survive a normal dry season.

Cultural factors: in some traditional communities, special cultural value is

attached to cattle, as a result they are not sold, land is there overgrazed and
livestock deteriorates.

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 Soil erosion: once the vegetation covering the soil is removed, soil erosion will
take place. Flash floods and strong winds carry away the soil and deep farrow
forms causing land degradation.

Desertification: occurs when large areas of forested land are cleared to make
way for cattle farming.

2. Biodiversity loss: this refers to the variety of living organism including ecosystem,
plants and animals and their habitats. The loss of biodiversity is mainly caused by
habitat degradation and land use change. Grazing of pastures, removal of
vegetation has had a negative effect on biodiversity.

3. Water pollution: animals can negatively affect the quality of water by depositing
their waste in the water and by stirring up the mud causing the water to be
cloudy. Animal waste carries harmful bacteria that affects the health of the
people. Like fertilizers, animal waste also causes eutrophication of water
bodies. (Eutrophication: is when a river contains too many nutrients, causing
algal growth and a decrease in oxygen levels.)

4. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

Livestock production produces methane, a green house gas. Methane is
produced through fermentation in the digestive tract of cattle, and is expelled
through their mouth through belching and breathing. Methane is also released from
manure. Methane emission is higher when animals are fed with mature grasses
and silage.

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Possible solution to the impacts on the environment

1. Land degradation

➢ Rotational grazing: ensures that grass has time to regrow and regenerate.
➢ management of number of animals: ensuring the animals do not exceed
the grazing capacity of the land improves pasture production.
➢ Soil conservation measures: such as restoring plant growth in damaged
land.

2. Biodiversity loss
➢ prevent grazing on marginal land.
➢ identify natural areas that exclude pastoral farming and preserving
biodiversity in these areas.
➢ encouraging the rearing of indigenous livestock that are suitable to local
conditions and are more resistant to disease and pest than exotic breeds

3. Water pollution
➢ There must be proper management of animal waste, including preventing
animal and their waste from being in contact with water sources
➢ Come up with methods to keep animals away from water bodies e.g. fencing
to prevent damage to streams banks.
➢ Provide water troughs in grazing camps.
➢ Provide rain gutters on animal shelter roofs to direct clean rainwater away
from manure.

4. Greenhouse gas emission

➢ improving herd management and reducing the number of unproductive
animals that emit methane.
➢ improving the diet by providing a higher quality of forage reduce
methane production.

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 ➢ decreasing the population of microbes in the rumen through chemical
means, such as vaccination, to reduce the production of methane.

Pastoral farming in Eswatini (Case Study)

Cattle is the most important livestock kept by the people of Eswatini.

➢ The indigenous cattle breed is the Nguni, other breeds such as the
Brahman, Simmental, Drakensberger, and Jersey are also reared for
commercial purposes.
➢ Poultry, goats and sheep are also farmed, but contribute mainly to the food
and cash needs of rural households.
➢ Both subsistence and commercial cattle farming takes place. SNL is
communal land where subsistence and small-scale farmers graze their
livestock. On average farmers own between one and fifteen cattle.
Subsistence farmers raise cattle to do work and provide services for the
family, they are not reared for sale. However small-scale farmers are being
assisted and encouraged by government to raise cattle for sale.
➢ Title Deed land (TDL) is a freehold form of land ownership where
commercial farmers practice commercial pastoralism. These cattle ranches
are run by private individuals or companies. Herd size on these ranches can
be as large as 1 500 cattle. These farms have high levels of animal
husbandry and disease control. Animals are reared for beef and milk
production.
➢ Beef is the main output of Eswatini and most is sold to the European Union
(EU). However, this market enforces strict conditions. In 2017, for example,
the EU stopped the beef imports from Eswatini because of concerns about
foot-and-mouth disease after Eswatini received a gift of buffalo from
Zambia. This has knock-on effects, as it discourages farmers from selling
their cattle, resulting in cattle numbers exceeding the carrying capacity of
the land.

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 FOOD SHORTAGES

Food Shortages: Is when there is a lack of food.

