CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Ultra wideband is a revolutionary wireless technology that enabled high data rate and low

power transmission for short-range communication. Ultra wideband is defined as any com-
munication technology that occupies greater than 500 MHz of bandwidth. Most narrowband
systems occupy less than 10% of the centre frequency bandwidth and transmitted at far greater
power levels. The use of a large bandwidth offers multiple benefits such as high date rates,
robustness to propagation fading, accurate ranging, and superior obstacle penetration etc. In

year 2002, the unlicensed use of the UWB frequency spectrum in the range from 3.1 to 10.6
GHz (for the US) with an emission limit of -41.3 dBm/MHz closing to the thermal noise floor
is authorized FCC for the commercial applications. Thus, UWB systems share the allocated
frequency spectrum with number of existing wireless systems such as world interoperabil-

ity for microwave access (WiMAX) ranges from 3.3 to 3.6 GHz; WLAN ranges from (5.15
- 5.35 GHz, 5.725 - 5.825 GHz) in USA and HIPERLAN/2 ranges from (5.15 - 5.35 GHz,
5.47 - 5.725 GHz) in Europe and satellite service bands like International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) ranges from (8.1 - 8.4) and IEEE INSAT-C band from 6.7 - 7.1 GHz as shown

in Fig 1.1. The existence of these narrow bands within the UWB band causes electromagnetic
interference between two communication systems.

The possible interference of existing narrow band services with the ultra wideband sys-

tem can be reduced by using a conventional filter in the radio frequency receiver front end.
The separately designed and inserted filters need additional space and components that may
 Existing narrow band communication system
Output strength

(WiMAX, WLAN, IEEE INSAT-C band, ITU)

UWB System
Noise level (-41dbm)

3.1 5 7 8 10.6 Frequency [GHz]

Figure 1.1: Different Narrow Band System Existing with UWB System

increase the overall size of the RF section. Another feasible solution to suppress the inter-
ference is to design the antenna with band-notched characteristic. It would also remove the

requirement of additional space and component in the RF section. Therefore, to design an

antenna with multi band filtering capability and compact size is essential to shield the ultra
wideband from existing narrow band.

1.2 UWB ANTENNAS

Antenna is a key component of any wireless communication system, the device that converts
the electromagnetic energy guided via transmission line to radiated electromagnetic energy in
the free space at the transmitter end and vice versa at the receiver end. Antennas have dif-
ferent applications in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Therefore, for these
applications, the different antennas can be designed such as patch antenna, lens antenna, wire

antennas etc. In practice, the performance and characteristics of different antennas are de-
scribed by several commonly known antenna parameters such as bandwidth, radiation pattern,
efficiency, gain, time domain characteristic and so on. Need of larger bandwidth and smaller
dimensions in the modern telecommunication system have initiated the antenna research to-

wards the UWB planar antennas. In addition to the conventional characterization parameters,
UWB antennas need to full-fill some requirements that are discussed in the next section.

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1.2.1 Requirments

The UWB antenna requirements are:

1. The main factor that discriminates the UWB antennas from the other antennas is its
impedance bandwidth. Therefore, the absolute bandwidth of the UWB antennas should
be larger than 500 MHz [1]. Here fractional bandwidth is given as:

 
FH − FL
Fractional Band Width = 2 (1.1)
FH + FL

where, FH is the upper -10dB cut of frequency and FL is the lower -10dB cut of fre-

quency.

2. The UWB antenna should have reliable performance over the entire operating band i.e.

the radiation pattern, impedance matching and gain should be constant.

3. According to the applications, directional and omni-directional radiation characteristics

are required. For example, in the mobile communication omnidirectional radiation pat-

terns are required because identical radiation in all the directions is needed whereas the
directional radiation pattern and high gain are required for the radar and other directional
applications.

4. The UWB antennas must posses smaller dimensions to be used in the mobiles and other
portable devices. To reduce the cost and complexity of fabrication, antenna should have
an easy structure.

5. Finally, a UWB antenna should have good time domain characteristics as the short
pulses are employed by the UWB antennas to deliver the information. In time domain,
minimization of distortion, spreading and ringing is necessary for the successful trans-

mission and reception of the UWB signals. Therefore, the study of antenna parameters
in the time domain is very essential for better performance of antenna.

