Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

A GIS based approach for analysing geological and operation conditions MARK
influence on road tunnels degradation
⁎
Federica Sandronea,b, , Vincent Labiousea,c
a
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Laboratory of Rock Mechanics (LMR), Lausanne,
Switzerland
b
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Laboratory of Experimental Rock Mechanics (LEMR),
Lausanne, Switzerland
c
Haute Ecole d’Ingénierie et d’Architecture de Fribourg (HEIA-FR, HES-SO), Filière de génie civil, Institut iTEC, Fribourg, Switzerland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Adopting effective maintenance strategies for transportation infrastructures requires good prediction of their
Tunnels long-term behaviour. For planning interventions without affecting the entire network’s capacity, tunnels in
GIS particular require a good overview of expected problems. G.I.S. tools are helpful for managing transportation
Data analysis networks since they allow immediate identification the influence of tunnel location on development of specific
Geology
disorders. A G.I.S. based approach for analysing and predicting degradation processes affecting roads tunnels is
Inspection
Degradation
presented. The results show how tunnels location may inform on main problems observed in concrete lined
tunnels during their service life. The agreement of analyses results and disorders identified during inspections
allows considering G.I.S. promising tools for pathologies detection and decision about preventive maintenance.

1. Introduction 2. Tunnel asset management tools

During its service life a tunnel interacts with surrounding environ-
ment with consequent degradation of the structure itself. The main
symptoms of this process, affecting both lining structure and surround-
ing rock mass, may be identified during visual inspections of the tunnel.
All the problems affecting the drainage system and tunnel invert may
weaken the tunnel until it is necessary operating minor repairs or, in
worse cases, a complete tunnel refurbishment. Since repairing damaged
tunnels often hinders normal operation, it becomes more and more
important to develop appropriate procedures and tools for managing
information about tunnel conditions and thus helping asset manager in
maintaining safe and reliable connections (Frangopol and Liu, 2007;
Frangopol et al., 2012). Due to its central position in Europe, Switzer-
land plays an important role in terms of traffic and transportation.
National Roads, (Routes Nationales, RN) have an extension of about
1800 km (Federal Statistical Office OFS, 2016), with a relevant number
of tunnels. Due to mountainous topography, for more than 200 km of
National Roads there are 220 tunnels, thus about 1 km tunnel each
9 km road. Today, after more than a half century of service life, a
significant number of those tunnels show an increasing demand for
maintenance.
The Asset owner operates mainly in two interactive domains:
operation and conservation. As a matter of fact, the tunnel owner
should ensure that each tunnel is safe and allows uninterrupted
operation. According to these goals, the tunnel owner should regularly
perform a technical survey of the structure and decide about ordinary
procedures of maintenance and/or major repairs. Data collection and
analysis play thus a fundamental role in tunnel asset management.
Collect and store information about tunnels, after their construction
and during operation, may help the tunnel owner to follow the
evolution of the structure and identify the possible origins of pathol-
ogies. This improves also maintenance and repair planning during
tunnel service life. As reported in Sandrone (2008) the tools for Asset
Management can vary from country to country: for example, France,
Switzerland, Portugal and US mainly use specific databases for collect-
ing detailed information about their transportation infrastructure,
while in UK the road infrastructure manager is using a specific tool
for asset management associated with data collection (Highways
Agency et al., 2003).
Whenever available, the way the information can be used, strongly
depends on the way it is collected. Though, as recommended by the
Swiss Federal Road Authority (Office fédéral des routes, 2005), the

⁎
Corresponding author at: EPFL – ENAC – IIC –LEMR, Station 18, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
E-mail address: federicalucia.sandrone@epfl.ch (F. Sandrone).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2017.04.012
Received 14 November 2016; Received in revised form 12 April 2017; Accepted 13 April 2017
Available online 25 April 2017
0886-7798/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

