Linear 12

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NTQF LEVEL II
LEARNING GUIDE # 3
UNIT OF COMPETENCY Carry Out Linear Measurements and Calculations
MODULE CODE Carrying Out Linear Measurements and Calculations
LG CODE EIS SSI2 03 0912
TTLM CODE EIS SSI2 03 0919
Learning out come: At The End Of The Module, The Trainees Will Be Abele
To:-
 Plan and prepare
 Measure distance with linear measuring instruments.
 Perform calculations
 Estimate approximate quantities
 Set up and use theodolite device
 Measure distances with stadia & Sub tense bar
Pre by Tsegaye Kenenisa 2012 E.C

LO-1 Plan and prepare
Safety requirements are obtained from the site safety plan
Maintenance and care of the equipment
A) Care of staff
In land surveying work:
Do not
 Allow nails to project from discarded timber.
 Enter unsupported trenches.
 Look into a laser beam.
 Run - but walk and work steadily.
 Signal a chairman to move into danger.
Do
 Wear an approved protective safety helmet without a brim.
 Wear high visibility waistcoats.
 Wear approved safety footwear.
 Correct immediately any dangerous practices or emissions.
Education is what remains after one has forgotten everything he learned in school. TS.K
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B) Care and security of equipment,

Fundamentals:
A surveyor is responsible for the care and security of his equipment used
on site. In land surveying work:
Do not
 Leave instruments unattended on site.
 Leave instruments set up in the site offices.
 Put an instrument away until it has dried out after rain.
Do
 Store equipment carefully in a dry place.
 Inspect all instruments before work commences.
 Make a list of equipment taken from security.
 Return a complete set of equipment on completion.
 Make sure that the equipment is used in a manner which does not endanger it or people.
 Adopt procedures which ensure the instrument achieves the accuracy for which it is designed.
 Clean and oil tapes and chains at regular intervals.
Details
Surveying instruments are only then completely effective, if they are carefully and conscientiously treated as well
as professionally operated. The directions which are included should not only be read but also be followed. More
than ever, this holds true for electronically instruments, GPS-equipment and other surveying equipment with
electronic parts.
If the methods match the characteristics of the instruments, then they are effectively utilised.
Instrument Storage
Surveying instruments should be stored inside their respective container in dust free rooms without large
temperature changes. In humid climate, they have to be removed from the tightly sealed containers so that the air
can circulate freely around them.
In large collections, instruments and equipment are usually registered in a card file. It is expedient to prepare an
instrument passport. It contains producer, type, description and technical data as well as a record on the
calibration results.
In extremely cold areas the instrument should not be taken into a heated shelter as long as it is needed for
measurements, but rather remain exposed to the outside temperature at some protected location. This prevents
vapour formation on the optical and interior elements of the instrument when work is being resumed. When
storing a compass for a longer period of time, the position of the unlocked needle should be checked in order to
maintain its magnetic characteristics.
Instrument Inspection and Checks
Instruments should be carefully inspected and checked for their suitability for a specific task before they are
issued from the storage area. Furthermore, it should be checked whether the auxiliary equipment in the container
is complete and operational.
At the beginning of each field season, the instruments should be tested and, when needed, adjusted according to
the directions provided. It is recommended to repeat this test after completion of the field work, or after extended
work interruptions or long distance transportation. In this manner, work stoppage due to faulty equipment can be
prevented .Instruments should only be adjusted when it is really necessary and only according to directions.
When tightening adjustment screws, care has to be taken as to not create stresses.
Transport of Instruments
Before transporting instruments, one should first check whether the clamps are evenly tightened and then close
the container and perhaps lock it. The keys have to be kept at a safe place.
When lifting or moving in vehicles, jerky movements should be avoided and shocks dampened.
It is best to hold the container with the instruments upright on ones lap, possibly wrapped in a soft blanket. For
longer transportation on land - sea - or air the container with the instrument is placed inside a padded crate.
During transport the crate has to stand upright. When using pack animals, the instrument is fastened upright,
usually hanging. Generally the instruments are to be protected against fall, shock and heavy vibrations. Rods are
to be transported in their crates. In any ease they have to be packed like instruments so they are not exposed to
sudden blows. When walking, the pointed ends of tripods, range poles etc. have to be kept in view. Rods should
not be touched at their graduation, and protected from heavy blows. This is especially important for Inver rods.
Setting-up of Instruments
At the survey location, warning signs and -flags should be erected, and industrial safety rules have to be
observed. It is of advantage to have the back of the rods and the tripods painted in bright colour, such as red and
white.
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The tripod is to be set up solidly and in such a way that its legs are not in the way when observing certain
directions. The tripod legs should be extended so that the observations can be made with ease. Their pointed
ends have to be firmly pressed into the ground. One should also watch that the top of the tripod is approximately
level and, for angular and distance measurements, is centred above the station.
When unpacking an instrument one should note its arrangement within the container . A figure showing the
arrangement of the various parts when properly packed should be inside the container. In any case, the given
directions should be followed. Prior to unpacking, all clamps should be loosened. Then theodolites and
tachymeters are lifted at the right standard - never on the side which houses the index bubble! - Levels at the
tribrach.
The instrument is then placed on the tripod and fastened to the tripod head while still being held with one hand.
An instrument may never stand loosely on the tripod. Only after it is fastened, the hand can be taken away. For
centring and levelling, the fastening screw is to be loosened somewhat to reduce the pressure on the thread of
the foot screws. It will be tightened again afterwards.
If the instrument temperature differs significantly from the field temperature, the instrument has to be left on the
tripod until its temperature conforms. For 10°C temperature difference this requires about 5 minutes.
Care of the instrument during measurements
The instrument and the whole tripod are to be protected from direct sunlight and rain with an umbrella. if work is
interrupted due to rain, the instrument has to be protected with a cover. Drops of water should be blotted with a
soft clean rag. Optical parts may not be touched with fingers. Dust should be carefully removed with a soft hair
brush to the edge and then with a dust- and spot free soft cloth or soft chamois. Other dirt should be removed with
hygroscopical cotton, never with liquid.
Whenever work stops, the instruments are to be protected against rain or dust with a hood or other cover. Prior to
measuring, instruments with graduated circles should be rotated several times around both vertical and horizontal
axes, so that the lubrication in the bearings is distributed. When measuring, touch only the solid parts of the
instruments, never the eyepiece.
Stress on the instrument should be avoided. Clamps should be tightened slowly and evenly. When measuring
horizontal directions, the vertical clamp does not need to be tightened. Finite fine motions should only be operated
clockwise, so that the part is moved by the screws and not the spring, thus avoiding back lash.
When connecting upper and lower theodolite part with a repetition clamp of the Mahler type, one should press
vertically on the clamp and counteract this movement with a fingertip. If the clamp is not needed, it should remain
open.
Bends in tapes, caused for instance by vehicles driving have to be avoided. When rolling up the tape extra loops
cannot be tolerated. Invar wires have to be protected from shock and reeled carefully. Their metal parts have to
be cleaned daily with a soft rag and then rubbed with acid free grease. Prior to measuring, the grease has to be
removed again.
Even though the human eye is not directly endangered when working with laser instruments, because of their low
power (construction laser up to 5 mW, laser diodes), one should never look directly into a laser beam. If the laser
beam is directed through a telescope, one should not look into the eyepiece as long as the laser is operating. If
necessary, protective eye glasses should be worn. The laser should be screened off as much as possible, and
never be without supervision when running.
When using instruments with mercury, one has to be extremely careful. Especially inside closed rooms, mercury
should not be spilled. If this should happen, mercury drops can be lifted with copper sticks and then treated with
sulphur for chemical bonding.
Instrument Transport between Stations
The observer should transport the instrument from one station to the next. If the distance is only a few hundred
metres, the instrument can remain on the tripod. One has to check however, whether the fastening screw and the
instrument clamps are tightened.
Then each hand holds one tripod leg, while the 3rd one hangs over the shoulder, so that the vertical axis remains
vertical.
Safe work procedures
Health and safety of workers
 are largely governed by the Health and Safety rules and regulation in Compliance with the requirements
which is not only intended for the wellbeing of the public but also to protect the workers involved on the
site.
a. The issue of protective clothing, boots, gloves, overalls, etc. to the workers is essential.
b. workers to clean hand arms and tools, after working on site
c. A properly equipped first aid kit must be available at all time
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Care of instruments after the measurements