Food security: is when people have an access to and can afford enough nutritious
food that will allow them to be healthy.
Food insecurity: is when people do not have access to enough nutritious food
and are not sure when they will be able to have another meal.
Undernourished / malnourished: to provide food with insufficient quality or
quantity of nourishment.
Malnutrition: not having a balanced diet and being short of food which occurs in
developed and developing countries.
Famine: the widespread lack of access to food, as a result of war, drought and
floods.
Starvation: a total lack of food.

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CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGES

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 Natural factors

1. Natural disasters: e. g flooding, drought, tropical storms, earthquakes, plagues

such as pests such as locusts and worms. Natural disaster cause crops to fail or
damage crops lands, as a result less food is produced.
- Poor people are more severely affected by disasters and maybe driven into
extreme food insecurity. For example, in Ethiopia, the ELNino-related drought
of 2005/2016 left an estimated 9.7 million people in need of urgent food
assistance.
- NB: due to climate change, disasters such as droughts and floods are
becoming more frequent and more severe.

2. Infertile soil and land degradation

Plants need nutrients to grow and be healthy. Poor farming practices and overuse
of soil can deplete soils of nutrients.
- In highly commercialized farms (where there is an extreme use of inorganic
/chemical fertilizers), the soil’s organic material is gradually destroyed
hence lowering productivity.

- The degradation of soil fertility can lead to food shortage and poverty and
in extreme cases can lead to desertification of marginal land.

3. Pest and diseases

- Food security is being threatened by the increase in the number of outbreaks
of pest and diseases affecting plants and animals. For example, locusts that
destroy large fields of crops, and foot and mouth diseases among livestock.

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 - The disease is a serious threat to agriculture and to livelihoods of farmers,
especially small-scale farmers.
- They also spread across borders and sometimes become highly contagious
global pandemics.

4. Population growth: food production is unable to keep up with the rapid population
growth especially in LEDC’s.

Economic factors
5. Poverty and limited financial resources: they have a huge impact on food
shortages and food security.
➢ Many LEDC’s with low income do not have the funds to cope with disasters
such as droughts and failed harvests. They may have to import food at high
prices. Nutritious food become unaffordable for many people, as a result
they have to buy cheaper, less nutritious food.
➢ Farmers in LEDC’s, especially subsistence farmers, cannot afford inputs
such as drought resistant seeds, fertilisers and irrigation. This reduces
production.
➢ Unsustainable agricultural practices, such as overstocking livestock,
contributes to food crisis and poverty.
➢ An increase in unemployment increases food insecurity. Food insecurity in
turn can cause people to be undernourished and unemployable.

6. Lack of investment and infrastructure (e.g. roads, irrigation systems etc.):

many developing countries lack investment support to construct infrastructure
such as roads, warehouses and irrigation systems. This limits large-scale
commercial production of food necessary for foo security.

7. Poor distribution of foodstuffs and wastage of food: poor transport links,

marketing and distribution can mean that foodstuffs do not reach the markets or
may spoil before reaching the market and the people that need the food.

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 8. Globalization: fluctuation of prices caused by international trade also means that
in times of drought and failed crops, food has to be bought at high prices. In some
cases, countries switched from food crops to cash crops to earn more money on
international markets. This reduced the local supply of food.

Political factors

9. Wars and conflicts and other conflicts

Conflicts can include local tribal fights, civil wars and regional conflict. Conflicts
can disrupt or destroy food production, food supply and trade.

10. Government policies

Some government policies that are designed to support development may have
the opposite effect by causing food shortage. For example, a government may
decide to promote cash crops (for instance sugar cane) over food crop
(maize) to increase economic growth.
➢ This may result in too many farmers growing the cash crop (sugar-cane)
thereby endangering food security. This was the case in Rwanda where
coffee (a cash crop) was preferred over millet (a food crop).
➢ If a single crop is encouraged, this may lead to monoculture farming.
One of the problems with monoculture is that the single crop variety tends
to attract large numbers of pests that favour that plant.
➢ Another problem with cash crops is that governments may have to start
importing food crops at higher costs than they are earning through export
of the cash crop.