diagnosis of tunnel conditions should result from detailed survey

activities, preliminary data analyses done with Geographic Information
based System (GIS), may however reveal interesting for prioritising
interventions and deciding about preventive maintenance. As consid-
ered by Schultz (2012), for example, in the case of water utilities
(underground pipelines, both horizontal and vertical ones) the integra-
tion of GIS tools highly improved the management of the asset itself. As
a matter of fact, by introducing the possibility of performing analyses of
spatially related data, GIS tools actually allow taking decision about
required maintenance based on main relevant factors according to a
specific asset. At present, only few countries are using these tools
mainly for centralising, storing and processing general information
related to transportation network infrastructures (Sandrone, 2008;
Kusano et al., 2011). In Italy, for example, for a better management
of the infrastructure safety, all the information concerning National
Roads is stored in a GIS format (La Monica, 2001).
A good asset management requires a good estimation of durability
of the structures. The tunnel durability depends on complex interac-
tions between rock mass, ground-water, concrete lining as well as
traffic and environment inside the tunnel during operation. For
improving the management of available information about Swiss
National Road tunnels a specific data base has been created. The aim
of the Swiss Tunnel Data Base (Sandrone et al., 2007a,b; Sandrone and
Labiouse, 2011) is to compile detailed data recorded during tunnel
construction, together with information characterising tunnel operation
conditions, as well as main disorders observed in the tunnel during its
service life (Table 1).
In order to complete the existing data and aiming at identifying
potential pathologies affecting road tunnels during their service life,
this paper describes how a GIS-based tool has been developed, coupling
information collected in a data base with specific thematic maps
describing tunnel initial and operation conditions. Such a tool can
enhance the efficiency of maintenance by identifying major problems
and finding appropriate solution for extending the tunnel service life at
the asset scale.
3. GIS based tool description and applications
As reported by Sun et al. (2008), in recent years GIS became a
powerful computer based system for integrating data bases and spatial
analyses. Mainly used for land use planning and vulnerability analyses,
GIS systems are nowadays widespread also for applications in geotech-
nical and tunnelling fields (e.g. Chang and Park, 2004; Xie et al., 2006;
Pantha et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2012; Li and Li, 2014; Thum and De
Paoli, 2015). Thanks to the development of hardware capacity, GIS
based analyses may be used for managing huge amount of information,
correlating several sources and different types of data and allowing a
fast update of the collected information with immediate data analyses
and comprehensive impact assessment.
In this framework, using GIS tools allowed an easier improvement of
the Swiss Tunnel Data Base introduced in the previous section, which
was created for managing information about tunnels belonging to the
Swiss National Roads network. By means of GIS tools, the collected data
Fig. 1. Swiss tunnel data base, GIS based system architecture.
can be represented and visualised on a geographic model (i.e. a map).
In particular, each tunnel belonging to the data base and characterised
by an ID number can be identified also by its spatial definition (i.e.
tunnel location), which corresponds to the coordinates of its central
point located on the tunnel axis. This means an easier management of
all the information stored in the data base. When there's lack of data, as
it might happens in case old tunnels, where very often it is quite
difficult to find detailed geological/hydrogeological information, an-
other advantage of using GIS tools is related to the possibility to supply
information by superposition of thematic maps. Fig. 1 shows the system
architecture developed for this study by coupling specific data available
at the tunnel scale (i.e. information compiled in the Swiss Tunnel Data
Base) with more general information about tunnel depth, geological
and hydrological conditions, temperatures and traffic volumes, avail-
able at the network scale in the form of thematic maps implemented in
the GIS based tool.
In particular, the information collected in the Swiss Tunnel Data
Base could be improved by integrating the following thematic maps:
• Digital terrain model (MNT25, Swisstopo – Federal Office of
Topography),
• Geotechnical 1:200,000 map (Swisstopo – Federal Office of
Topography)
• Hydrological 1:200,000 map (OFEV – Federal Office for the
Environment),
• National Roads network, excluding 3rd class roads (Vector 25,
Swisstopo – Federal Office of Topography),
• Traffic data (Personal communication, 2007, OFROU – Federal
Roads Office),
• Meteorological data (Electronic dataset, 1945–2005. MétéoSuisse –
Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology).
Moreover, by performing spatial analyses focusing on specific
influencing factors represented in the form of thematic maps, it is
possible to identify tunnels which, according to their location, can be
potentially affected by several types of degradation pathologies during
their service life. The whole analysis procedure is described in Fig. 2.
The analyses have been performed by means of a GIS software called
Manifold System (Manifold®). With the proposed method it is possible
to choose the most appropriate thematic maps to be used for each
analysis, which allows adapting this procedure to a wide range of

Table 1
Information compiled in the Swiss Tunnel Data Base after Sandrone and Labiouse (2011).

Section Data

General Information
Construction Information
Environment and Operation Information
Maintenance Information
Tunnel name/Town, Canton/Road/Local Operator/Commissioning year/Coordinates X, Y (tunnel axis centre point)/Lane Number
Construction Year/Geometrical Data (depth, length, section size)/Excavation method/First support (type and length along the
tunnel)/Definitive lining (type, thickness and length)/Waterproofing and drainage systems/Accidents during construction/Geological
profile and description/Geological difficulties encountered during excavation
Accidents during operation/Traffic/Temperature/Humidity/Chemical composition of tunnel atmosphere/Chemical composition of
groundwater/Groundwater level and circulation type/Ventilation system
Inspection (date and frequency)/Monitoring systems/Routine maintenance/Disorders (date of observation, possible cause, area and
eventual repair)/Renewal/Refurbishment (intervention date and type, area, cause)