Before packing of the instrument, its clamps should be loosened. Once the instrument is correctly in the container,
they are tightened evenly.
The pointed ends of tripods and range poles are to be cleaned with rag, brush or bushel of grass.
Tapes which have got wet have to be dried with a cloth, and then greased lightly with acid free oil or fat. If there
are rust spots, do not use sand or sand paper but wood ash soaked with kerosene.
Instruments that got wet have to be unpacked at home and left out until they are completely dry. Occasionally the
producer supplies with the instrument a little bag of Silicon-gel (highly hydroscopic grains of amorphous quartz).
The grains are blue when dry and pink when saturated. Since they absorb water from the air, the instrument
container has to be closed except when packing or unpacking. Pink grains can be regenerated when placing them
directly on a heat able plate and heating it above the boiling temperature (check with a water drop: hiss-test). If
the temperature is too high, the grains crack. The now blue grains are placed again into their bag after they are
cooled down.
The tripod head and the threads of the foot screws and the fastening screw should be kept clean and lightly oiled.
The bottom parts of rods have to remain free of dirt and dust and should be greased lightly.
After completion of the field season, the instruments should be thoroughly inspected. Damages are to be fixed by
the mechanic.
If you need batteries for your work, care for them and load on daily (accu) Watch, that accuse
are already unloaded (memory effect).
Develop a good understanding on trainee to wear safety working clothes and shoes in the working place.
 Some of the safety materials are protective clothing, boots,
 The Importance of safety materials
Umbrella - Protects head of the worker from sunlight during training
Over all cloths - Protects the normal clothes from dust and other painting/marking materials
Safety shoe (boot) - Protects the worker form nail, sharp objects and heavy falling objects by hard-rolled leather
shoes with metal toe caps
Rubber boot - Protects the workers feet from colds, and mud in the working area
Mask - Protects eyes of the worker from other endangering object and dust during training.
Gloves - Protects the workers from oils, chemicals, and dust and other dangerous material that affect the skin.
Safety Belt - Secures laborers working in a plane where the construction is done at high level.
 Use & Proper handling of tools and equipment
Tools and Equipments Used For Setting Out
The surveying and setting out requirements for labor-based road construction vary with the type of work to be
executed. The construction of new roads requires a complete by the surveyor/ Engineer to establish the
alignment. The following figures and tables shows the basic surveying tools that are used for setting out in labor
based road construction and maintenance technology.
 Application of Tools and Equipment
Reference pegs are used to mark the alignment and road levels. They are invariably of wood, tree branches or
stakes cut to length, ideally 40 cm long and 5 cm diameter or 5 cm x 5 cm square. It is advisable to paint them
white or yellow for visibility and paint the chain age on a prepared face. To avoid loss or damage, the pegs should
be offset from the road width, hammered deep into the ground to avoid pilferage and placed in a prominent
location.
Survey pegs are usually set on the centre line, but unless there are no earthworks to be undertaken, they should
be off-set from the road width. Multipurpose pegs may be needed to stake out cross-section, tasks, levels, etc.
They are normally sharpened sticks 30 cm long used in conjunction with a string line to define horizontal or
vertical alignment.
Tape measures are made of steel or linen, the most useful length is 20 or 30 meters. Steel is expensive, liable
Vertical angles are measured as follows:
The sight is taken on to a point which should be at the same height above the ground as the eye of the observer.
The line of sight will then be parallel to the ground surface between A and B (see figure below).
Holding the abney level in this position (the cross hair intersects the target), the air bubble in the tube of the abney
level should be positioned in the middle against the cross hair by turning the milled head. The angle of the line of
sight with the horizontal can then be read on the arc.
The abney level can also be used to set out gradients. The arc should be set at the required angle or gradient
(e.g. 5o 40' or 1:10) and a line of sight established to a profile board which is moved up or down until the top of
the profile board is at the `correct height.
Lo-2 Perform liner measurement
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Introduction
Definition
Surveying is the art of measuring distances, angles, and positions above, on or below the earth’s
surface. The relative positions of points are located by means of measuring distances, directions
and angles accurately with the help of various surveying instruments. Surveying also includes
the art of locating or setting out points on the ground from a plan or a map.
Surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles for one or more of the following
Surveying is a science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of various points above, on
or beneath the surface of the earth, by measuring horizontal distance, vertical distance (elevation)
horizontal and vertical angles using various surveying instruments.
In almost all fields of human activity surveying plays an important role- as there is no any
engineering activity that can be planned, designed and maintained without the active participation of the
surveyor. For example surveys are required before planning and construction, during planning and
construction and after planning and construction of any road, rail way, bridge, water supply and drainage
systems, pipe-lines, high voltage lines, irrigation and transportation channels, dams, urban land subdivision,
etc.
In order to gain a clear understanding of the procedures for making surveying measurements on earth’s
surface, it is necessary to be familiar with the meanings of certain basic terms.
Vertical line: - at any point on the earth’s surface is the line that follows the direction of gravity at a point.
At a point there is only one (single) vertical line.
Vertical plane: - at a point is any plane that contains the vertical line at the point. There are unlimited
numbers of vertical planes at a given point.
Horizontal line: - It a point is any line that is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point. At a point there
are an unlimited number of horizontal lines.
Horizontal plane: - at a point is the line that is perpendicular to the vertical line at the point. There is only
one horizontal plane through a given point.
A vertical angle: - is an angle measured in a vertical plane.
A Horizontal angle: - is an angle measured in a horizontal plane between two vertical planes.
Elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a given reference level surface. The difference in
elevation between two points is vertical distances between two level surfaces contain the two points.
Need for Surveying :- Though it is impossible to predict when surveying started it is possible to assume
surely that it was as old as early civilization. Because every type of construction needs surveying as a
prerequisite whatever may be its type.
All types of engineers, as well as architectures, foresters, and hydrologists, are concerned with surveying as a
means of planning and laying out their projects, surveying is needed for subdivisions, buildings, bridges,
highways, railroads canals, piers, wharves, dams, irrigation and drainage networks, and many other projects.
In addition it is required for lying out of industrial equipment setting machinery, holding tolerances in ships
and air lines, preparing forestry and geological maps.
purposes:
 To determine the relative positions of points on the earth’s surface – to locate arbitrary
points, configuration of the ground, direction and length of lines, boundary lines, etc,
 To set out the lines and grades needed for the construction of buildings, roads, dams, and
other structures,
 To calculate areas, volumes and other related quantities,
 As well as to prepare necessary maps and diagrams of an area.
Evolution
The art of surveying is as old as recorded civilization. As long as property ownership was there
in the history of mankind, there had been a means of distributing and distinguishing one’s
property line from the other. Division of land and other constructions can be cited as
examples of early surveying works:
􀂾 Babylonian maps on tablets (2500 B.C)
􀂾 Irrigation ditches constructed in Babylon (1800 B. C)
􀂾 Division of land in Egypt by surveyors known by harpedonapata (rope stretchers) using
ropes with knots to reestablish boundary marks removed by flooding of Nile river and
for the purpose of taxation (1400 B.C)
􀂾 The construction of the great Egyptian pyramids using the 3:4:5 method of right angle
setting and a level made of isosceles triangle and plum bob
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􀂾 Calculation of earth’s circumference (250 B.C)