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1.2.2 Development

Figure 1.2: Bioconical Antennas Developed by Lodge in 1898

First time in year 1898, Oliver Lodge [2] proposed the concept of UWB antennas, such as
biconical dipoles, square plate dipoles, triangular or “bow-tie” dipoles, and spherical dipoles.
Fig 1.2 shows the biconical antennas designed by him with wideband properties. In December
1939, due to the increased demand of higher bandwidth to carry radio signal, P.S. carter [3]

modified Lodge’s design by using the tapered feed in the antenna design as shown in Fig 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Carters Design Developed in 1939

After Carter’s improved design a number of antennas were designed by many researchers.
However, all the designs offered excellent performance, new design ideas continued to be

investigated. Importance of low-cost and easily manufacturable designs increased when the
broadband receivers came into common use. For example, a diamond dipole antenna shown

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in fig 1.4 was designed by R. W. Masters in 1947 [4].

Figure 1.4: Master’s Dipole Antenna Developed in 1947

The more recent development of UWB antennas consist the design of electric antennas. In

1968, Stohr [5] designed a UWB antenna with ellipsoidal monopoles and dipoles as shown in
Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.5: (a) Stohr’s Ellipsoidal Monopole, (b) Stohr’s Ellipsoidal Dipole

The research in the field of UWB antennas changed dramatically in February 2002, when

the FCC allowed the use of UWB for data communications as well as for safety and radar
applications. The band allocated for UWB is from 3.1 to 10.6 with the bandwidth of 7.5 GHz,
the largest allocation of bandwidth to any commercial terrestrial system. UWB has several
applications such as wireless personal area networks, wireless local area network etc. with

distances of 1 to 10 metres and data rate of hundreds Mbps to a number of Gbps. The achiev-
able high data rates compared with existing narrow band systems motivated the researchers

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to develop the omnidirectional UWB antennas with ultra wideband properties. Many omni-

directional UWB antennas were designed in past few years with compact size and wide func-
tioning bandwidth. Two types of omni-directional antennas are planar monopole UWB anten-
nas and printed monopole UWB antennas. Both type of antennas were primarily developed
through the conventional monopole antennas. These type of antennas has a advantage of larger

bandwidth same as the conventional UWB antennas with the reduced volume.

1. Planar Monopole UWB Antennas

To design the planar monopole antenna the wire element of a conventional monopole is

replaced with a planar element. In the planar monopole the planar element is placed at
some distance above the ground plane. The replacing of wire element with the planar
element of various shapes increases the overall size of the monopole, having the direct
impact on the bandwidth. Fig. 1.6 show different types of shapes such as rectangular,

circular, triangular etc. which are used to design the planar antennas.

Figure 1.6: Different Shapes Used for Planar Antennas

2. Printed Monopole UWB Antennas

Considering the scope of the UWB antennas, it is necessary that the designed antenna
has qualities such as small size, conformal, low cost, ease of integration, large band-
width and high gain. Due to perpendicular ground plane, the planar monopole antennas

have large volume and difficulties in implementation on the monolithic microwave in-
tegrated circuit. Therefore, for the portable wireless application devices, the printed

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 monopole antennas were designed that can easily integrate within the devices. The de-

sign of the printed UWB monopole antenna consists of the radiator and ground plane
that can be designed either on the same side or the opposite side of the substrate. The
feeding mechanism used to excite these types of antenna are microstrip and CPW feed-
lines. In the previous years, various printed monopole antennas were designed based on

different geometries of the patch and the ground plane. Some printed UWB monopole
antennas are shown in Fig. 1.7. From aforesaid discussion, it is evident that the printed
monopole antennas are the simplest types of antennas with the ultra wideband perfor-
mance.

Figure 1.7: Different Shapes Used for Printed Antennas

1.2.3 Advantages

The ultra-wideband antennas have several advantages over the narrow band antennas as given

below:

1. Multiband performance - A single antenna can be used for multi-band operation due
to its large bandwidth. Many lower and higher frequency bands such as bluetooth band,
GSM band, GPS band, Ku band etc can also be integrate with UWB antennas to enhance
the utility.

2. Channel capacity - Since UWB has an ultra wide frequency bandwidth, it can achieve
high data rate of hundreds Mbps to several Gbps and distances of 1 to 10 metres. The

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 channel capacity of the system can be expressed using Shannon’s capacity equation as

follows [6]:

S
C = Blog2 (1 + ) (1.2)
N

where, C is the maximum channel capacity, B the signal bandwidth, S the signal power
and N the noise power.

3. Superior performance - The printed monopole UWB antennas have enhanced perfor-
mance due to omnidirectional radiation patterns and high gain and efficiency.