175
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse
1.
SELECTION : 2.
Selection of conditions
VISUALISATION :
determining long term
Preliminary detection of
problems/identification of
potential affected tunnels
selected pathology symptoms
Fig. 2. GIS based system analysis procedure for detecting tunnel degradation pathologies.
applications. In this study, specific degradation symptoms affecting a
tunnel during its service life are chosen from a list of problems
commonly observed during tunnel inspections, while the causes that
mainly contribute to their development are identified as belonging to
two main categories of influencing factors (Centre d’Études des
Tunnels, 2004; Sandrone and Labiouse, 2011) which are strongly
dependent on the tunnel location:
1. Initial conditions, which mainly represent the surrounding environ-
ment, i.e. where and how the tunnel has been constructed. This
corresponds to geological and hydrogeological conditions and
tunnel overburden;
2. Operation conditions, which, for a road tunnel, represent how the
tunnel is operating in terms of traffic type and volume, including
information about environmental conditions, use of de-icing salts,
etc.
According to the type of information described by the thematic map,
the detection of potentially damaged tunnels has been done by using
different GIS analysis techniques, in particular:
• Topology: selection of connections between points, lines and areas,
• Overlay: superposition,
• Buffering: selection of objects in the nearby of a defined zone/area.
This preliminary detection of “potentially damaged” structures,
made at the network scale, has been then verified at the local tunnel
scale by using the inspection results collected in the data base and
available for 122 of the 168 tunnels recorded. The “potentially
damaged tunnels” selected through spatial analysis correspond to a
given number of objects with specific information compiled in the data
base. For each selected tunnel, characterised by an ID number the
verification at the local scale can be done by using the data base. In
particular, the information about the type of observed disorder, its
possible cause, its extension and the affected tunnel portion compiled in
the data base for each specific tunnel identified by preliminary
detection allows to prove whether the expected degradation is truly
observed by tunnel inspectors on site. This verification is focused only
on the damage type and not on its frequency. Moreover, since the main
tunnel inspections are performed once every 5 to 6 years, it has been
chosen to select data describing the operation conditions, e.g. in
particular, traffic and meteorological data, representative for the same
period of the inspections.
4. Initial conditions influence analysis
The influence of the surrounding environment on tunnel conditions
has been investigated. According to the type of rock mass, the long term
behaviour can be different, showing up in the form of specific disorders.
For example, delayed and squeezing behaviour of poor rock masses can
cause tunnel deformation, lining cracks and fissures, invert heave up;
while calcareous concretions in the drainage system, efflorescence,
concrete degradation caused by calcium leaching, and/or, in worse
cases, by sulphates are mainly expected in rocks with a high weathering
potential as carbonates and evaporites. Moreover, the weathering
potential of the rock mass around the excavation is mainly affected
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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185
3.
VERIFICATION :
Confirmation of the selected Potentially affected tunnels
tunnels by means of the vs.
problems observed during Really affected tunnels
inspections
by ground water circulation. As a matter of fact, chemical weathering is
most active where water percolates through the voids of the rock either
intermittently or continuously. In the GIS data analyses, geological and
hydrogeological conditions, as well as tunnel depth, have been taken
into consideration. In particular, two thematic maps were used: the
Swiss 1:200,000 geotechnical map (Swisstopo) and the Swiss 1:200,000
hydrological map (OFEV). While the maximum depth of each tunnel
could be estimated by superposing the National Roads network map
and the Digital terrain model (Swisstopo).
4.1. Geological conditions: rock mass ageing and weathering potentials
This analysis has been performed starting from the Swiss 1:200,000
geotechnical map (Swisstopo). Tunnels have been selected according to
their potential critical location in relation with the expected long term
behaviour of surrounding rock mass (i.e. mainly ageing or weathering
potential). As shown in Fig. 3, carbonate rocks and evaporites, where
high weathering potential is expected, are mainly located in the Jura
Mountains (North West) as well as in the Alps (Centre and South). For
what concerns ageing potential, marl and clay media can be found in
both the North West and in the Centre (Jurassic claystones and tertiary
marls of Jura Mountains; Molasse Basin and Helvetic Nappes marls)
while schists and phyllites characterise Penninic formation of Wallis,
Ticino and Graubünden cantons (South).
The GIS selection done considering the tunnel location shows that
about the 27% of the tunnels recorded in the data base (i.e. 46 tunnels)
are supposed to show symptoms mainly related with rock weathering,
and about 22% of the tunnels recorded in the data base (i.e. 37 tunnels)
are supposed to show symptoms related with delayed behaviour of the
rock mass. By using data collected during tunnel inspections, the
verification confirms that about 80% of the tunnels excavated in rock
masses with a high weathering potential do indeed show expected
symptoms (e.g. lining and drainage pathologies as sintering and
calcareous concretion, corrosion and efflorescence), and more than
67% of the tunnels crossing rock masses with potential delayed
behaviour show indeed pathologies, such as convergences, longitudinal
cracks, invert heave up, that can be associated to an overpressure acting
on the lining (see Fig. 3).
4.2. Geological conditions and overburden: rock mass squeezing potential
A specific analysis has been performed for identifying how the rock
mass squeezing potential may affect the behaviour of the tunnels. As
suggested by Hoek and Marinos (2000), squeezing potential can be
estimated from the combination of geological conditions and tunnel
depth. Usually, squeezing problems may be observed mainly in deep
tunnels (i.e. high values of σ0) excavated in weak and heterogeneous
rock masses (i.e. low values of σcm). The squeezing potential is
evaluated by calculating the potential strain, ε, on the base of the
competency factor, σcm/σ0, and the internal support pressure, pi:
ε = 100·[0.002(0.0025·pi /σ0 )]·(σcm /σ0 )(2.4·pi / σ 0 2) (1)
When the strain ε is bigger than 2.5% the tunnel may show severe
squeezing problems. By extrapolating of laboratory tests conducted at
the Rock Mechanics Laboratory EPFL, Switzerland (LMR-EPFL,
Personal communication, 2008) on several Swiss rock specimens during
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