􀂾 The Development of the science of geometry by Greeks and its usage for precise land
division
􀂾 Contribution of Romans through their practical surveying techniques in their
construction of roads and Military camps in their empire (adoption of system of
rectangular coordinate, invention of odometer)
Since beginning of the industrial revolution the importance of “exact boundaries” and the
demand for public improvements (railroads, canals, roads) brought surveying in to a prominent
position. More accurate instruments and science of Geodetic and plane surveying were
developed.
Recently the equipment available and the methods applicable for measurements, storage,
calculation and compilation of the data have changed tremendously; mainly due to the growth
of the electronic industry and development the microprocessor. The global positioning system
(GPS) - a positioning method based on measurements to an orbiting satellites, total station
survey in which the distance and direction can be observed and stored with a single compact
instrument, Geographic and land information systems (GIS and LIS), digital photogrammetry,
etc are among the recent developments.
Application
Today surveying affects almost everything in our daily lives. For example it is being used:
􀂾 In developing databases for natural resource management.
􀂾 In establishing boundaries of public and private lands.
􀂾 In preparing navigational maps (land, air, water).
􀂾 To map the earth above and below the sea.
􀂾 In geological and geophysical studies
􀂾 In planning design construction erection renovation and maintenance of engineering
works.
Branches of Surveying
Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is considered
or whether the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. Thus surveying is primarily divided in two types.
i) Plane Surveying:- it is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
neglected and it is assumed to be a flat surface. Plane surveying can safely be used when
one is considered with small points of the earth’s surface and the areas involved are less
than 250sq.km. In plane surveying all distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be
projected on to a horizontal plane.
ii) Geodetic surveying:- it is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
taken into consideration, and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained.
Based on the purpose of the survey:
1)Preliminary survey (Data gathering) -here distances and angles are measured to locate existing physical features on maps
plans etc so that the data can be used for furtherworks.
2)Layout survey- involves marking on the ground (using wood stakes, iron bars, aluminum and concrete monuments, nails,
spikes, etc.) the features shown on a design plan. Example property line, engineering works (roads, pipelines, bridges . . .)
3) Control survey- used to reference both preliminary and layout surveys. Horizontal control can be arbitrarily placed, but
it is usually tied directly to property lines, roadway center lines, or coordinated control stations. Vertical control is a
series of benchmarks permanent points whose elevation above mean sea level have been carefully determined.
according to the type of work done:
Based on the purpose for which they are conducted, surveys may be classified into the following types.
1. Control Surveying:- to establish a network of horizontal and vertical control pts which serve as a
reference frame work for other types of surveys.
2. Cadastral Surveying:- undertaken by municipal authorities to produce plans of property
boundaries, establishing property corners and computation of area of and parcels.
3. Topographic Surveying:- to establish horizontal and vertical locations of natural and artificial
features on the surface of the earth.
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4. Construction Surveying:- to provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions,

dimensions, and configurations for construction operations. It also secures essential data for
computing construction pay quantities.
5. Route survey:- to plan, design, and construct highways, railways railroads, pipelines, and other
linear projects.
6. Photorgrametric Surveying:- makes use of data obtained by a came or other types of sensors
mounted on airplanes or satellites for many types of engineering activities.
7. Hydrographic surveys:- define shorelines and depths of lakes, streams, oceans, reservoirs and
other bodies of water.
8. Cartographic surveying:- a combination of topographic and hydrographic surveying.
9. City surveys:- performed within the limits of a city for urban planning for the purpose of layout of
streets, buildings, sewers pipes, etc.
10. Mine Surveys, Geological surveys, satellite surveys, Astronomic surveys ---- are also branches of
surveying preformed for different purposes as their name indicate
Units of measurements
There are two main systems of measurements
I. Metric system (SI = System International)
The SI was developed in 1960 from the old meter-kilogram-second system, rather than the centimeter-gram-
second system, which, in turn, had a few variants. International System of Units (abbreviated SI from
the French le Système International d'unités) is the modern form of the metric system and is generally a system
devised around seven base units (i.e. meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole) and the
convenience of the number ten.
It is the world's most widely used system of measurement, both in everyday commerce and in science.
The older metric system included several groups of units. Because the SI is not static, units are created and a
definition is modified through international agreement among many nations as the technology of measurement
progresses, and as the precision of measurements improves. Metric unit system is easy to handle because
everything is a multiple or a fraction of ten.
Table 2.1 The Seven SI base Units
Conversions between the British/American and metric systems
1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 foot = 0.3048 m
1 yard = 0.9144 m
1 mile = 1.609344 Km
1 acre = 4046.8564224 m2
Name Unit symbol Quantity Symbol
meter M length l
kilogram kg mass m
second S time t
ampere A electric current I
kelvin K thermodynamic temperature T
candela cd luminous intensity Iv
mole amount of substance N
mol
II. British (Imperial) system

The imperial system is one of many systems of English or foot-pound-second units, so named because of the
base units of length, mass and time. Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some
subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other.
SI Units of different Units of measurement
i. The unit of length is the base unit meter (m) 1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm 1
1
1 Decameter = 10 m = 1dam Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm
2
1 hectometer = 10 m = 1hm 1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm
3
1 kilometer = 10 m = 1km 1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mn
6
1 mega meter = 10 m = 1Mm 1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm
9
1 giga meter = 10 m = 1Gm 1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
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1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1
ii. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter square
1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 X 100 m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 10 6 m 2 = 1000m X 1000m = 1km2 = 100 ha
iii. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeter = 1 cubic centimeter meter
1000 cu centimeter = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
Plane Angular Measure:- Angular distances b/n pts measure in degrees (0), minutes (‘) and second (“).
Grad and rad are also units of angular measurement mostly used by some European contries. Hence 3
system are there for angular measurement:-
1. Radian system: 1 full circle = 2π rad. The radian (rad is the basic unit of measurement of angles; one radian is
defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle.
The circumference of a circle equals 2π radians in a circle
: - 360 0 = 2π radian and

1 radian = 57.300
2. Sexagesimal System: 1 full Circle = 3600,10 = 60’, 1’ = 60’’
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2π/360 rad = π/180 rad
10 = 60’ (minutes) and 1’ = 60 ‘’ (seconds
3. Centisimal System: 1 full Circle = 4000, 1g = 100g, 1g = 10mg
1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2π/400rad = π/200rad
1 gon = 100 c gon (centigon)
1 c gon = 10 milli gon (million)
1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)
The relationship b/n these systems is given as follows:
1 full circle = 2 π rad = 3600 = 4000
Conversion:- we can convert one system of unit to the other
Example: 1. convert 370 57’15’’ in to grad and rad
Solution
A. 3600 = 4000 37057’15’’ x 400 = 42.1710
37057’15’’ = ? 3600
B. 360 0
= 2IIrd 37057’15’’ x 2II = 37.954 rad.
37057’15’’ = ? 3600
2.Convert 50 in to degree and rad
0
A. 3600 = 400g 50gx3600 = 450

? = 50 g
400g
B. 400g = 2II rad 50x2II = 45 rad
50g = ? 400g
There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely sexagesimal graduation, centesimal graduation and
radian.
a. Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2π/360 rad = π/180 rad
10 = 60’ (minutes) and 1’ = 60 ‘’ (seconds)
b. Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.
1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2π/400rad = π/200rad
1 gon = 100 c gon (centigon)
1 c gon = 10 milli gon (million)
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1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)

c. Radian: - The radian (rad is the basic unit of measurement of angles; one radian is defined as the angle
subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle. The
circumference of a circle equals 2π radians in a circle
: - 360 0 = 2π radian and
1 radian = 57.300
Conversion of Units
We can convert measurements from one unit to another unit within the same system (English or Metric) or
between the two systems. To convert measurements, it is necessary to know conversion factors between
measurements. A conversion factor is a clever way of writing 1 as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to the
denominator but the numerator and the denominator have different units.
2.2.1 Conversion of length 2.2.2 Conversion of area
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm
1 foot = 0.30 48m 1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm
1mile = 1.6093 km 1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km
2.2.3 Conversion of Angles 2.2.4 Conversion of Volume
1 gon = 9/10 deg, 400 gon = 3600 Conversion of volume
1 deg = 10/9, 400 gon = 3600 1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
Examples
I. From gon to degree
48.0488 gon
48.0488 gon X 9/10 = 43.24390
II. From degree to gon
43.24390 X 10/10 = 48.048 gon
III. From Degree decimal value to degree, minute, second (0,’,”)
43.24390 =
430+0.24390
= 430 + 0.2439X60 = 430 +14’+0.6340’X60
0
= 43 +14.6340’ = 430+14’+38”
0
= 43 +0.6340’ = 43014’38”
IV. From degree, minutes, seconds (0,’,”) to decimal value

