3.

Neurophysiology
Glia and Neurons
Glia
Macroglia
Microglia
Structure of Neurons
Structural variations in Neurons
Functional variations in Neurons
Generating Action Potentials
Ionic Composition of intracellular and extracellular fluids
Movement of ions
Resting Potential
Action Potential
Propagating Action Potentials
The Synapse
Gap Junction
Chemical Synapse
Neurochemical release
Binding of neurochemical
Termination of chemical signal
Postsynaptic potentials
Neural integration
Axo-axonic synapses
Footnotes

Glia and Neurons

Glia
↳ Glia: Cells in the nervous system that support the activities of neurons; makes
up to 80 - 90 per cent of cells in the CNS. They are organised by size

3. Neurophysiology 1
 Macroglia
Macroglia: Large glial cells, including astrocytes, ependymal cells,
oligodendeocytes, and Schwann cells
↳ Astrocytes: a large, star shaped glial cell of the CNS, responsible for structural
support, isolation of the synapse, control of the extracellular chemical
environment at the synapse, and possibly communication.

Protoplasmic astrocytes: has many fine branches and are found in gray
matter

Fibrous astrocytes: has long, fiber-like branches found in white matter.

3. Neurophysiology 2
 Neurons actually occupy a cramped space surrounded by astrocytes

Functions of astrocytes:

Provide a structural matrix for neurons, otherwise neurons would be floating

around

Transfer glucose and other nutrients to neurons due to the association of

astrocytes with the capillary cells.

Contribute to protective blood-brain barrier, an impediment to the transfer of

molecules from the circulation into the brain formed by the astrocytes. The
blood-brain barrier prevents most toxins circulating in the blood from entering
the brain. They do this by covering the outer surface of capillaries with their
endfeet.

Surround and isolate the area of the synapse to prevent neurochemicals from
moving outside a restricted area

Regulate local blood flow based on synaptic activity as they contact both
blood vessels and synapses.

Signals neurons to build synapses by releasing growth factors and similar

molecules. This suggests an important role for astrocytes in the development

3. Neurophysiology 3
 of the brain and in learning and memory, as both processes involve the
reorganisation of synaptic connections between neurons

Might be involved in neuronal transmission (neurons 10x more responsive in a

petri dish with astrocytes around compared to no astrocytes)

Clear molecules from the synaptic gap, like excess potassium from the
extracellular fluid, to maintain a resting potential.

Releases excitatory and inhibitory neurochemicals to influence adjacent

neurons. They can excite and suppress activities of neighbouring neurons and
other astrocytes.

Damaged astrocytes:

astrocytes can be over-activated from injury, disease, psychological

disorders, lack of exercise, or poor diet. This can enhance pain and spread
pain to other parts of the body.

Damaged astrocytes can release large quantities of glutamate, the brain’s

major excitatory neurochemical, which can kill neurons when in excess

Astrocytes from glial scars (or scar tissue that fills the area previously
occupied by the now dead neurons) release chemicals that inhibit neural
regrowth. Scarring interferes with the repairing of damaged connections

↳ Ependymal Cells: Cube-shaped Glial cells lining the ventricles and central
canal of the spinal cord

Functions of ependymal cells

Primary function is to secrete CSF¹

Features fine hair-like cilia that project into a ventricle or central canal and
circulate CSF with a whip-like motion

Maintains homeostasis of the CSF²

cilia also absorb some CSF, allowing the ependymal cells to monitor the
quality of the CSF and supply the underlying brain cells with proteins from the
CSF

3. Neurophysiology 4
 Acts as a firewall against viruses attacking the CNS: they fight off viral
infections but are often destroyed in the process.

Activates stem cells that differentiate into new neurons in the olfactory bulb.

↳ Oligodendrocytes: A glial cell that forms the myelin on the CNS axons.

Functions of the Oligodendrocytes:

forms myelin in the CNS

Contributes to the structural stability of the brain and spinal cord

Each oligodendrocyte can myelinate axons from an average of 15 different

neurons (compared to Schwann cells with only 1)

Releases exosomes: tiny vesicles that removes debris and transports material

can remove debris from a cell

transport substances, including genetic material to other cells

3. Neurophysiology 5
 Protect neurons from damage

↳ Schwann Cell: a glial cell that forms the myelin on axons in the PNS.