Observed disorder
Tunnel TDB in the selected class
National Road
Tunnel Last PI
Carbonate rocks & Evaporites

Observed disorder
Tunnel TDB in the selected class
Tunnel Last PI
National Road
Marl & Clayey media
Schists & Phyllites

Fig. 3. GIS preliminary detection of disorders related to geological conditions (Swiss 1:200,000 geotechnical map – Swisstopo). On top: tunnels crossing rock masses characterised by high
weathering potential; on bottom: tunnels crossing rock masses characterised by delayed behaviour.

past years, it has been possible to estimate unit weight values (γrm), and
uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock (σci) and of rock mass (σcm).
By coupling this data with information about maximum tunnel over-
burden, it has been possible to estimate field stress conditions σ0 (i.e.
the worse in terms of overburden). Starting from the geological
classification proposed by Trümpy (1980), Geological Strength Index
GSI (Marinos et al., 2007) values are chosen using the table of Fig. 4
proposed by Hoek (as cited in Brady and Brown, 2004). The following
classes are taken into account:
(1) Jura Mountains (Jura). This rock formations is mainly characterised
by folding and thrust, the rock mass is fissured but with a fair
quality of joint surfaces. This corresponds to a GSI value between 35
and 50. The compressive strength of intact rock may vary between
very low values (σci ∼ 10 MPa) of marls and clays to high values
(σci ∼ 80 MPa) of carbonate rocks.
(2) Molasse Basin (Molasse Basin). This formation is mainly undisturbed
(massive or blocky) formation, with joints surfaces in good condi-
tions, thus the GSI value can be estimated between 65 and 80. It
consists of marls and sandstones sequences, characterised by an
intact compressive strength that varies from 2 to 20 MPa, together
with very resistant conglomerates (σci ∼ 100 MPa).
(3) Alps (Helvetic Nappes). This formation is very blocky and disturbed
and it is characterised by highly weathered joint surfaces. The GSI