430 14’ 38” = 430 +14’/60+38”/3500 = 43.24390
Many countries in the world follow different system of units of measurements. The SI system
rationalizes the available units and, streamlines them into a coherent logical system, using minimum
possible basic units.
Basic metric units of Length:- the is unit of measurement for length is the meter and is
subdivided into millimeter (mm), centimeter (cm), decimeter (dm) meter (m)& kilometer.
1cm2 = 10mm2 1m = 10dm
1dm 10cm
2=
1km = 100m
Basic metric units of Area:- when the unit of length is multiplied by the unit of length, the result
is the unit of area which is expressed by m2 .
1cm2 = 100mm2 1m2 = 100dm2
1dm2 = 100cm2 1km2 = 106m2

Basic metric units of Volume:- when a unit of length (m) is multiplied by the unit of area, we get
the unit of volume which is given by m3.
1cm3 = 103mm2 1m3 = 103
1dm3 = 103 mm 1km3 = 106m2
AREAS
Definition: - The unit of measurement for an area is in square meter (m2).
This term is mostly encountered in determining the area to be
Excavated
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• Compacted
• Surfaced
• Grassed
1m2 is the area of a square having sides whose length is 1m. Consequently every unit of length can be converted into an area
if it is multiplied by itself.
Therefor
e:
Table 2
Table 3
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VOLUMES
Definition:-the most frequently used unit of measurement for volume is the cubic meter (m³).
This term is mostly encountered in determining the amount of material to be:
– Excavated
– Used in the construction and compaction of a layer
– Carted away
-Volume of liquids
1m3 is the volume of a cube where each side is 1m. Volumes are calculated by multiplying a base area (e.g. m2)
with a third dimension.
Therefore:
The most important units for road works are = cm3 and m3
SLOPES (as
ratio and
percentage)
Definition = the
slope shows
the steepness
of an ascent or
descent.
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Scale
A plan graphical represents the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a horizontal plane. A map generally
shows Natural and man made features on the earth’s surface with additional information such as relief’s, hachure and
contour lines to indicate undulation on the ground. The plan of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or the map of a
town, city country can not be prepared in full size on a drawing sheet. Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to
measuring instrument to measure the line or measurement is used which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to
a reduced size, this operation being known as drawing to scale.
Scale of a map
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. A map is a
scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance
on the map to distance on the ground or vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth's
surface, is an important factor in planning and executing military missions. Scales of a map are generally classified as large,
medium and small. A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than a small scale map. Large denominator
numbers refer to small scale, where as small denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.
Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500
Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000
Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000
- Representations of Scale
The following methods are used to represent a scale of a map:
I. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
II. By representative fraction
III. By graphical Scale
I. By statement (engineer’s Scale)-According to this representation, a specified distance on the map represents the
corresponding distance on the ground.
For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1 cm on the map represents 100m on the ground. it expresses the distance on
the map and on the ground in words.
Eg. 1cm to 1km, 1 inch to 1 mile- which means 1cm (1inch) on the map is the same as 1km (1mile) on the grand.
- Easily understand and more practical than the other methods. Specially for people who are not familiar with
mathematics.
- It gives quick idea of size relationship
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- It is in a form that’s awkward to use many applications.

