hhave been discussing the antennas and the process of radiation from them i ‘currents in the antennas produce detachment of electromagnetic er rived with the When a rad da res the transmitting antenna, it spreads in all directions decreasing in armph king clectromay nary | the frequency spectrum of 0.001 areas. Electomagnetic wave termed as radio waves, although broadly speak that band of electromagnetic energy which covers the frequency Far frequencies or very long waves) 10 a few MHz (super high frequencie chapter, for discussion purpose, the electromagnetic wave and rad imeaning and hence this chapter could have also been named a Waves or simply Wave Propagation that not onl , the electromagnetic waves propagate in w bul are also dictated by the environment itself. The actual ‘waves are propagated may have obstacles, discontinuitic ng. However, the only environment of importance for practical lof the earth and its immediate surroundings. Of course, 1n the ‘out space too. In many respects, the concept of free space far from the earth. Free space is the space which does not ‘and propagation of radio waves. In other words, in tree space. or solid bodies or ionized particles are assumed to exist. The simplifies the approach to wave propagation a transmitter is ordinarily spread over a relatively lay lof the receiving antennas is only a small fract ion loss (ratio of radiated power to received Jdb) and so itis the transmission loss bet whether the received signal will be receiving point may travel over of propagations are propagation. GE scanned with OKEN Scanner3 2 = 5 & a z & x 3 s = 3 g € € S a© scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ scanned with OKEN Scanner_ — 6 & tS © low frequency 1< f, Ciel vequeney = hare fy = Gyro-toquoncy = 8. (an electron while vibrating under earh's magnetic ela fear gyro-frequency (when f = f,) and so avoided in y day hours in D-region where collision frequency is high and thus no ‘1to2 MHz. Beyond the frequency about 2 MHz, the attenuation when f > fy the electron motions follows an elliptical path narrower if frequency increases. Consequently a high frequency cally polarized after reflection from the ionosphere whenf < fy the electrons vibrate in small loops, usually making spiral and the polarization is not effected much y CONSTANT (K,) AND CONDUCTIVITY (c) OF AND COLLISION FREQUENCY (0 ) collisions always occur due to the presence of large number of ions, The collisions destroy the direct momentum (atleast in and hence absorption of energy takes place from the radio waves the ionosphere. Some frictional loss of energy takes place due 10 ‘electrons with particles of the ionosphere. If D = Average dissipative collision frequency (6.48) v= ¢ = Velocity of electron = voe’”’ (644) = collision frequency of the electrons E = Eye = harmonically varying electric field Fromegn.644 = jw we% = ju-v ‘Hence eqn. 6.43 assumes the form as eE=m- (jov) + mv =m (jo+v) cE (645) >= A(o +0) we get @ scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner@ Scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner623 —___623 (i+0) BREA (i + O)orn-a=n_ i=a-0 above equation, we get (6.53) (6.54) ~- (6.55) putting this in eqn. 6.54 in terms of angle of elevation 8, can be written as [Beso ae (Ah) (6.56) Radius 2A oe oe >: Ss Se where @ is in radians D=2R-0 2a| (0 B) - sin (a8]] (6.58) ‘Measurement of virtual height is normally carried out by means of an instrument known IONOSONDE. The basic method is to transmit vertically upward a pulse-modulated radio >with a pulse duration of about 150 micro-seconds. The reflected signal is received close to ssion point, and the time T required for the round trip is measured. The virtual height ‘given by = ee = Virtual height (6.59) ¢= velocity of light, in m/s =3% 10° metres/sec The ionosonde will have facilities for ig over the radio frequency range, typically, Sweep from 1 MHz to 20MHz in 3 It will also have facilities of automatic of virtual height against frequency. The Graph is known as an IONOGRAM mm in Fig. 6.21. The jonogram shows two critical Hes fos and f, Fs. These two critical ees, & A 3 VERTICAL HEIGHT IN km 2 4 6 