177
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse
sin
Ba
se
as
ol
M
ra
Ju
inic
nn
Pe
Fig. 4. Geological Strength Index (GSI) values, after Hoek in (Brady and Brown, 2004),
for main Swiss geological formations, after (Trümpy, 1980). The labels correspond to the
formations described in the text (see text in italics between brackets).
value can be estimated between 30 and 50. The intact compressive
strength of this zone varies from relatively high values typical of
carbonate rocks (σci > 70 MPa) to low values characterising marls
(σci < 25 MPa).
(4) Penninic formations (Penninic). These very disturbed and schistose
rocks are also characterised by highly weathered joint surfaces and
possible clay fillings. This corresponds to GSI values varying
between 15 and 35, associated to moderate values of intact
compressive strength (σci ∼ 40 MPa).
(5) Alpine Basement (Alpine Basement). This is a blocky and very blocky
formation with a significant number of joints sets in good condi-
tions and characterised by rough surfaces. The GSI value for this
rock varies between 50 and 65, while the intact compressive
strength can reach high values (σci > 80 MPa).
In order to take into account the uncertainty that affects data,
several values have been considered in this analysis, in particular: mean
value and standard deviation, STD, for compressive strength of intact
rock, σci, mean, maximum and minimum values for Geological Strength
Index, GSI, i.e. GSI, GSImax, GSImin, and 0, 100, 150 and 200 kPa for pi.
The squeezing potential has been firstly estimated for the medium
set of mechanical parameters in unsupported tunnels. Then, to inves-
tigate the influence of these parameters on the squeezing potential of
the rock mass, the presence of a support has been considered, and the
geological parameters were varied within the range reported in Fig. 5.
Results are summarised in Table 2. Mainly due to its small values
compared with the overburden pressure, it seems that the internal
support pressure has a rather small influence on final results, while GSI
index and intact compressive strength may change in a considerable
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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185
way the squeezing potential of the rock mass around the tunnel. Low
values of GSI (i.e. GSImin) as well as low intact compressive strengths
(i.e. σci − STD, confidence interval: 68%; σci − 2STD, confidence
interval: 95%) sensibly increase the number of tunnels affected by very
high squeezing potential of surrounding rock mass.
For the verification phase of the analysis only the results obtained
with mean values of both intact compressive strength and GSI, with an
internal pressure pi equal to 0 kPa have been considered.
The verification shows that typical disorders of rock mass squeezing
were observed in less than 42% of tunnels with high and very high
squeezing potential. Though this may induce to think that this analysis
can’t help for detecting pathologies related with squeezing potential, it
is important to observe that if the lining is properly designed it may
take long period before showing expected disorders. Excluding cracks
and fissures which may be associated to several types of pathologies,
only very few cases of crown and walls deformation, manifest symp-
toms of squeezing behaviour, have been recorded during past inspec-
tions. Thus, for this verification, instead of the inspection results, it has
been considered more relevant to analyse construction details, e.g.
section shape, support type and thickness. Indeed, for the majority of
high and very high squeezing potential cases identified (12 objects),
difficulties already arose during excavation. The verification proves
that:
• 75% (9 tunnels) is characterised by a circular cross section or at
least by reinforced concrete invert,
• in more than 83% (10 tunnels) the support is composed by steel sets
(thicker than 20 cm, e.g. HEB240) and/or intensive rock bolting,
• 75% (9 tunnels) has a definitive lining thicker than 30 cm (i.e.
40–45 cm).
• Furthermore, it is important to note that for the majority of the
identified cases these three features appear together.
4.3. Hydrogeological conditions: rock mass weathering potential
For what concerns hydrogeological conditions the 5 aquifers
proposed by the ATLAS Hydrologique de la Suisse (OFEV) have been
associated to the geotechnical classes as follows: “fissured” in crystal-
line rock, “fissured partly porous” in schists and phyllites, “porous
partly fissured” in carbonate rocks and sandstone, “porous” in marls
and clayey media, and “karstified” in carbonate karst rocks and karst
evaporites. As reported by several authors (Hesske, 1995; Kilchmann,
2001; Pastorelli et al., 2001; Wegmüller, 2001), since chemical
characteristics of circulating water around excavation are mainly
controlled by rock mass chemistry and extent of water-rock reaction,
i.e. tunnel depth and presence of water around excavation, the most
probable ground water chemical composition according to each type of
rock formation has been considered (see Table 3).
Since both ground water chemical composition and aquifer type
characterise hydrogeological conditions, the analysis for selecting
tunnels which may show symptoms of deterioration caused by circula-
tion of aggressive ground water has been done by combining the Swiss
1:200,000 geotechnical map (Swisstopo), and the Swiss 1:200,000
hydrological map (OFEV). Two main classes of problems were targeted:
1. Tunnels excavated in discontinuous (i.e. fissured, karstified and
fissured partly porous) formations which may show in the long term
water incomes, concrete lining weathering, sintering and calcareous
concretions in the drainage system as well as, in case of low
temperatures, ice formation (see Figs. 6and 7).
2. Tunnels excavated in porous rock masses (i.e. porous, porous partly
fissured and fissured partly porous) which may show symptoms
related with water contribution to delayed behaviour pathologies.
For example, invert heave due to water circulation in swelling
materials, and water pressure increase around the tunnel mainly
resulting from drainage filling caused by fines transportation (see
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

MOLASSE BASIN
JURA GSI = 65-80
GSI = 35-50

HELVETIC NAPPES
GSI = 30-50

PENNINIC
GSI = 15-35

ALPINE BASEMENT
GSI = 50-65
PENNINIC
GSI = 15-35 σci <5 (2)
σci = 5 (2) - 25 (10)
σci = 25 (10) - 50 (35)
σci = 50 (35) - 100 (45)
σci = 100 (45) - 160 (55)
Fig. 5. Geological formation characterisation for squeezing potential analysis: mean value and standard deviation of uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock, σci (STD), together with
GSImin ÷ GSImax for each rock formation. Background: Swiss 1:200,000 geotechnical map (Swisstopo).

Table 2 Fig. 6 on bottom).

Influence of the internal support pressure (pi), of the intact rock uniaxial compressive
strength (σci) and of the GSI (Marinos et al., 2007) on the rock mass squeezing potential As shown in Fig. 6 on top, for the first class of expected problems,
around Swiss National Roads tunnels (L = low, ε < 2.5%; M = moderate,
ε = 2.5 ÷ 5%; H = high, ε = 5 ÷ 10%;VH = very high, ε > 10%). The reference case
considering ground water circulating in discontinuous rock formations,
is reported in the first row. the data collected during principal inspections shows that 82% of
detected tunnels show indeed symptoms related with chemical weath-
σci GSI pi (kPa) Number of tunnels with squeezing potential ering. As detailed by Fig. 7 on bottom, if the ground water is crossing
evaporites and calcareous formations, 43% of detected tunnels are
VH H M L
affected by concrete degradation, calcium leaching and sulphates
σci GSI 0 7 5 0 5 together with calcareous concretion in the drainage system. Moreover,
100 3 3 6 1 since sulphates action can be expected not only in evaporitic formations
150 2 2 7 1
but also in crystalline rocks due to presence of pyrite, it has been
200 2 2 2 5
observed that actually also 66% of tunnels excavated in gneiss and
σci − 2STD 32 9 8 5
crystalline rocks show disorders related to corrosion due to aggressive
σci − STD 12 3 9 9
σci + STD 2 1 3 3
water incomes (see Fig. 7 on top).
σci + 2STD 0 2 1 5 For the second class of expected problems (see Fig. 6 on bottom),
GSImin 14 2 5 9
the verification doesn’t show any evidence of ground water influence on
GSImax 0 5 5 2 observed damages. Only for 28% of detected tunnels, disorders could be
related directly to ground water action. This is probably due to the fact

Table 3
Rock type, ground water pH, major chemical components and location in Switzerland. Values in brackets are less common in the respective zones, after (Sandrone, 2008).