II. By representative fraction (RF)-it is the ration between the distance on the map (plan) and the distance on the ground.
This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is always written with the map
distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure (yards, meters, inches, and so forth).
R= dm/da Where:
dm = map distance
da = corresponding actual distance on the ground
Note:
The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same (scale is unitless).
1. E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm (=50m) on the ground. gives the numerical
proportional distances on the ma
and on the ground.
1 1
Eg. 2500 , 10000 … most frequently expressed as 1:2500, 1:10000 …
It is the most universal and logical way of expressing scales because it is not tied to any of the systems of measurements.
For example, 1:2500 means a unit distance on the map (drawing) is equal to 2500 units on the ground. This could mean 1cm
(inch) distance on the map equals 2500 cm (inches) on the ground.
1. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that its map distance corresponds to a convenient unit
of length on the ground and it is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distances. It is also used to
determine straight line distance between two points on a map. - it shows the relationship b/n distances on the map
(drawing) and distances on the ground graphically.
It is the easiest of all scales to use because no calculations are involved when you want to find the real distance b/n two
points, you don’t even need a ruler to find the distance.
This graphic scale shows 1cm on the map equals 1km on the ground since the scale line is divided by 1cm interval.
Type of measuring scales
1. Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It consists of a line divided in to suitable numbers
of equal parts or units, the first of which is subdivided in to smaller parts.
2. Comparative scale- The scales having the common representation fraction but graduated comparatively to read different
units called comparative scales, such as the scales showing comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and kilometers,
degree and radians, time and distance traveled, etc. The advantage is that measurements are taken directly in the desired
unit with out any calculations.
3. Diagonal Scale - A diagonal scale represents either three units or only one unit and its fraction up to second place of
decimal point. It consists of a line divided in to suitable number of equal parts. The first part is subdivided into suitable
number of equal parts, each of which is further divided into smallest parts by diagonals.
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4. Vernier Scale - A vernier scale is, an additional, scale which allows a distance or angle measurement to be read more
precisely than directly reading a uniformly-divided straight or circular measurement scale. It is a sliding secondary scale that
is used to indicate where the measurement lies when it is in between two of the marks on the main scale
Changing one way of giving scale to another way is possible by setting up a simple relation between them.
a) Change R.F to Statement scale
- First, Express the R.F in metric system
- Second, Change the ground distance to km.
- Third, write the scale in statement.
Eg. Change 1:250,000 to Statement Scale
1:25000 1cm to 250000 cm , 250000cm = 2.5 km
:. 1cm to 2.5 km.
b) To Change R.F to Graphic Scale
- First, Change R.F to statement Scale
- Second, draw a line of any length, and measure a distance of appropriate cm and write the corresponding km.
Eg. Change 1:5000,000 1cm to graphic scale
1:500,000 500,000 cm
1cm to 5km.
c) To change statement scale to R.F.
- First, make the units in the scale statement the same
- Second, cancel the unit and write in ratio or fraction.
Eg. Change 1cm to 2km to R.F scale
1cm to 2km 1cm = 200,000cm
1 cm 1
200000 cm = 200000 = 1:200000
d) To Change Graphic scale to R.F
- First, change the ground distance to cm
- Second, measure the division of the line to have map distance
- Third, Write the scale in statement.
- 4th, Cancels the units and write in ratio.
Eg.
The ground distance is 10km for 2 cm map distance
- 10km = 1,000,000 cm
- The division of the line equals 2cm
- The scale statement is 2cm to 1,000,000cm
2 cm 1
- Writing in ratio, 1000000 cm = 500000
= 1:500,000
1,000,000cm 500,000 = 1:500,000.
Measurement of Horizontal distance by various methods
a. Pacing is one natural and basic way of measuring distance by footsteps generally varies from 0.75m to 0.85m which can be
calibrated over a known distance and average foot step distance can be recorded. The accuracy may be 1in 50 to 1in 100
b. Odometer is a device attached to wheel of a bicycle or vehicle. The no. of revolutions and perimeter of the wheel will
compute the distance measured. Accuracy may be 1 in 100 to 1 in 300
c. Stadia measurement is a method of Tachometric survey where in the difference of top and bottom hair staff readings are
taken and multiplied with a constant to get the distance. Accuracy may be 1in 250 to 1 in 500 (HD = KS+C OR HD =
KScos2V+C, where V is Vertical angle.)
d. Taping is the most commonly used method of measurement which will have calibrated graduations in metric or British
system to read and record according to the length, the accuracy is generally 1 in 1000 to 1 in 2000 Tapes are available in
3m to 50m
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e. EDM Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment includes electro-optical (light waves) and electromagnetic
(microwaves) instruments. It is almost exclusively used where very long distances, under favorable conditions up to 80km,
are to be measured. The first EDM’s typified by the Geodimetric, originally was developed in Sweden in the early 1950’s.
The accuracy may be 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 50,000
TAPING
Taping is already discussed in previous chapter; we understand more about taping in this chapter.
The accuracy depends on the method and type of tape used
The tape used can be classified in the order of accuracy as Cloth mounted, fiber, steel, invar
The Invar tape was used earlier for accurate base line measurement in a triangulation survey.
A) Measure with measuring tape
Mechanical tools
A) Range pole
Range poles are used for alignment. They consist of coniferous wood or light metal, are usually 2m long and divided into
0.50m long sections by alternatively red and white paint. They sit in steel shoes which represent the centre. Range poles
may
not be a bow! Range poles are set vertical with a plumb bob or a rod level.
Chain: -This was a widely used method for measuring distance. It was 100 ft steel ribbon type.
Available in the form of 66 ft chain (Gunter’s chain) also called the 4 pole chain or in the form of 100 ft chain
composed of 100 links each having 1 ft long. They are available in lengths from a few feet to 1000ft.
Tapes: -These are made in a variety of materials, lengths and weights. Those more commonly used by the
surveyor and for engineering measurements are the steel tapes, some times called the engineers or
surveyor’s tape and woven metallic and non-metallic tapes.
Woven Metallic Tape is a ribbon of water proofed fabric into which are woven small brass or bronze wires to
prevent its stretching. It is 10, 20, 30, or 50m long, graduated in meters, centimeters and 2mm, and is
usually 13mm wide.
Metallic tapes are used principally in earth work cross sectioning, in location of details, and in similar work
where a light, flexible tape is desirable and where small errors in length are not of consequence.
Non metallic glass fiber tapes which are non conductors of electricity have been developed for use near
power lines.
Invar tapes: - are used for very precise measurements, such as for base lines and in city works. Invar is a
composition of nickel and steel with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (1/30 of steel tape) and little
affected by temperature changes. Invar is soft metal, and the tape must be handled very carefully to avoid
bends and kinks.
Steel tapes: - are 15, 25, 30 or 50m long. The light box tapes are graduated through out in meters,
decimeters and centimeters. Heavier tapes are graduated as follows through out to meters and decimeters;
first and last meter in centimeters and first and last decimeters in millimeters; or throughout to meters and
half meters with end meters to decimeters. These tapes are quite strong as long as they are kept straight but
if they are tightened when they have loops or kinks in them, they will break very easily. If a tape gets wet, it
should be wiped with a dry cloth and then again with an oily cloth.
Tapes are calibrated by comparing to a standard kept in laboratory under specific condition Pull, support and
temperature
Measuring tape
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Rolled tapes for surveying are usually 10, 20, 25, 30, 50m long with a cross section
Of 13mm x 0.2mm. The tapes consist of steel with a continuous centimeter engraved
Graduation. Today there are usually used steel tapes plastic coated. Watch for the
different end of the tapes!
Steel tapes have a temperature expansion coefficient of 11.5 x 10-6. Measuring tapes must be proofed – 4-6 times in a year
and after each reparation. If there is a mistake above more than 2 mm per 10 m throw it away! Watch if you are measuring
over unshielded electricity-live objects!
C) Plumb bob
A plumb bob is a cone shaped metal piece, hanging on a piece of string. It has a mass of 150 to 300 g. It shows the vertical
line or the direction of the gravity of the earth.
A plumb bob is needed by every surveyor! There are many possibilities where you need a plumb bob – e.g. measuring with
tape , range pole, theodolite, setting out...I think, every surveyor must have a plumb bob in his trousers pocket. Plumb bobs
have a sharptip, there for the trousers pockets of surveyors are often broken.
D) Compass
Pocket or hand held compasses are small compasses not designed to be mounted on a tripod. It may be used for
orientation purposes. The accuracy is about 3-5°. Tripod compasses can be mounted on a tripod and are used for
preliminary surveys, road layouts, timber cruising and topographic word lower accuracy. Vertical angles may be read with a
clinometer, they are used for topographic works e. g. surveying of profiles.
E) Spirit level
Spirit levels are used in surveying instruments and tools to set axis vertical horizontal. According to their shapes, one
distinguishes between bull’s eye levels for rough settings and tube levels for more accurate measurements. Bull’s eye level:
The bull’s eye level consists of a cylindrical glass container in a metal casing. The glass container is filled with thin liquid –
usually ether or alcohol. If the bubble is in the centre of the concentric circles, the tangent plane in this point is horizontal.
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The sensitivity is about 4’. Bull’s eye levels may be adjusted with three adjustment screws on a horizontal plate or a
vertically edge.Tube levels:
A tube level consists of cylindrical glass tube which is very fine and little bent. It is placed in a metal casing. The tube is filled
with a thin liquid – usually ether.
The bubble moves always to the highest spot of the level. If the centre of the bubble coincides with the normal point in the
middle of the graduation, the tangent plane to the normal point is horizontal. A tube bubble is more accurate as a bull’s eye
bubble, it depends on the radius of the glass tube, levels for surveying instruments have an accuracy of 10...60”. You can
adjust a tube level with one or two adjustment screws.
F) Angle prism
For the survey by offsets or for setting out you need a tool for producing a rectangular angle (100gon). Therefore you may
use an angle prism. They consist of two glass bodies which allow to place intermediate points in a straight line or find the
foot of normals to a straight line. The tool is held with a free hand so, that the planes of the prisms are horizontal. A plumb
bob will put the point to the earth. It is better you proof an angle prism whether there is really produced a 100gon angle. If
the angle isn’t correctly 100gon – put it away, because there is no adjustment possibility.
Measuring wheel
Folding rule and short power hardware tape
Steel tape on open reel and invar tape in case
By the method “tie in” you shall measure every second line a second time:
Measuring distance with linear measuring instruments

Determining of distance which is known as linear measurement, between two points on the surface of
the earth. In plane surveying, the distance between two points is the horizontal distance.
Types of tapping equipments
Even though there are a variety of equipments and accessories for measuring a line the most commons
are: Tape, Arrows (chain pins)., Ranging poles, pegs, Plumb bobs, Optical square, pocket thermometer,
Tension handles
Methods of linear measurement are the following
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 Pacing
 Taping
 Tachometry/stadia/
 Substance bar
 EDM
Measuring distance between points:
One of the basic operations in surveying is the determination of the distance, which is known as linear
measurement, between two points on the surface of the earth.
Tapping over level ground
Measuring long lines on even or
sloping ground, two people are
required. They are identified as:
Head tape man - holds the zero end
of the tape Then the length of the
line between two Joints is greater
than that of the tape, some form of
alignment is necessary. That the tape
is positioned along the straight line required. "This method of alignment is known as ranging and is
achieved using ranging poles and marking arrows as shown in figer below
The field procedure is as follows for a line AB. Range poles are erected as
vertical as possible at point A and B and distance AB is measure
Tapping along sloping ground
In taping an uneven or sloping ground, it is standard to hold the tape horizontal and to plumb at both
ends of the tape. When one end of
the tape is held on the ground, the
other end is in a considerable
elevation above the ground This
distance is projected to the ground by
means of a plumb-bob. Shorter
distances (Partial distances) are
measured and accumulated to the total full tape length. This procedure of measuring distance is called
breaking tape
The procedure is from the following figure
Measuring distance with EDM

Electronic systems have been developed for purposes of measuring distance with high degree of
accuracy EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) include electro-optical (light wave) and electro-
magnetic (microwave) instruments. The basic principle of EDM is the indirect determination of the
time required for a light beam to travel b/n the instrument station and reflect or station
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The source of errors in measuring