Functions of the Schwann Cells:

forms myelin in the PNS

Can help guide the regrowth of damage cells

Release exosomes

Remove debris from a cell

transport substances, including genetic material to other cells

Aid in the regeneration of damaged axons

→ allows reattaching severed fingers as the nerve cells can grow back.

Microglia
Microglia: tiny, mobile glial cells that migrate to areas of damage and digest
debris

Functions of the Microglia

cleans up brain debris (dead neurons, glia cells).

at rest, the branches of microglia reach out and sample their immediate
environments. If they detect any molecules related to damage, they
migrate to the region and digest the debris.

3. Neurophysiology 6
 Can also remove inactive synapses

Malfunction of microglia

it can also digest healthy cells, and is implicated in Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s,

and multiple sclerosis.

Structure of Neurons
Within a cell contains many small internal structures called organelles, found
within the main mass of the neuron, known as the cell body, or soma.

↳ Neurons: a cell of the nervous system that is specialised for information

processing and communication

↳ Neural membranes: form a boundary between the cell and its external
environment

Separates the intracellular fluid or cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid.

The neural membrane is made up of fatty molecules and so it does not

dissolve, maintaining the fluid on the inside.

Protein structures within the membrane control its permeability.

3. Neurophysiology 7
 ion channels: a protein structure embedded in a cell membrane that
allows ions to pass without the use of additional energy

voltage-dependent channels: open and close in response to the

electrical status of adjacent areas of membrane (electrical
signaling)

ligand-gated channels: an ion channel in the neural membrane that

responds to chemical messengers (e.g. metabotrophic and
ionotrophic receptors)

ion pumps: a protein structure in a cell membrane that uses energy to

move ions across membranes

Maintains electrochemical gradient, allowing ions to move ions

against the electrochemical gradient using energy

sodium-potassium pump: an ion pump that uses energy to transfer

three sodium ions to the extracellular fluid for every two potassium
ions retrieved. [20-40% of the energy required by the brain is used
to run this pump]

Calcium pump: an ion pump that uses energy to move calcium ion
out of the cell

These structures provide pores through which specific ions, or electrically

charged particles can move in or out of the neuron.

3. Neurophysiology 8
 Both channels and pumps show ion selectivity based on their protein
building blocks.
↳ Neural cytoskeleton: a network of filaments that provides thte internal
structure of a neuron. They also move elements within the cell and anchor the
various channel and receptor proteins in their appropriate places on the neural
membrane. Contains three types:

Microtubules: largest type of fiber in the cell cytoskeleton, responsible for the
transport of neurochemicals and other products to and from the cell body.

responsible for moving various materials within the cell, including the
vesicles that contain neurochemicals

movement away from the cell body is known as anterograde transport

movement toward the cell body from the periphery is known as

retrograde transport

Malfunction involving microtubules: implicated in Alzheimer’s

3. Neurophysiology 9
 Tau connects adjacent microtubules and holds them in place

an affected neuron adds molecules of phosphate to the tau protein,

which causes it to disconnect from the microtubules.

They then form tangles, hindering the cell’s ability to signal and
maintain its structure.

The neuron folds in on itself and collapses.

Neurofilaments: a neural fiber found in the cell cytoskeleton that is

responsible for structural support.

middle-sized filaments, the most common fiber in the neuron

microfilaments: the smallest fiber found in the cell cytoskeleton that may
participate in the changing of the length and shape of axons and dendrites

↳ Cell body, soma: the main mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus and many
organelles

3. Neurophysiology 10
 Nucleus: the substructure within a cell that contains the cell’s DNA.

contains the nucleolus, which builds organelles known as ribosomes,

which produces proteins either on their own or in association with the
endoplasmic reticulum.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: proteins are constructed by the

ribosomes here

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: moves the proteins to a golgi

apparatus.

Golgi apparatus: packages proteins in vesicles

Mitochondria: organelles that provide energy to the cell by transforming

pyruvic acid and oxygen into molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The complex structure and length or neuron poses a problem; the

mitochondria is synthesized in the cell body but might be needed in an
axon terminal several feet away.

3. Neurophysiology 11
 Disturbances in mitochondrial distribution is implicated in bipolar
disorders, parkinson’s, and alzheimer’s disease.

↳ Dendrite: the branch of a neuron that generally receives information from other
neurons.

along with the cell body, the dendrites serve as locations at which information
from other neuron is received

At each synapse on a dendrite, special ligand-gated ion channels serving as

receptor sites are embedded in the neural membrane. They interact with
neurochemicals released by adjacent neurons that float across the synaptic
gap.