Another example of government policy is that government may take the

decision to limit prices on basic foods in order to help citizens especially in urban
areas. This can discourage farmers (in rural areas) to produce such food crops,
leading to food shortages.

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EFFECTS OF FOOD SHORTAGES ON THE PEOPLE & THE ECONOMY OF A
COUNTRY

NB: Food shortages have long term and short-term effects which include;
starvation, malnutrition, high death rate and political unrest.

1. Impacts of food shortages on children & the elders – children, women and
the elderly are the most vulnerable to food shortages
- School going children who experience food shortages lack concentration in the
classroom and may not the energy to take part in class activities, playground
and social activities that contribute to their growth and development.
- School drop out rates of vulnerable children increase

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 - Mothers who suffer food shortages are unable to take care of their young ones
and even breastfeed them.

2. Loss of life – people die from hunger and malnutrition or deficiency diseases
such as kwashiorkor.
- Children succumb to hunger within a short period of time as they cannot
withstand long periods of starvation.

3. Increase in the price of food – increase in the fuel price leads to an increase
in the cost incurred by agriculture, e.g. fertilizers and food transportation.
- Persistent droughts in grain – producing areas results in increases in the price
of food.
- The increase in the demand for food and high prices make it more difficult for
poor people to meet their demand for food.

4. Economic decline – as people struggle to afford the basic goods and services,
especially food and shelter, agricultural business conditions decline.
- As the supply of agricultural products decreases, food prices increase.
- As agricultural production declines more money is spent on buying products
from other countries e.g. maize from the republic of South Africa.
- Jobs become scarce, because the imports exceed the exports and the
economy of the country declines.
- People who are undernourished and malnourished have low productivity which
contributes to poverty in a country.

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF FOOD SHORTAGES

1. The green revolution – the Green Revolution refers to methods to increase

productivity and crop yield by supplementing the conditions provided by nature
Some of the Green revolution Methods are;

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 - Introducing and using different seeds for crops, such as High – Yielding
Varieties (HYV) that are adapted to local conditions.
- Increasing the use of fertilizers
- Improving irrigation methods
- Using herbicides to destroy weeds and pesticides to destroy pests
- Vaccinating and medicating livestock threatened by disease
- Using machinery to cultivate more land if needed

NB: The Green Revolution aims to end food shortages by maximizing production
through the use of inputs such as fertilizers, HYV seeds etc. Increasing productivity
will boost economic growth, it will also reduce poverty in low-income households
and therefore increase food security in rural areas.

2. Organic food – this is food produced according to certain principles, here farmers
do not use pesticides and other chemicals. These foods taste better and have high
nutrients levels.
- Organic foods are important in that they reduce the health risks, because
they are grown naturally without the use of chemical fertilizers and other
pesticides.

3. Improvement in infrastructure, transport, distribution and marketing – The

transport and distribution of foodstuffs must be improved so that food reaches the
people and is not wasted.

4. Price controls on basic foods – governments need to ensure that structures are
put in place so that poor people are able to buy basic foods such as bread and
maize.
- The governments need to control price increments on basic foods.

5. The World Food Programme (WFP) – the main aim of in Esawtini is to strengthen
food security for the most vulnerable people, who are challenged by income
inequality.

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 - The WFP programme provides food to children in rural areas who face food
insecurity as a result of droughts
- The programme provides breakfast and lunch to young learners and sponsors
school gardens to ensure that there is a regular supply of vegetables.

6. Eliminating poverty and increasing access to education – there is a

relationship between, food security and education.
- Poverty forces children to drop out of school
- Education allows young people to have greater opportunities to earn an income
and therefore have access to food.
- People should also be educated about birth control. High birth rate result in
increased food shortages as there are mouths to feed.

7. Encourage exports – increasing exports means that countries have more money
available to invest in the improvement of infrastructure related to the production of
food. For example, Eswatini export sugar which contributes towards the country’s
GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
- The export of sugar and other products should be encouraged as it will result
in money for the economy.

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