1. Instrumental error: the tape may differ in actual length from its nominal length because of the
defecate in manufacture or repair or because of kinks.
2. Natural errors: The horizontal distance between end graduations of a tape varies because of the effects
of temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself
3. Personal errors: Field assistances may be careless in setting Pins, reading the tope or manipulating
the equipment
Errors in Linear measurements and their corrections
Errors of measurements are of three kinds:
1. MISTKES- mistakes are errors that arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and poor
judgment or confusion in the mind of the observer.
2. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS- they always follow some definite mathematical or physical law, and a
correction can be determined and applied.
Eg. The error in the length of the steel tape due to change in temperature is a systematic error. It
follows the physical law of expansion of solids.
Systematic errors are of constant character and are regarded as positive or negative according as they
make the result too great or too small. Their effect is there fore, commutative. If undetected they are
very serious.
i) RANDOM (ACCIDENTAL) ERRORS:- are those which remain after mistakes and systematic errors have
been eliminated and are caused by a combination of errors. Accidental errors represent the limit of
precision in the determination of a value, i.e., due to lack of perfection in the human eye.
E.g. In measuring a distance with a scale tape marked in centimeters, one has to estimate a
distance of 5mm as 6mm or 4mm because the eye cannot judge the exact division.
Whatever precautions are taken, random errors do not disappear. As they obey the laws of chance and
therefore, must be handled according to the mathematical laws of probability.
LO 3:- Perform calculations
THE COMMON ERRORS IN TAPING AND THEIR CORRECTION
1) Correction for Standard - if the tape is shorter or longer than the standard length of the tape, this
correction is necessary.
The error can be corrected by
a) correcting the tape itself
b) correcting the measurements taken, which is done by applying the following formula-
l '−l
Ca=( )∗L
l , where ca = correction for absolute length
l' = actual length
l = nominal length
L= measured length.
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Eg. A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be 739.56m .Later the tape is
standardized and is found to have an actual length of 50.05m. Calculate the corrected length of the
measured distance.
Solution: Given: L = 739.56m, l’ = 50.05m, l= 50m
Required: absolute length
l '−l
Ca=( )∗L
l
= (50.05 -50.00)*739.56 = +0.74m
50.00
Corrected (Absolute) Length = measured Length + Correction for absolute length
= 739.56 + 0.74m
= 740.30m
2) Correction for Slope- in surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a
distance lies along a uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has
been determined it may be preferable to measure the distance directly. After wards the horizontal
distance can be by applying the following correction:-
Case I. If the elevation difference of the two extreme ends known
V2
Cs=( )
2 S , where V = elevation difference
S = measured slope distance
Cs = Correction for slope
Case II. If the slope angle θ is known
Cs = S(1 - cosθ )
Eg. A distance measured with a hundred meter steel tape along an uneven ground and found to be
238. 40m. if the elevation difference b/n the end pts is 2.75m (or θ ,the slope angle is 00 39’39”) what’s
the respective measured horizontal distance.
Given – S-238.40m V= 2.75m (ፀ= 00 39’39”)
Refld - H distance
Slop – (1) Cs = V2 = ( 2.75)2 = 0.02
2S (2x238.40)
Or
(2) Cs = S(1 – Cos 00 39’39”) = 238.40 (1.00 39’39”)
= 0.02M
∴ H = S - Cs = 238.40 – 0.02
= 238.38m
3. Correction for full (Tension):- Since any tape is elastic to some extent, its length is changed by
variation in the tension applied, which means if the pull applied at the ends of the tape during
measurement is not equal to the standard tension at which the tape was calibrated, a correction for
pull is required. It is given by:-
Cp = (P-P0) L Where, P = pull applied in the field
AE P0 = Standard pull
A = Cross-Sectional Area of the tape
E = Young’s modules Elasticity (N/ mm2)
L = Measured length
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Eg. A steel tape 20m long standardize with a pull of 100N was used for measuring a base line. Find the
correction for tape length if the pull exerted during measurement was 160N. Take cross sectional area
of the tape and young’s modulus of elasticity of the tape as 5.089x10-6m2 and 2.11 x 106 KN/M2.
Solution Cp = ( 160 – 100) x 20 = 0.118m (additive)
(5.089x10-6x 2.11 x 109)
4. Correction for sag:- A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the center by an amount that is
related to its weight and the pull (tension). If the tape is standardized for a flat a negative correction is
required for sag because the chord distance is always less than the curved distance along the sag which
is given by:-
Cg = - w2 L3 , Where Cg = Correction for sag
24P2 L = Length of the tape b/n supports
w = Weight of the tape per unit length (N/M)
P = Pull applied in the field.
If the total weight of the tape (W) is used, the formula will be.
Cg = - W2 L. Where, W = wL w=W ∴ Cg = - (w)2 L3 = - W2 L
24P2 L 24P2 24P2
E.g. calculate the sag correction for a 30m steel tape under a pull of 100N if the weight of the tape was
0.17 N/m.
Cg = w2 L3 = - (0.17)2 (30)3 = - 0.003m

24P2 (24) (100)2
5. Correction for Temperature: - if a tape is used at a field temperature different from the
standardization temperature of the tape, correction for temperature is required which is given by:-
Ct = α (Tm – TO) L
Where, α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape
material
Tm = Mean temperature during measurement
To = Standardization temp. of the tape
E.g. A survey line was measured with a 50m tape and found to be 135.76m at an average field
temperature of 250C. Find correction for temperature if the standard temperature of the tape is 10 0c.
Take x of the tape 1.15 x 10-5 /C0
Ct = x (Tm – To) L = 1.15 X 10-5 ( 250C-100C) X 135.76m
= 0.023m
6) Correction to mean sea level: - In the case of long lines the relationship between the length
measured on the ground and the equivalent length at mean sea level has to be considered.
If the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the correction to be
applied is:-
Lm
Cmsl=−
R
Illustrative Example:
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The standardized length of the tape was known to be 20.015m at 25 0c and 50N tensions whose
nominal length is 20m. The tape is used to measure a base line suspending it b/n supports and the
following measurements were recorded:-
Measured length = 93.421m
Elevation difference b/n the two extreme ends = 4.482m
Mean temperature = 230C
Cross – Sectional area of the tape 1.7mm2
Tension applied = 25N
Weight of the tape = 3.4N
Calculate (with millimeter accuracy) the corrected horizontal distance of the base line if Young’s
modulus of the tape (E) material is 2x10 5N/mm2 and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape (
α ) is 1.12x10-5/CO So/N.
Solution:
1) Standardization Correction:-
Ca = (l'- l) L = (20.015 – 20)* 93.421M = +0.070m
l 20
2) Slope Correction:-
Cs = V2 = (4.482)2 = -0.108m
2S (2x93.421)
3) Correction for pull:-
Cp = (P - Po) L = (25N – 50N) * 93. 421 = - 0.007m
AE (1.7x2x105)
4) Correction for sag
Cp = - W2L = - 3.42 x 92.421 = - 0.072m
24p2 24 x 252
5) Correction for temperature:-
Ct = α (Tm – To) L
= 1.12x10-5 (230c – 250c) 93. 421m = -0.002m
Total Correction = Ca + Cs + Cp + Cg + Ct = 0.070 – 0108 – 0.007 – 0.072 - 0.002
= - 0.119m
Corrected length = Measured length + Total Correction
= 93.421 + (- 0.119)
= 93.302m
Example – A steel tape of nominal length 30m was used to measure a line AB, suspending it b/n
supports and the following measurements were recorded:-
- Measured length (L) = 29.872m - Weight of the tape = 0.17N/M
- Slope angle (ፀ) = 30401 -
Cross Sectional area of the tape= 2mm- Mean temp (T m) = 50 -
Young’s modulus of elastic to, (ፀ) = 200km/mm
- Tension applied (P) = 120N - x of steel tape = 1.12x 10-5/C0
Calculate the corrected length of line AB if the standardized length of the tape was known to be
30.014m it 200c and 50N tension.
So/n 1) Standardization Correction
Ca = L (L1 – L1) = 29.8.72(30.014-30) = +0.014m
L 30
2) Slope Correction
Cs = -S(1-cos ፀ) = -28.8.72 (1- cos 30400) = -0.061m
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3) Correction for pull