3. Neurophysiology 12
 Some dendrites form knobs known as dendritic spines, which provides
additional locations for synapses to occur. Spines can change their shape
based on the amount of activity occurring at the synapse, which contributes to
the processes of learning and memory.

Abnormalities in spine density might contribute to ASD, schizophrenia, and

Alzheimer’s disease.

↳ Axons: the branch of a neuron usually responsible for carrying signals to other
neurons

The cone-shaped segment of axon that lies at the junction of the axon and cell
body is known as the axon hillock: specialised for the generation of action
potentials

action potential first arises at the initial segment, the portion of axon
between the axon hillock and the first segment of myelin

Axon diameter is crucial for the speed of signalling: larger axons are much
faster than smaller diameter.

Humans axon range from less than 1 micrometer to 25 micrometer while a

squid’s is 1mm. But our speed of signalling is faster due to myelin.

Axons also vary in length.

Local circuit neurons: a neuron that communicates with neurons in its

immediate vicinity

Projection neurnos: a neuron with a very long axon that communicates

with neurons in distant areas of the nervous system

Neurons typically only have one axon, but the ends are divided into branches
known as collaterals, and at each end is an axon terminal, the swelling at the
tip of an axon collateral specialised for the release of neurochemicals.

Axonal varicosities, a swelling in an unmyelinated segment of axon containing

mitochondria and in some cases, synaptic vesicles, a small structure in the
axon terminal that contains neurochemicals.

Myelin: the fatty insulating material covering some axons that boosts the
speed and efficiency of electrical signalling

3. Neurophysiology 13
 Myelin increases the speed & efficiency of electrical signalling

allows human axons to be smaller in diameter without sacrificing

transmission speed, saving space in the nervous system. The smaller
the diameter of our axons, the more neural tissue we can pick into our
skulls and the more information we can process.

Decreases the energy requirements of neurons by decreasing the

amount of work done by sodium-potassium pumps. Myelinated
segments do not have ion channels for the exchange of potassium and
sodium ions, compared to an unmyelinated axon, which has these
channels through the whole length.

motor neurons are myelinated & sensory neurons can be myelinated or

unmyelinated (sharp pain & dull pain)

The axon hillock and initial segment are completely uncovered by myelin
and between each myelin segment there is a bare space of axon
membrane known as a node of ranvier, the uncovered section of axon
membrane between two adjacent segments of myelin

large diameter axons have thicker myelin and greater distances

between nodes of Ranvier

Structural variations in Neurons

↳ Unipolar neurons: a neuron with one branch that extends a short distance from
the cell body and then splits into two branches

Usually found in sensory systems, like in the somatosenses

3. Neurophysiology 14
 Humans do not have unipolar neurons, but have pseudounipolar neurons,
where the single branch divides in two, with one part extending back toward
the CNS and the other part extending toward the skin and muscle

Hence, it has two axons that branch out into dendrites

Signals begin at the peripheral end near skin and muscle, traveling past the
cell body and proceeding toward the spinal cord or brain

↳ Bipolar neurons: a neuron with two beanches extending from the cell body:
one axon and one dendrite

Play important roles in sensory systems

Also has a special type of bipolar neuron, called the Von Economo neuron
(VEN).

Found in the ACC and DLPC.

appear to be designed to provide fast, intuitive assessment of complex

situations, such as social behaviours.

Loss of VENs in frontotemporal dementia might result in relative lack of

empathy, social awareness, and self-control associated with this condition.

↳ Multipolar neuron: a neuron that has multiple branches extending from the cell
body, usually one axon and numerous dendrites

3. Neurophysiology 15
 Can synapse with multiple neurons

Functional variations in Neurons

↳ Sensory neurons: a specialised neuron that translates incoming sensory
information into electrical signals
↳ Motor neurons: transmit commands from the CNS directly to muscles and
glands
↳ Interneurons: a neuron that serves as a bridge between sensory and motor
neurons

Generating Action Potentials

3. Neurophysiology 16
 Ionic Composition of intracellular and extracellular
fluids
The intracellular and extracellular fluids differ in the concentrations of ions they
contain.

the extracellular fluid has large concentrations of sodium and chloride ions
and a relatively small concentration of potassium ions; extracellular fluid is
very similar to seawater

intracellular fluid of the resting neuron contains large concentrations of

potassium ions and relatively few sodium and chloride ions. There are also
some negatively charged ionic proteins.