Rock GW pH GW composition Location in Switzerland

+ 2+ 2+ − −
Crystalline Gneiss 5.9–6.8 Na , Ca , (Mg ), HCO3 , (SO4 ) Alpine Basement
Carbonate rocks 7.2 Ca2+, HCO3−, (Mg2+) Jura Mountains, Helvetic nappes
Evaporites 7.1–7.5 SO4−, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3− Pre-Alps (Swiss Rhône basin) and Jura
Mountains
Porous and fissured molasse, sandstone, conglomerates and quaternary 6.5–8.1 HCO3−, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, (SO4−), Molasse Basin
deposits (Na+)
Flysch and schists 5.9–6.8 Ca2+, HCO3−, (Mg2+) Penninic

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F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

Observed disorder
National Road
Tunnel Last PI
Tunnel TDB in the selected class
Karstified
Fissured
Fissured, partly porous

Observed disorder
National Road
Tunnel Last PI
Tunnel TDB in the selected class
Porous
Porous, partly fissured
Fissured, partly porous

Fig. 6. GIS preliminary detection of disorders due to water circulation around excavated tunnels (Swiss 1:200,000 hydrological map – OFEV). On top: tunnels crossings discontinuous and
karstified rock masses; on bottom: tunnels in porous rock masses.

that main expected symptoms are cracks and fissures, rather common to
other pathologies and thus not easily associable with delayed behaviour
only.
5. Operation conditions influence analysis
Operational environment for road tunnels regroups traffic volumes
and pollution, i.e. presence of exhausted gases, temperature and
presence of de-icing salts inside the tunnel.
5.1. Traffic influence
Traffic conditions have been analysed using measurements
(OFROU, 2007, Personal communication) done by the Federal Roads
Office in the same period of time of main tunnel inspections. As
reported in Sandrone and Labiouse (2011), apart from 19% (32 tunnels)
for which there’s no available traffic information, the analysed tunnels’
population may be divided according to SN 640 908 (VSS, 2000) into
four classes based on Average Daily Traffic Volume (DTV):
I. very low traffic, DTV ⩽ 10,000 vehicles: 12%;
II. medium traffic, DTV = 10,000 ÷ 30,000 vehicles: 42%;

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F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

Observed disorder
Tunnel Last PI
Tunnel TDB in the selected class
National Road
Granite, Gneiss

Observed disorder
Tunnel Last PI
Tunnel TDB in the selected class
National Road
Carbonate rocks & Evaporites

Fig. 7. GIS preliminary detection of disorders due to ground water chemical composition (Swiss 1:200,000 geotechnical map – Swisstopo and Swiss 1:200,000 hydrological map – OFEV).
On top: tunnels crossing crystalline formations; on bottom: tunnels crossing carbonates and evaporites formations.

III. high traffic, DTV = 30,000 ÷ 50,000 vehicles: 18%;
IV. very high traffic, DTV > 50,000 vehicles: 9%.
Starting from the thematic map showing values of DTV (OFROU,
2007, Personal communication), it is possible to detect tunnels located
in potential critical conditions (Fig. 8).
Almost 30% of the tunnels may potentially develop disorders caused
by high traffic conditions. Traffic contribution to tunnel concrete lining
degradation consists in two main actions: mechanical, represented
mainly by car collisions, and chemical (e.g. corrosion), caused by
projection of de-icing salt particles on tunnel walls (see also Section
5.2). By considering the information collected from main inspections, it
has been observed that 90% of tunnels with high and very high daily
traffic volumes show at least one of the disorders selected as potential
symptoms of concrete lining deterioration. Furthermore, by checking
more in detail available information about each disorder collected in
the data base (Sandrone and Labiouse, 2011), it has been evaluated the
percentage of events that can be related to high/very high traffic
conditions:
• Efflorescence: > 54%;
• De-icing salts corrosion for plain and reinforced concrete: > 60%;
• Track scaling: 25%;
• Damages due to car collisions: 100%.
It is significant that damages due to car collisions appear almost