4. Low fabrication cost - The printed monopole UWB antennas are very easy to fabricate.

Therefore, the cost of fabrication is very less.

5. Stability Parameters of UWB antennas are more constant than multi-band antennas,
recuperating pulse and non-pulse performance.

6. Minimal pulse distortion A linear phase response of UWB antennas guarantee the low
signal deformation.

1.2.4 Applications

UWB applications are mainly categorized into three parts: communications and sensors, po-
sition location and tracking, and radar.

1. Communication and Sensors

The use of very large bandwidth at lower spectral efficiency has designated UWB system
as a suitable candidate for high internet access and multimedia applications. Wireless
personal area network(WAPN) is a popular applications for wireless UWB technology.

WPAN facilitate the wireless device connections and high speed image downloads in
multipath rich environments with a transmission range of about 10 m or less.

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 2. Position Location and Tracking

Wide range of problems such as locating patient in case of critical condition, tracking
cars, hikers injured in remote areas and managing a variety of goods in a big shopping

mall are resolved by position location and tracking. High data rate UWB communication
systems are well capable of gathering and spreading or replacing an enormous quantity
of sensory data in a timely manner. UWB technology used of position location and
tracking involves the following:

(a) Wireless body area network(WBAN)

(b) Radio frequency identification detection (RFID) tags

(c) Medical systems

3. Radar

Different radar application where UWB technology is used are as follows:

(a) Ground penetrating radar (GPR)

(b) Instruction recognition (see through wall)

(c) Vehicular radar

1.3 BAND-NOTCHED UWB ANTENNAS

In general, ultra wideband antennas with band-notched characteristic are designed in two
parts. In first step, a UWB antenna without a band notched function is designed, and then

depending upon the frequency of band-notch various resonant structures are added to create
the band-notched function UWB antenna. The different techniques to introduce band-notch
characteristic in the UWB antenna are as follows:

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1. Inserting the Slots

The most familiar method to attain a band-notched function in the UWB antennas is by
insertion slots of different shapes and sizes either in the radiator or ground plane. The
position of the slots in the antenna design may vary according to the required band-

notched characteristic. Based on the researches carried out different frequency notched
UWB antennas can be broadly categorized according to the locations of slot such as in
radiating element, ground plane and feeding line.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8: Frequency Notched Function by Inserting Slots in Radiator

Fig. 1.8 shows some UWB antennas with slots etched in the radiator to attain the band
notched characteristic. In [7] a C-shaped slot is cut out from the radiator to avoid the
interference at a particular frequency as shown in Fig. 1.8(a). A π -shape slot is etched in

the radiator to attain the band notched function in [8] as shown in Fig. 1.8(b). In [9] a cir-
cular shaped arc is designed to create the band notched as shown in Fig. 1.8(c).Antenna
designs in which slots are engraved in the ground plane to create the band notched func-
tion are shown in Fig. 1.9.

In [10] two U-shaped slots are etched in the defected ground plane to achieve the band
notched as shown in Fig. 1.9(a). As shown in Fig. 1.9(b)-(c), two symmetrical L-
shaped slits are etched out from the ground plane to generate band notched function
in [11] and [12]. In Fig. 1.10 UWB band-notched antennas, designed by etching the

slots in the feed line of the antenna are shown. A spurline is incorporated in the feed
line to reject the band at a particular frequency in [13] as shown in Fig. 1.10(a). In [14] a

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 (a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.9: Frequency Notched Function by Inserting Slots in Ground

Figure 1.10: Frequency Notched Function by Inserting Slots in Feedline

archimedean spiral-shaped slot is inserted into the microstrip open circuit stub to create
the band notched function as shown in Fig. 1.10(b). By adjusting the length and width
of slots, the band notched function at various frequency bands can be created.

2. Inserting the Parasitic Strips

Same as inserting of slots, addition of the parasitic stubs to the different parts of the

antenna is also a well known method to create the band-notched function in the UWB
antennas. These stubs act as the half wavelength resonator due to which radiation at
the particular frequency is blocked. By designing the stubs of different shapes in the
different parts of the antenna notched band at different frequencies can be created. Some

antennas having a parasitic stubs to create the band notch are shown in Fig. 1.11. A
vertical coupling stub is added to the square slot of radiator to avoid the interference at

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 the desired frequency in [15] as shown in Fig. 1.11(a). In [16] two independent parasitic

stubs are added to the fork shaped radiator to create the band rejection as shown in Fig.
1.11(b). In [17] an open circuit stub is added to the feedline to get the band notched
performance as shown in Fig. 1.11(c).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.11: Frequency Notched Function by Inserting Stubs

3. Using Fractal Structure

Fractal structures are also used for designing the band-notched characteristic in UWB
antennas. Fig. 1.12 shows two types of the frequency notched UWB fractal slot antenna.