Hence, the intracellular fluid is more negatively charged than the outside. i.e. if
we use a voltmeter to measure the potential difference in the cell and outside,
it would register as -70mV.

Movement of ions
Molecules diffuse from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration,
moving along a concentration gradient, an unequal distribution in the
concentration of molecules across a cell membrane.

3. Neurophysiology 17
 Molecules also move due to electrostatic pressure, the force that moves
molecules with like electrical charges apart and molecules with opposite electrical
charges together

potassium ion should leave the cell to a lower concentration area, but it is
attracted by the negative charge within the cell, maintaining equillibrium
between electrostatic pressure and concentration gradient

Chloride ions should enter the cell from the higher concentration extracellular
fluid, but it is repelled by the overall negative charge within the cell, again
maintaining equillibrium.

The sodium ions should enter the cell as it has higher extracellular
concentration. It is also attracted to the negative charge within the cell.
However, it is kept outside as the sodium channels in the cells are closed at
rest.

3. Neurophysiology 18
 Some sodium ions leak into the cells, but most are removed by the
sodium-potassium pumps.

Resting Potential
Resting potential: the measurement of the electrical charge across the neural
membrane when the cell is not processing information

In additional to electrostatic and concentration equillibrium, the astrocytes also

collect excess potassium ions to maintain resting potential.

Action Potential

3. Neurophysiology 19
 Threshold: the level of depolarisation at which an action potential is initiated

Axons start at resting potential, where it is negatively charged relative to the

extracellular fluid

when the cell body gets excited, the adjacent segment of axon gets
depolarised until it is past a threshold (needs an electrical signal of 5-10mV)
for producing an action potential.

An action potential is all-or-none. As long as it is greater than threshold, it

will fire.

However, the rate of firing can vary to reflect stimulus intensity.

3. Neurophysiology 20
 The greater the stimulus intensity, the greater the number of activated
neurons too.

It then opens its voltage-dependent sodium channels, where Na+ ions rush
into the interior of the axon (due to diffusion and electrostatic pressure),
making it more positively charged than the extracellular fluid.

The sodium channels open very rapidly, which accounts for the rapid rise
in the action potential.

It is open very briefly, and are inactivated until the cell nearly reaches its
resting potential. This period which no stimulus can produce another
action potential is known as the absolute refractory period.

The voltage-dependent potassium channels are also triggered at threshold

near the peak of the action potential, where potassium moves out of the cell
toward now less positively charged exterior.

The potassium channels remain open for a longer period of time, leading
to hyperpolarisation, a change in membrane potential in a more negative
direction (concentration gradient overpowers electrostatic pressure) that
occurs at the end of the action potential.

While the cell is relatively hyperpolarised following an action potential, it can

respond, but only to larger than normal input, and this period is the relative
refractory period. When it is repolarised to at least -50mV, it regains the ability
to open again. However, due to the hyperpolarised state of the membrane
following an action potential and the relatively smaller numbers of active
sodium channels, more depolarisation than normal is needed to reach
threshold.

Propagating Action Potentials

Propagation: the replication of the action potential down the length of the axon.

3. Neurophysiology 21
 ↳ Unmyelinated axons

During an action potential, some of the sodium ions in the cells exit through
sodium-potassium pumps and other ion channels. Some sodium ions also drift
to adjacent axon segment, where there are many additional sodium channels.

At the same time, incoming positive sodium ions will also push positive
potassium ions ahead into adjacent axon segments due to their like electrical
charges.

The arrival of these positively charged sodium and potassium ions depolarises
the next segment.

If they are sufficient to reach threshold, the events leading to an action

potential will be reproduced.

The action potential cannot move backwards as the previous axon is in

refractory period. This prevents immediate reoccurence of an action potential

3. Neurophysiology 22
 in previous segments, action potential move in one direction, from cell body to
axon terminal.

Once the initial segment has regained its resting potential, it can initiate a
second action potential that will follow the first down the length of the axon

↳ Myelinated axons

Once the sodium ions reach a node of Ranvier, they produce another action
potential due to the presence of voltage-dependent channels in that area.

The density of channels at a node of Ranvier is about 10 times greater than the
density of channels at an unmyelinated axon.

The signal then jump from node to node down the length of the axon, a
process known as saltatory conduction.

The action potential just passes through the entire length of myelin,
circumventing the need to fire an action potential at every small segment of
axon.

Compared to an unmyelinated axon, a myelinated axon fires at 120 metres per

second.