Cs = (P – P0)L = (120-50) x 29.872 = + 0.002m
AE 2x200x103
4) Correction for sag
Cg = - W2 L3 = (0.172)(29.872)3 = -0.002m
24P2 (24) (120)2
5) Correction for temperature
Ct = x (Tm-To) L
= 1.12x10-5 (5-20) x 29.872 = - 0.005m
Total correction = Ca + Cs + Cg + Ct
= 0.014 + (-0.061) + 0.005 +(-0.002) + (-0.005)
= -0.049m
Corrected length of AB = Measured length + Total Correction
= 29.872 + (-0.049)
= 29.823m
8. Interpolating
Interpolation of the
contours is the process of spacing the contours proportionately between the plotted ground points
established by indirect method. The assumption is made that the ground slope b/n two adjacent points
is constant (in a strict line) the chief methods of interpolation are:-
i) By Estimation:- This method is extremely rough and is used for small sealer work only. The position of
contour points between the guides points are located by estimation.
ii) By Arithmetic Calculation. The method is very accurate and shall be applied in cases where high
accuracy is demanded. It is time consuming and tedious, but with some particle the speed increases.
The following figure the speed increases. The following figure shows the principle.
Point A and B are observed ground points with its elevation 125.40m and 127.70m respectively. The
horizontal distance b/n the points is 24m. Wanted is the position of the round number contour lines
126.0 & 127.0m along line AB.
Setting simple proportion and solving for x will given us the horizontal distance from point A the to
desired contour line elevations i.e., H, distance V. distance total H d, total difference
X1 :- (126 – 125.4) = 24.0:2.30 x1 = 6.26m
X2 :- (127- 125.4) = 24.4: 2:30 x2 = 16.70m
There fore, the contour line 126.0m passes at a distance of 6.26m from point A lowland B and
that of 127.0 is it distances of16.70m from the same point.
In the topographic map the two distances (x1 & x2) are set cut with a scale along the straight line
AB, marked with a point and labeled with its elevation.
The same calculation is carried out in the reverse direction sieves as a check
LO 4:- Estimate approximate quantities
Plan and Map
The difference between a map and a plan is that on a map the scale is too small to allow every
feature to be properly represented to scale. Thus, conventional symbols are used to represent
features that would otherwise be too small to be recognized. A plan, on the other hand, shows
all features on the ground correctly to scale.
Surveying Activities
A complete Surveying activity involves the following steps:
I. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed,
II. Planning of the survey Management and decision-making. Appropriate methods and
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instruments required are chosen,

III. Field measurement,
IV. Office work, and
Generally the above activities are grouped under Field work and office work.
Field Work: - involves:
1. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed
2. Care, handling and adjustment of instrument
3. Performing measurements
4. Setting out in the field
5. Recording of measured data
The Surveyor Field Note Book
The best and most accurate survey is of no value unless properly recorded. The recording is
performed in the field. Standard field notebooks should be prepared to record surveying
fieldwork data so that other persons can readily retrieve them for use at any time. Each party
before the commencement of the fieldwork should prepare these books. As field recorded are
used for subsequent evaluation and presentation, it is essential that all field note:
• be neat, clear, accurate and complete
• include when, where, for what purpose and by whom the survey is don and the
instrument number
• all the entries be clearly labeled
• indicate the weather and any other conditions seen is the field
• should indicate all field computations so that possible mistake can be detected later.
Some Tips on recording
 use a hard pencil 4H or hard to prevent smearing
 no eraser be used because it cause suspicion of alteration
 if error is made during recording, cross out (X) and write the correct on top of it
 don’t try to record on scrap paper and copy later, survey data should be recorded on site
on the notebook for mistakes can occur during copying and scrap paper may be lost .if
for some reason data copied then the word Copy should be clearly marked .
 When sketches are used, an arrow pointing north should be indicated.
 Show measured quantities the left hand of pages and sketches and miscellaneous notes
on the right hand page.
 Use standard forms for each of different types of survey
 check all arithmetic computations and sign
 do not use free hand sketches the sketches need be straight edged
 avoid crowding the information on to the page
Methods of Keeping Note
1. Written description of what has been done. E.g. property survey. But for usual survey,
it is likely to be long and involved and difficult to pick out numerical value for office
computation.
2. Using sketch. All numerical values are shown on the sketch. Used for relatively simple
survey.
3. By tabulation of numerical data. Used where many angles and distances are measured
form the same point. E.g. topographic survey.
4. Combination of the above. On extensive survey combination of tabulation and sketch is
used. E.g. route surveys.
Office Work: - involves:
1. Planning and design of the survey specification coordinate system and datum,
selection of equipment and procedure.
2. Calculations and adjustment of data
3. Preparation of plans, maps, etc.
Reference System
To provide a suitable framework to which all surveys are referenced it is necessary to establish
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horizontal datum and Vertical datum (references). A horizontal datum is the surface to which
horizontal distances are referred and consists of an ellipsoid of revolution approximating the
figure of the earth. For the purpose of horizontal reference the earth is approximated by an
ellipsoid with semi major axis (radius) of 6,378,137m and a semi minor axis (radius) of
6,356,752.314m.
• Survey Geographic reference system: This is composed of surface (ellipsoid) divisions
denoted by Geographic lines of latitude and longitude .The latitudes run east west and
are parallel to the equator .the latitude lines are formed by projecting the latitude angles
out of the surface of the earth and is measured 90 0 max N and S from the equatorial
plane .The longitude lines all run N/S converging at the poles the lines of longitude
(meridians) are formed by projecting the longitude angle out to the surface of the earth
at the equator and measure a max of 180 0 E/W from the plane of 0 0 longitude Which is
arbitrarily placed through Greenwich .
Although this system of Geographic coordinate is much used in navigation and
Geodesy, it is not used in plane surveying. Plane surveying uses the grid coordinate
system.
• Survey Grid reference: In this system the earth’s surface is divided in to rectangular
grid for horizontal reverence. This system is limited in size so that no serious errors will
accumulate when the curvature of the earth is ignored. Advantages of this system are the
ease of calculation (plane Geometry and trigonometry) and the availability of one
common datum for the X and Y dimensions in large area. The coordinates of most grid
systems can be referenced to the central meridian and to the equator so that translation
to Geographic coordinates is always easily accomplished.
• Survey Vertical references: A vertical datum is a surface which all elevations and
depths are referred. Although Vertical dimensions can be referenced to any datum, the
referenced datum most widely used is that of mean sea level (msl) which is assigned an
elevation of 0.000m.
LO 5:- Set up and use theodolite device
Setting up and use Theodolite
as this for a level. The tribrach has to be horizontal- you will do this by the 3 foot screws controlled by a sensitive
tube level. The bottom contains the very important axis system of the theodolite.The central part consists of the
horizontal circle, the elements connected to it
and some components around the vertical
axis. The horizontal circle is made from glass and the graduation is
directly engraved.
The top part of the theodolite can be rotated against the centre and bottom parts. It consists
of housing, telescope, vertical circle, reading devices and levels orcompensators. The
vertical circle is equal to the horizontal circle but it is fixed with the telescope.Here are some
examples for different reading systems:
There are 4 important axes at the theodolite
 The collimation axis ZZ should be normal to the horizontal axis KK!
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 The horizontal axis KK should be normal to the vertical axis VV!