181
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse
Fig. 8. GIS preliminary detection of tunnels with disorders due to traffic circulation: Tunnels potentially affected by disorders because characterised by high traffic volumes are
represented by empty and filled squares. Tunnels affected by disorders related to traffic according to the inspection data are identified with a pin.
only in tunnels with high and very high traffic conditions, also it is
interesting to point out how important is the contribution of traffic to
side walls corrosion due to de-icing salts. For what concerns track
scaling, it seems that this problem is not directly connected with traffic
values. Actually, it should be considered that more frequent track
maintenance, i.e. typical of roads with high traffic values, not taken into
consideration in this analysis, may artificially decrease the number of
observed disorders.
5.2. De-Icing salts quantity effects
As above mentioned, an important action linked with operation
conditions is use of de-icing salts. Though not directly spread inside
tunnels, salts particles are transported by rolling traffic and projected
on tunnel walls together with water. De-icing salts and low tempera-
tures contribute to corrosion of both reinforced and plain concrete
linings (Kaufmann et al., 1998; Glass and Buenfeld, 2000; Wang et al.,
2006). They cause scaling, pitting, spalling and flaking of concrete
surface and reinforcements’ corrosion. Moreover, repeated freeze-thaw
cycles may induce tensile stresses in the lining with consequent
cracking and/or spalling. These actions may reveal aggressive for
concrete structures, influencing long term conditions of tunnel walls
mostly nearby tunnel portals and in short tunnels, where the tunnel
lining is more exposed to temperatures and humidity typical of external
conditions.
Though traffic can be considered an important vector for potential
development of side walls corrosion, it is important to investigate the
effective contribution of de-icing salts quantity (influencing factor) to
182
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185
Mean Daily Traffic Volume
(vehicles/day)
Traffic Volume - OFROU
no info
<10000
10000-30000
30000-50000
>50000
Tunnel Last PI
Observed disorder
it. Since SN 640 772b (VSS, 2001) states that when external tempera-
ture is less than 0 °C de-icing salts use is compulsory for roads with
unfavourable humidity conditions, in order to perform this analysis, the
de-icing salts quantity has been estimated starting from weather
stations measurements, i.e. temperature and humidity data as proposed
by Conciatori (2005). Fig. 9 shows the results of this analysis together
with the data recorded during main inspections. Within the detected
tunnels, with an the expected use of high and very high quantities of de-
icing salts, more than 60% show disorders related to aggressive action
of salts on concrete and reinforced concrete. Moreover, the analysis
shows that about 35% of these tunnels are located in Alpine regions.
By coupled analyses it has also been possible to refine the results
obtained only considering the use of de-icing salts as potential cause of
degradation (i.e. unique influence factor). Actually, for a better
interpretation of results, it is also important to consider that de-icing
salts action is cyclic, and thus strongly influenced by tunnel age, that
corresponds to a long duration of tunnel service life, which might also
affect quality of lining materials. By coupling those data it is possible to
explain why tunnels located in regions where very low quantities of de-
icing salts are used might show important number of symptoms related
to side walls corrosion. This is for example the case of tunnels in South
Switzerland (i.e. Ticino Canton) that are within the oldest tunnels
considered in this study (80% constructed before 1975). It is also the
case of about 67% of tunnels located in the Leman Region (i.e. South-
West Switzerland) where, according to the classification made, the
expected quantity of salts is medium. On the other hand, it has been
observed that tunnels located in regions where high quantities of salts
are used (e.g. the Jura Mountains Region, North-West Switzerland) are
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185

National Road
Tunnel Last PI
Very low quantity of de-icing salts
Low quantity of de-icing salts
Medium quantity of de-icing salts
High quantity of de-icing salts
Very high quantity of de-icing salts
Observed disorder

Fig. 9. De-icing salts quantity contribution to side walls corrosion. Salts quantities have been estimated based on climatic conditions, as suggested by Conciatori (2005). Tunnels affected
by disorders related to de-icing salts according to the inspection data are identified with a pin.

50 50 50
45 45 45
40 40 40
35 35 35
no. tunnels

30 30 30
25 25 25
20 20 20
15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5
0 0 0
Weathering Ageing Fissures and Karst Porous Class I Class II Class III Insp.
potential potential

Fig. 10. Summary of results for initial conditions analyses. From the left: Geological conditions, Hydrogeological conditions and Squeezing potential. For each analysis performed the
diagram shows the tunnels detected as potentially affected by specific pathology (in white) as well as the tunnels with proved disorders according to the inspection data collected in the
Tunnel Data Base (in black).

70
60
no. tunnels

50
40 Tunnels with expected problems

30
Tunnels with potential problems
20 (detected with G.I.S. analyses)
10
0
De−icing salts quant.:
High & Very High High & Very High
Fig. 11. Summary of results for operation conditions analyses: Traffic volumes and De-icing salts quantities. For each analysis performed the diagram shows the tunnels detected as
potentially affected by specific pathology (in white) as well as the tunnels with proved disorders according to the inspection data collected in the Tunnel Data Base (in black).