The Synapse

Gap Junction
↳ Gap junction: a type of synapse in which a neuron directly affects an adjacent
neuron through the movement of ions from once cell to the other

3. Neurophysiology 23
 The distance between cells at a gap junction is very small compared to a
chemical synapse

The cells are connected by a special protein channel extending across the
gap, allowing ions to pass through directly, almost instantaneously, unlike
chemical synapses which takes milliseconds to complete.

Gap junctions can only provide excitatory signals, while chemical signalling
can produce both excitatory and inhibitory ones.

Excitation: a neural message that increases the likelihood that a receiving

cell will produce an action potential

Inhibition: a neural message that decreases the likelihood that a receiving

cell will produce an action potential

3. Neurophysiology 24
 The strength of the signal decreases as it moves from one cell to the next, so
a large presynaptic neuron is required to influence a tiny postsynaptic neuron.
Using chemical signalling, a very small presynaptic neuron can still influence a
very large postsynaptic neuron.

Functions

Due to the instantaneous transmission, gap junctions are found in circuits

responsible for escape behaviours.

in mammals, gap junctions are involved with the synchronisation of the

hippocampus and cortex necessary for learning and memory.

Also synchronises the release of hormones in response to activity in the

hypothalamus.

Disturbances results in a number of pathological conditions, including

epilepsy.

Chemical Synapse
↳ Chemical synapse: a type of synapse in which messages are transmitted from
one neuron to another by neurochemicals.
↳ Wiring transmission: Process in which chemicals diffuse from one cell to
impact an adjacent cell or cells through private, highly localised transmission. This
is the primary chemical synapse where the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic
gap and bind with postsynaptic receptors
↳ Volume transmission: Process in which neurochemicals diffuse through the
extracellular fluid and CSF to influence cells located some distance away from the
releasing cell.

neurochemicals diffuse through the extracellular fluid and CSF to influence

cells located some distance away from the releasing cell

3. Neurophysiology 25
 Neurochemical release
Action potential reaches the axon terminal, causing the Ca2+ channels to open

Calcium ions are positively charged and more abundant in the extracellular
fluid than in the intracellular. There are a large number of calcium ions
located in the axon terminal membrane.

Ca2+ ions rush in to the presynaptic cell

However, it does not move in immediately as the intracellular fluid is

initially positively charged. As the action potential recedes, calcium is then
attracted by the relatively negative interior.

Ca2+ causes the release of synaptic vesicles to release from microtubules,

beginning the process of exocytosis: the process in which vesicles fuse with
the membrane of the axon terminal and release neurochemicals into the
synaptic gap.

Synaptic vessels fuse with axon membrane at release sites

At the release sites, calcium stimulates the fusion between the membrane
of the vesicles and the membrane of the axon terminal, forming a channel

3. Neurophysiology 26
 through which the neurochemicals escape.

Vesicles open, releasing neurochemicals into synaptic gap

a synaptic vesicle can completely merge with the axon terminal

membrane, releasing its entire contents

Kiss and run: vesicles briefly contact the membrane through a small fusion
pore and release some of their contents without the vesicles losing their
shape

This process is much faster

Calcium pumps then return calcium ions back into the extracellular fluid, if not
neurochemiacls would be released constantly.

The vesicles’ material is then recycled

Excess membrane material forms a pit, which is eventually pinched off to

form a new vesicle

Vesicles are either returned to neuron cell body or are refilled at the axon
terminal

Autoreceptors on the presynaptic neuron binds some of the neurochemicals

released by the presynaptic neuron, providing feedback to the presynaptic
neuron about its own level of activity. This information then affects the rate of
neurochemical synthesis and release.

Binding of neurochemical
The newly released neurochemicals then diffuse across the synaptic gap.

New types of proteins called receptors are embedded in the postsynaptic cell
membrane.

The receptors have recognition molecules, a molecule within a receptor

that binds to specific neurochemicals

once the neurochemicals have bound to recognition sites, ion channels will
open either directly (fast) or indirectly (slowly)

3. Neurophysiology 27
 ionotropic receptor: a receptor protein in the postsynaptic membrane in
which the recognition site is located on the same structure as the ion
channel.

Neurochemical molecules bind to an ion channel

Channel opens and ions pass through

Allows for fast reactions to neurochemicals

Metabotropic receptor: a protein structure embedded in the postsynaptic

membrane containing a recognition site and a G protein. Neurochemicals
binding on these receptors do not directly open ion channels.

when neurochemicals bind to the receptor site, the G protein separates

from the receptor and moves to a different part of the postsynaptic
cell.