8 0 2 F (MHZ) RADIO FREQUENCY — Fig. 621. lonogram @ scanned with OKEN Scannerthe maximum" q the wave frequency 1s hi to the earth. Stal ven receiving point skip distance. ‘Still another way of itch can be used for SKY wave communicali ie maximum usable frequen) is on tere chan duro eck a I is different ‘each pai ero 35 MH However.after unusual solar activit sare working fenweneybermeen 0 PATHS pate, 27 = 90. wi ‘earth, angle of refracts | Applying the condition @ | But f2 = 81 Nn or pesini = V1- "ar frat re Oe ge ren | Sous Sug “od a eet as Soy = f2 + sei Sg = S00 i fo ‘This sh i re te et a 4 is greater than f; by a factor sec ( ipreiyinate st chore eqns: the maximum frequency “This equation can be applied safely siven angle of incidence (i) between 10 points 0 two points (ie. transmitting sy uiodtnecot 100 Hower ance bel car ig. 622) where the pth of = is increased a limit occurs due to the ee . The angle (i) corresponding eth i ent to the surface of the ¢ 1 Ratan eRe about 74° tr FI which ¢ @ scanned with OKEN Scanner© scanned with OKEN Scanner(669) (670 8hR from eqn. 6.70 1) ms cos @ = 1 Fa | and as 8 is small 672) ri D sin ® = Cit oR: from eqn. 6.65 (6.73) Putting eqns. 6.72 and 6.73 in eqn. 6.66, we get (674) (675 (@) (6751 @ scanned with OKEN Scanneri fe ‘6 Angle of incidence and fo = Cot ie curve between virtual height and co s generally plotted on a transparent sheet wit Tinear scale and curve so ob * skip distance D as shown in Fig: 6 25 made identical with experimentally obi and where Hh’ = virtual or apparent ‘Now with the help of Ean. 6 value of D can be plotted. The curye i vPaxis ona logarithmic scale and H” along y-axes with ame transmission curve for given valu o ‘scale of plot of this transmi: (i = f) plot fo i on int sheet (iv ~ f) curve with their axes co inciding a1 Carve just touches the experimental (1 ~ ‘f) curve as in Fig. 6. rad from the frequency axis corresponding tocos | = © Experimental (i' — f) cu reith solid lines and the transmission curve with dotted line. o1 03 05 10 600 km: ee ao \ cos z 500km—-- | TRANSMISSION 1 eg | CURVE ily Bx 4o0km—- | le 55 | 15 a3 1 13 38 wom | \z 33 | 12 ES | 1 E> 200 km | \2 1 6 | 1g 100 km} —t 13 { 1 | eek te 5 10 20 30 so FREQUENCY (Mhz) > LOGARITHMIC SCALE ig. 62 1625. Determination of MUF by graphical (CRPL) method | waif @ scanned with OKEN Scanner“a 629 pee. ORL.U.P. SIMPLY) : eo Wave in the D-region of the ion Y. The sensitiv Bae ly of an HF receiver is Teduced. Hence there is acceptable value for the dependent upon the In addition to absorption several other mechanims ‘increases as the frequency is il-to-noise ratio fails to reach an 1 loss i.e. spatial spreading of the energy by the earth's magnetic field | defocusing caused by ionospheric curvature i complicate the eS epnicn of the expected performance of the circuit For a given distance of transmission and limited transmitter power, the lowest “frequency for sky wave propagation is limited mainly due to following ve wave absorption increases decreasing frequency and hence reducing the ved field intensity for the lower frequencies. e atmospheric noise as also most of the man-made electrical noises increases with frequency in the short wave or high frequency range. As a result, with of transmitter frequency a situation arises where the received noise field is nger than the desired signal intensity. “Asthe MUF limits the highest permissible frequency for sky wave propagation ina given the LUF gives the lowest permissible frequency. For a lower frequency of ransmission th ‘sky wave signal gets lost in the background noise and no communication is possible IF is limited by absorption in the D-layer during day light hours, whereas at night, itis ily limited by increased noise at lower frequencies. The value ‘of day time LUF is normally higher than the night time and further increases during SID's . The value of LUF is ilated from the measurement of noise level at the receiving site and the estimated value of wave absorption in the given propagation path. ‘SKIP DISTANCE Radio wave radiated horizontally from a transmitter near the earth's surface is quickly ed due to large ground