183
F. Sandrone, V. Labiouse
not yet showing symptoms related to salts attack, because they are
more recent and thus less prone to show symptoms yet.
6. Results discussion
As pointed out in the previous sections, the combination of GIS
information with data compiled in a data base allows a more complete
characterisation of the Swiss National Roads Tunnels. Nonetheless, the
possibility of improving information collected in the Tunnel Data Base
by means of GIS maps has to be considered reliable only for general
statements at the road network scale. In particular, the use of
geotechnical and hydrological maps is allowed only by keeping in
mind that the majority of Swiss National Roads Tunnels is characterised
by low overburden, i.e. about 80–100 m depth.
In this framework, the GIS analyses performed allow locating
chosen events with a very immediate identification of major problems.
By using GIS tools, it has been possible to operate a preliminary
selection of potential degradation pathologies resulting from tunnel
location and from its interaction with the operational environment. The
influence of initial and operation conditions has been investigated. For
what concerns initial conditions, several potential degradation scenar-
ios have been taken into account, while for operation conditions the
results consider only the influence of the most aggressive conditions,
i.e. high and very high classes of traffic volumes and de-icing salts
quantities. The results could be verified using the information compiled
in the Tunnel Data Base, mainly about disorders observed during main
inspections.
Figs. 10 and 11 show a summary of the obtained results. For each
analysis performed the diagrams show the number of objects detected
as potentially affected by selected pathologies, as well as the number of
tunnels showing the expected disorders according to main inspections
results compiled in the Tunnel Data Base.
The preliminary detection could be validated using available
information. Nevertheless, it is important to observe that the informa-
tion about tunnels inspections was not available for all the tunnels
included in the detection analyses. Moreover, in some cases, inspection
results revealed too general to be associated to specific problems, or the
pathology too complex to be associated only to a unique influencing
factor. Thus, whenever possible, the verification has been done
considering other data compiled in the data base, such as construction
information and tunnel age, for example, in the case of the analyses
performed considering the squeezing potential. In other cases, e. g.
water circulating in porous ground masses analysis, the information
collected was not detailed enough to distinguish the effective influence
of this factor on observed damages. Though in this framework mainly
qualitative information has been considered, it is important to point out
that it is possible to increase the detail level by using more detailed
sources of information.
7. Summary and conclusions
For managing roads networks, maintenance choices often need to
deal with the possibility of maintaining traffic operation while refurb-
ishment is completed. Nowadays, stopping or reducing traffic capacity
during rehabilitation works may cause several social and economic
problems. In this sense, tunnels often represent a critical point for
deciding about maintenance operation. Thus, for ensuring safe road
networks without affecting their reliability, tunnels in particular,
require the development of specific tools which may help asset manager
in adopting more efficient and effective maintenance strategies, choos-
ing the right intervention at the right time.
In this study, a new procedure based on combining data compiled in
a data base and spatial analyses made by GIS tools has been presented.
Each tunnel belonging to Swiss National Roads network has been
associated to its centre point and represented on a map. An advantage
of using GIS tools, under some conditions, and when there's lack of
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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 66 (2017) 174–185
data, is the possibility to supply information by superposition and
coupling of existing data with specific thematic maps, coming from
several sources and containing various information (e.g. automatic
traffic counters, hydrological maps, etc.). Moreover, since tunnel
location determines not only its initial conditions, in particular,
geological and hydrogeological conditions, but also its operation
conditions, for example, traffic volumes and use of de-icing salts, both
contributing to tunnel degradation, GIS reveal powerful tools for
selecting main favourable environments for development of specific
pathologies.
In order to identify potential problems affecting each tunnel during
its service life, analyses have been performed by following three main
steps:
• selection of potential influence factor, expected pathology and
symptoms to be analysed,
• visualisation and location on a map, for detecting potentially
affected tunnels,
• verification within the selected structures the tunnels affected by
expected pathologies using available information coming from main
inspections.
As most of the tunnels selected with this GIS system based
procedure show expected symptoms, results demonstrate that the
conceived tool can be used for reliable predictions of typical pathology
scenarios affecting tunnels during their service life, thus assessing
tunnel future behaviour and corresponding maintenance needs. The
proposed examples of application of the GIS based tool analysis show
clearly that this kind of tool may improve how an asset manager
identifies the problems affecting tunnels. In particular, it helps in
developing criteria for guaranteeing the safety of the asset based on
prioritisation of more sensitive tunnels according to specific influencing
factors. GIS tools reveal being a good tool allowing prioritisation of
identified problems according to the need of ensuring the reliability of a
specific connection, e.g. type and duration of the required intervention
vs. consequences of traffic interruption. The developed methodology
can be used not only for detecting potential problems but also for taking
decision about preventive maintenance, thus trying to control degrada-
tion rate of tunnels. However, as explained in Section 6 it is important
to consider that this kind of methodology is really useful at the network
scale, the time dependent pathology and their evolution should then be
analysed in detail for each identified case by considering all the factors
that can contribute to the development of specific pathologies. Since
the procedure is mainly based on available information characterising
the tunnel environment, in order to perform trustworthy analyses, it is
important to have regular update of collected data. Finally, it is also
important to remind that correctly updated information may help in
doing regular maintenance choices avoiding not-effective solutions or
adapting and improving them, case by case.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Swiss Federal Road Authority
OFROU [grant no. FGU2003/002]. The Authors would like to thank the
OFROU for the contribution to this study by providing data.
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