3. Neurophysiology 28
 the G protein then opens ion channels in the nearby membrane or
activate additional chemical messengers within the postsynaptic cell
known as second messengers: a chemical within the postsynaptic
neuron that is indirectly activated by synaptic activity and interacts
with intracellular enzymes or receptors.

because of the multiple steps, this process is slower, but the effects
can last much longer than ionotropic receptors

Different types of metabotropic receptors influence the amount of

neurochemicals released, help maintain the resting potential, and
initiate changes in gene expression.

Can also have wide-ranging and multiple influences within a cell due to
its ability to activate a variety of second messengers.

Termination of chemical signal

Neurochemicals are deactivated in three ways

3. Neurophysiology 29
 Diffusion from synapse

Astrocytes surrounding the synapse influence the diffusion of

neurochemicals away from the synapse

Deactivation by enzymes in the synaptic gap

Reuptake: the process for ending the action of neurochemicals in the

synaptic gap in which the presynaptic membrane recaptures the
molecules of neurochemical

presynaptic membrane uses its own set of receptors known as

transporters, a receptor in the presynaptic membrane that recaptures
released molecules of neurochemical in the process of reuptake

In the terminal, the neurochemicals can be repackaged in vesicles for

subsequent release

reuptake spares the cell the extra step of reconstructing the molecules out
of component parts, unlike deactivation by enzyme

Postsynaptic potentials

3. Neurophysiology 30
 Excitatory postsynaptic potential, EPSP: a small depolarisation produced in the
postsynaptic cell as a result of input from the presynaptic cell

results from the opening of ligand-gated rather than voltage-dependent

sodium channels in the postsynaptic membrane.

inward movement of positive sodium ions produces slight depolarisation of the

EPSP

ESPs are also known as graded potentials, an electrical signal that can vary in
size and shape. They can last up to 5 to 10 msec.

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential, IPSP: a small hyperpolarisation produced in the

postsynaptic cell as a result of input from the presynaptic cell. Reduces the
likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will produce an action potential.

produced by the opening of ligand-gated channels that allow for the inward
movement of chloride or the outward movement of potassium.

Movement of negatively charged chloride ions into the postsynaptic cell adds
to the cell’s negative charged, causing hyperpolarisation.

3. Neurophysiology 31
 It does this by the process of neural integration, the summation of inputs to a
neuron

Neural integration

3. Neurophysiology 32
 An actual action potential growth, showing that not all signals lead to an action potential if they
don’t cross the threshold potential

the neuron receiving the input determines whether or not to produce an action
potential

cells receive excitatory and inhibitory signals in different locations. ESPs from
the dendrites and ISPs from the cell body spread passively but rapidly until
they reach the axon hillock.

↳ Temporal summation: neural integration in which (repeated) excitation from

one active synapse is sufficient to initiate the formation of an action potential

This is possible because EPSPs and IPSPs last longer than action potentials

a single, very active synapse can trigger the postsynaptic cell to fire an action
potential

3. Neurophysiology 33
 ↳ Spatial summation: neural integration in which the combined inputs from many
synapses converge on the axon hillock, where an action potential will result if
threshold is reached.

the cell adds up all the excitatory inputs and subtracts all the inhibitory inputs

Those not simultaneous can also sum up as ESPs and ISPs lasts a few
milliseconds. The closer they are in time, the greater is the overlap, and
hence the greater is the summation

the cell will fire if the end result is 5 - 10mV in favour of depolarisation

Axo-axonic synapses

axo-axonic synapse: a synapse in which both the presynaptic and postsynaptic

elements are axons

they have a modulating effect on the release of neurochemical by the target

axon

if the presynaptic neuron increases the amount of neurochemical released,

presynaptic facilitation has occured

If the pre-synaptic neuron decreases the amount of neurochemical released

by the target axon, presynaptic inhibition has occured.

3. Neurophysiology 34
 Footnotes
1. Formation of the CSF: Choroid plexus is a network of blood vessels in each
ventricle of the brain. Fluid is filtered from the choroid plexus through special
ependymal cells to form the CSF.

2. Maintaining homeostasis in the CSF: forms a physical barrier between the CSF
and the interstitial fluid, limiting the movement of large molecules between
these two regions, maintaining homeostasis of the CSF and interstitial fluid.

3. Neurophysiology 35