losses and hence only short distance communication is carried ov! ‘his horizontal radiation of ground or surface wave. Radio wave radiated at high angle may be bent sufficiently at the ionospheric layers to return to earth at all and hence escapes rather the layer, Thus radio wave radiated at shallow angle (i.e. angle between horizontal high angle) just great enough to escape absorption by the earth, will enter the lower layer | suffer attenuation, be bent at the upper layer and return to earth. In other words, between rhe tance at which surface wave becomes negligible and the distance at which the fit Wie ims to earth from the ionospheric layer, there is a zone which is not covered by any wave neither ground nor sky). This is called skip zone or area and the distance arow 1) distance,’ Although, it is more usual to consider skip distance from the transmitter 10 where first sky wave is received, as range of surface wave 1s always small. Hence skip distance may be defined as : @ scanned with OKEN Scannericha sky wave of given frequency fails (iif) The minimum distance within back, or ae (jv) The minimum distance for which sky wave Propagation just takes place propagation is possible for points nearer than this distance: i distance and for a freq higher the frequency, the higher the skip Beco ote Teyer aki stances 200. {As the frequency of a wave excee frequency, the effect ofthe ionosphere depends upon the angle of incidence at the inFi in whi ¥ different angle of incidence are shown. shown in Fig. 6.26 in which waves of different LOWER EDGE OF YONOSPHERE "OR SILENCE ZONE ‘SKIP DISTANCE OR SKIP ZONE Fig. 6.26. Skip distance explanation As the angle of incidence at the ionosphere decreases, the di transmitter, at which the ray returns to ground first decreases. This behaviour continve’ eventually an angle of incidence is reached at which the distance becomes minimum ‘minimum distance is called skip distance D(as with wave no. 2). With further de™ angle of incidence, the wave penetrates the layer (as wave nos. 3 and 4) and do» earth, In fact, skip distance isthe distance skipped over by ‘This happens because (AS the angle of incidence ‘is large (say for wave no.1), the eqn the sky wave w= sine = af; _ LN f is satisfied with small electron density. Thi : nsity. . ie oe wy HS Means 11 is slightly less than unity © As the angle of inci is fc 2 4 igle F incidence is further decreased As in w Wve no. 2)sin i decres” gh “4 eee alt becomes con Paratively more. Hence the wave penetrates » @ scanned with OKEN Scanner____ 631 mall enough so that jx = s, NOt be satisfie ini ca 10t be satis layer, then the wave penetrates (as the wave a 3 given distance cor ee stance conesponds to the skip distance is the Sceiver is placed with the skip distance no ground wave is strong ‘enough as at A. e er” the skip distance can be calculated from J (2)-(%] FREQUENCY (OWF) AND DAY AND NIGHT communication, for satisfactory reception of signals at the receiving frequency should be less than MUF and absorption of waves by the to presence of electrons (free) which give rise to certain conductivity at lower edge of the ionosphere. The absorption is dependent on the re of the frequency. Thus highest possible frequency gives the strongest sky wave receiver and hence it is preferred to work as closely as possible to the MUF. um frequencies are selected from the predication of MUF based on a monthly ‘in practice there is daily variations about 15% from this mean value. Hence, it is use a frequency 85% of the predicated MUF. Therefore there is a frequency called ‘working frequency (O.W.F.) or optimum traffic frequency (O.T.F.) which is 50% to IF is used to accommodate a number of channels i.e. OWF = 65% MUF. ‘Since MUF fora particular location varies considerably with time of the day, from season ‘and from months to months and accordingly the optimum working frequency also variations. However, in practice it is not possible to change the frequency of on from hour to hour. Therefore, for continuous communication, itis necessary 10 LOWER EDGE THE REFLECT! LAYER (NIGH LOWER EDGE OF REFLECTING LAYER (OAY) @ scanned with OKEN Scanner