In the fractal antennas by using the fractal’s space filling characteristic, the electrical
length of slot is increased without increasing the size of slot. The Slots in the fractal
antenna traps the current in radiating element and act as a half wavelength resonator
which create the band-notched function in the antenna. A band-notched function is

achieved by designing a fractal shape tuning stub with the microstrip fed line in [18] as
shown in Fig. 1.12(a).

4. Using the Optimization Algorithm

An another method used for band notched function in UWB antennas is by predicting the
antenna structure using the optimized algorithm as shown in Fig. 1.13. Different types
of algorithm such as genetic algorithm, differential evolution algorithm, particle swarm,

simulated annealing are used to design the band notched function in the UWB antennas.
These algorithms are very effective in optimizing the antenna design to achieve required

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 Figure 1.12: UWB Fractal Slot Antennas for the Frequency Notched Function

radiation characteristics of the antenna. For designing the antenna using the optimized
algorithm designers experience is important. Antennas designed using the optimized
algorithm has good UWB performance but does not have the specific structure. As
shown in Fig. 1.13(a)-(b) antennas with a band-notched function are designed using the
simulated annealing and genetic algorithm in [19, 20].

Figure 1.13: Band-notched Antenna Design Using Optimized Algorithm

5. Metamaterial Structures

Using metamaterial structures like split ring resonator (SRR), complementary split ring
resonator (CSRR) etc. it is possible to notch many frequency band due to its different
properties. When electromagnetic waves transmit SRR structures along x direction, the

electric field polarization is kept long y-axis a magnetic field polarization is kept along
z-axis. The EM waves are perfectly reflected by these structures and notch band is

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 created. The length and width of the rings are used to determine the notch frequency and

bandwidth respectively. Due to the small sizes, CSRRs and SRRs are used to generate
multiple band-notched characteristics in UWB antennas.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.14: Frequency Notched Function by Designing a Metamaterial Structure

Fig. 1.14 shows the UWB antenna in which different type of metamaterial structures are
designed to create the band notched function. As shown in Fig. 1.14(a) Co-directional

split-ring resonator (SRR) is etched on the radiator to achieve the desired band notched
function in [21]. In [22] band notched is obtained by adding the two co-directional split
rings the both sides of the radiator shown in Fig. 1.14(b). A complementary electric-LC
(CELC) resonator is cut out from the circular patch to achieve the band-notched function
in [23] as shown in Fig. 1.14(c). In [24] an open loop ring resonator is designed for

creating the band notched as shown in Fig. 1.14(d).

6. Switchable Band-notched UWB Antenna

Based on this technique an active UWB antenna with switchable or tunable band notched
behaviour can be designed by using a biased PIN diodes or varactor diode. By setting

the position of diodes on and off and by changing the capacitance value of the diodes
the switchable band-notch function is created. Fig. 1.15 shows the antenna with switch-
able band-notched characteristic. A pin diode is mounted on the antenna to provide the
band-notched function in [25] as shown in Fig. 1.15(a). In [26] a π shaped slot is to

create the band notched and a varactor diode is to maintain the tunability of the notch as
shown in Fig. 1.15(b). In [27] four shorting pins and an LC-resonator are used to design

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 the controllable band notched antenna as shown in Fig. 1.15(c).

Figure 1.15: Switchable band notched UWB antennas

7. Multiband Notched UWB Antenna As we know that there are many wireless services
which interfere with the UWB band. Therefore, it is necessary to design UWB antenna
with multiple band notched functions to avoid the interference at different frequencies

at the same time. Fig. 1.16 shows different antenna structures having a multiple band
notched function. Any of the techniques explained above can be used to design the
multiple band notched in the antenna.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.16: Multiple Band-notched UWB Antenna

In [28] dual band-notched performance is obtained by etching two C-shaped slots in the
patch as shown in Fig. 1.16(a). A fork shape stub and stepped impedance resonator

defected ground structure are used to get the triple band notched characteristic in [29]
as shown in Fig. 1.16(a). In [30] dual band-rejection is obtained by etching the two

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 L-shaped open slots in the ground plane and a circular slot in the radiator as shown in

Fig. 1.16(c). As shown in Fig. 1.16(d) By inserting the quarter-wavelength horizontal

and vertical stubs in the antenna multiple band notched is achieved in [31].

1.4 MOTIVATION FOR THE PRESENT RESEARCH

The UWB technology has undergone notable developments during the last few decades. In
spite of all the promising prospects featured by UWB, there are still challenges to make this
technology reach its full potential. One of the main obstacles that comes up while implement-

ing UWB devices, is its coexistence with the other narrow band communication systems which
interfere with the UWB systems and vice versa. The motivation for the present research comes
with the agenda of designing the compact antenna with band notched features. Different band-
notched antennas are studied and investigated in the previous years. However, those antennas
suffered the problem of poor rejection at notched frequency and relatively large sizes; making

them unsuitable for the present day application. In the current scenario, the compact sized
band-notched antennas will be more successful. Thus, miniaturization of UWB band-notched
antennas has become an interesting topic of research.
In this thesis, the focus is primarily given on designing the UWB antenna with single and

dual band notched characteristics and that too with a smaller size. In the present research work
UWB antennas having band rejection at WiMAX band from 3.3-3.7 GHz, WLAN band from
5.1-5.8 GHz and IEEE INSAT/Super-Extended C-band from 6.7–7.1 GHz are designed.

1.5 CHALLENGES IN ANTENNA DESIGN

In this thesis, there are four main parameters that have been taken care: bandwidth of antenna,
radiation pattern of antenna, efficiency of antenna and sharp band rejection characteristic.
These parameters are deciding factors to know whether the design is optimal or not required

application. The first challenge that came up during the research work was to choose an
antenna design that meets UWB requirements and maintained the compact size in order to fit

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into the communication devices. The second challenge was to select an appropriate technique

to create the band notched function in UWB band. Technique of engraving slots of different
shapes in the antenna have been exploited in the proposed work. Third challenge was to select
the bands that can be rejected from the ultra wideband. Fourth challenge in design process was
to control the notched bands. Adjusting the bandwidth of the notch is in itself a challenging

task in the small size antennas. The main problem that occurred during the designing of
dual band notched antenna was to control one band-notched without affecting the other. The
last problem encountered in designing the antenna was to maintain the other parameters like
radiation pattern, radiation efficiency, group delay etc. stable for the UWB band except the

notched bands.

1.6 RESEARCH PROBLEM STATMENT

The research problem for the present thesis can be stated as:

To design and develop:

1. Compact UWB antenna with band-notched function at WLAN band.

2. UWB antenna with integrated bluetooth band and band-notched at IEEE INSAT/Super-

Extended C-band.

3. UWB antenna with dual band-notched function at WiMAX and WLAN band.

4. Compact UWB MIMO antenna with dual band-notched function at WLAN and IEEE
INSAT/Super-Extended C-band.

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

This thesis is organized in seven chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: In this chapter gives the basic introduction of the UWB antennas and UWB
band notched antennas. Further, motivation for the present research and challenges comes in

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designing the band-notched UWB antennas are discussed.

Chapter 2: This chapter provides the literature review of the band notched antennas fol-
lowed by the comparison of the different techniques used to design band-notched UWB an-
tenna based on the antennas presented in the review.
Chapter 3: In this chapter the main focus of this chapter is given on designing the band

notched in a very small UWB antenna with single band-notched function. Although, by reduc-
ing the size of the antenna the lower frequencies of the UWB band are not achieved but this
antenna can be used in the UWB application where the small antenna size is very necessary.
The important parameters which effect the antenna performance are also studied.

Chapter 4: In this chapter the antenna is designed with the bluetooth band along with
UWB band and single band-notched characteristic. By integrating both the band in the single
antenna the cost of antenna system is reduced for the application where both the band are
required.

Chapter 5: In this chapter the main focus given on designing the antenna with dual band
notched function. This chapter is divided in to three part. In the first part a UWB antenna is
designed, a single band notched antenna is examined in the second part and finally in the third
part UWB antenna with dual band notched characteristic is discussed
Chapter 6:In this chapter the main focus is given on designing the band-notched antennas

for MIMO application.

Chapter 7: Finally, conclusion and future of the present research work is described.
All references quoted within the thesis are listed in the References section.

1.8 SUMMARY

This chapter provides an overview on UWB antennas starting with its requirements and devel-
opment. This chapter also explains the study of different techniques that are used to achieve
band notched function in the UWB band followed by the motivation, challenges and organiza-
tion of the present research. In the next chapter literature review on band-notched is described.

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