 The axis of level LL should be horizontal!
 The vertical axis VV should be vertical – in the plumb line!
If these conditions are not granted you will have systematic mistakes in yourMeasurements. You can test if the horizontal axis
isn’t normal to the vertical axis by directing to a high point in both telescope positions. The Difference of both readings must be
exactly 200gon. You can also test if there the collimation axis is normal to the horizontal axis by directing a point in the height
of the theodolite. The difference of both readings must be exactly 200gon.If there are mistakes, you can adjust the
theodolite.Both axis-errors you can eliminate by measure in both telescope positions. The mean ofboth readings is free on the
influence of horizontal or collimation axis error. The vertical axis error cannot be eliminated because it is a mistake in
instrumentsetting up. It is important that you are very careful in setting up the instrument. Modern electronically instruments
calculate the vertical axis error (with a compensator)and eliminate it by calculation.
15 years ago digital theodolites were developed. In these theodolites the readings are replace by incremental or decode
systems. The value of the direction will be showed on a display. This development is overtaken by the electronically
tachymeter (see later).Most of the theodolites have an optical plumb. This is one of the centering devices fora theodolite. A
theodolite must be centered above a ground point with the aid of a plumb. For simple measurements a plumb bob is sufficient.
For more accurate measurements an optical plummet is preferable. They are either manufactured as separate instruments or
included in theodolites or tachymeter. They consist of a little simpletelescope with crosshairs before the objective and a
rectangular reflection prism. Soyou look in the ocular and see the point on the ground. Optical plummets have to be adjusted.
The theodolite is a very useful instrument for engineers. It is used primarily for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
However, the instrument can be used for other purposes like
a. Prolonging a line
b. Measuring distances indirectly, and
c. Leveling.
Theodolites these days are all transit theodolites. Here the line of sight can be rotated in a vertical plane through 180o about
it’s horizontal axis. This is known as transiting and hence the name “transit”. The theodoliths can be broadly classified as:
a. Vernier theodolites
b. Precise optical teodolites
As the name suggests, in vernier theodolites varniers are used to measure accurately the horizontal and vertical angles.
Generally 20″ vernier theodolites are used.
The precise optical theodolites uses an optical system to read about horizontal and vertical circle. The precision of angles can
be as high as 1″.
Some Basic Definitions
a. Line of collimation: it is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross hairs with the optical center of the objective.
b. Axis of the plate level: it is the straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the plate level tube at its center.
c. Axis of the altitude level tube: it is the straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the altitude level at its center.
d. Face left condition: if the vertical circle is on the left side of the observer, it is known as face left condition (normal condition)
e. Face right condition: if the vertical circle is on the right side of the observer, the theodolite is in face right condition. The
telescope is than in the inverted form and hence the condition is known reverse condition.
f. Plunging the telescope: this is also known as transmitting or reversing. It is the process of rotating the telescope through 180o
in the vertical plane. By this process the direction of objective and eye paces ends are reversed.
g. Swinging the telescope: it is the process of turning the telescope clockwise or anticlockwise about its vertical axis. Clockwise
rotation is called swing right and anticlockwise rotation is called swing left.
h. Changing face: it is the operation of changing face left to face right and vice versa.
i. Double sighting or double centering: it is the operation of measuring an angle twice, one with telescope in the normal condition
and another in the reverse condition.
0o 0o Horizontal axis
Vertical axis
-90o
Electronic Theodalite
Measurement of Horizontal angles
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Horizontal angles are measured by following two methods

Repetition method
Reiteration method
Repetition method is used where a very accurate angle is to be measured between the two points A and B, where the
measurement is repeated 3 to 5 times and the average angle is computed
Total Cumulative angleAverage angle = No. of repetitions
For more accurate method the average angle can be measured under following different positions and the final average will be
computed
A B
Repetition method
O
Face left Face right
Swing left Swing right Swing left Swing right
The average of repetition angle from the above 4 positions will give the final angle
 In reiteration method all the angles are measured successively from the initial position and the horizon will be closed. The
closing error may be distributed among all the angles
E A
O
D
B
C
Reiteration method
Measurement of deflection angles
Deflection angles or deviation angles are measured normally for an alignment location survey of a road / railway line /
Transmission line / irrigation canal etc
1
3
2
Curve 4
The angles measured to the right or clock wise to the prolongation of proceeding line is called right deflection angle ex:
The angles measured to the left or anti clock wise to the prolongation of proceeding line is called left deflection angle ex:
The deviation or deflection angles may be measured as repetition angles as required.
To negotiate smooth travel between intersecting traverse lines and deviation angle suitable curves are designed
Measurement of vertical angles
Vertical angles are measured on a true vertical plane for computing the height, slope distance elevations etc of the points or
object on the surface of the earth.
The following sketches are self explanatory to measure angles at different axis of reference.
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+90o 0o 180o
0o 0o 90o 270o 90o 270o
-90o 180o 0o
Angles from the Horizon Zenith angles Nadir angles
• The angles measured above the horizon are called angle of elevation.
• The angles measured below the horizon are called angle of depression
Errors in angle Measurement
The errors in angle measurement occur when the measured angles are not in true horizontal plane and vertical plane; It is
possible due to various Instrumental, natural and personal reasons, which can be tabulated as below
Item
Type of error Cause of error Correction
No.
1)Vertical axis of the instrument is
not parallel to the plumb line
2) Line of collimation is not Instrument need to under go
1. Instrumental perpendicular to horizontal axis of the proper temporary and
instrument permanent adjustments
3) Horizontal axis is not
perpendicular to true vertical axis
Imperfect bisection to the object and

2. Personal Under proper field training
temporary adjustments.
Sun/wind/vibrations/electromagnetic Use umbrella / avoid bad

3. Natural
interference etc weather conditions
pats of Theodolite
1. Circular bubble
2. Lower plat clamp
3. Optical plummet
4 .objective lenses
5. Vertical clamp
6. Eyepiece
7. Vertical and horizontal
motion
8. Foot screws
9. Base plate etc
10 tripods
11. Handle
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Use of Theodolite
A Theodolite is an important instrument in most engineering projects for measuring
Vertical and horizontal angles. This can be classified as
 Optical and Theodolite
 Digital electronic Theodolite.
The instrument must be correctly leveled and thereby making the vertical axis truly vertical over the
station or the benchmark before taking observation ns. In the setting up the Theodolite, the tripod legs
are spread in such away that the top of the tripod should be approximately horizontal In making the
Theodolite ready for work the following steps should be performed.
Positioning and spreading the tripod
 t Centering the Theodolite
 Leveling up the instrument
 Targeting
 Focusing the Eyepiece. & Objective. Lenses
 Positioning and spreading the tripod- The tripod should be positioned approximately horizontal on the
benchmark and the legs of the tripod should be pressed firmly into the ground
 Centering the; Theodolite- The position of the tripod should be exactly at the center of the benchmark
using either a suspended plumb bob or an optical plummet
 Leveling-up- This step of operation is of the utmost important tasks done by means of sliding the tripod
foot screws
 Targeting & focusing- after the above tasks have been done the telescope will be targeted and focused
to eliminate the paralla
Measuring Horizontal Angle The measurement of angles is a common activity in surveying operations.
Angles can be classified as horizontal and .vertical angles. An angle measured between two intersecting lines in
horizontal plane, is known as horizontal angle:. A horizontal angle in surveying has a direction or sense; that is
measured or designated to the right or to the left. Or it is considered as clockwise or counter clockwise. Horizontal
angles can be classified as Deflection angle interior angles. Directions (Azimuth/ Bearing). The units of angular
measurements in surveying are two types Sexagesimal systems (Degree-minute-second) system Centesimal
system (Grad) system
Measuring Vertical Angle
An angle measured between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, is known as vertic.al angle
when the point being measured is, above the horizontal plane, the vertical angle is called an angle of
elevation and it is considered as positive angle. On the other hand when the measured point is below
the horizontal plane it is known as on angle of depression, it is considered as negative angle. The value
ranges from O0to +/- 90° or from 00 to +/- 100 grad.
A zenith angle is an angle measured in the vertical plane plumb line as a reference. Its value ranges
from 00 to 180°. The relationship bin vertical angle & zenith angle is Vertic.al angle = Zenith angle - 90°.
To measure a vertical angle the instrument is set up over the stat ion point and carefully leveled. The
line of sight is brought to the direction of the point; the reading of the vertical angle reading is taken as
the initial angle and the telescope is targeted to the second point and the second reading is taken
Measuring horizontal angle with protractor
In different surveying activities surveyor may have not /obtained a theodolite to measure horizontal
angle therefore measure the horizontal angle using protractor by stretching strings on the line you
wants to measure the angle
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LO 6:- Measure distances with stadia & Sub tense bar

Measuring distance with stadia and substance bare
Measuring distance with substance bare
Introduction.
A Subtance bar is a type of surveying instrument that is used to measure distances indirectly by
measuring Horizontal angle, which is subtended by two ends of a horizontal rod, which is mounted
on a tripod horizontally.
Let the length of the rod bel (CD), and then CE is 1/2 that subtends an angle of θ/2 To determine
the horizontal distance b/n the points A & E is as follow Setup the Theodolite on either of the
points let A Setup the Subtance bar on point E
Take horizontal angle readings at the ends of the Subtence bar
Tan θ/2=opposite
Hypotenuse
1/2
AE
Where-I is the length of substance

-½ half of the length of substance
- Θ measured angle
-AE the horizontal distance Distance can be measured indirectly by the use of optical instruments
in conjunction with leveling staff (rod). The measurements are performed quite rapidly and are
sufficiently accurate for many types of surveying operations like Stadia or Tachometry.
The word tachometry means fast measurement". The telescope of the Theodolite usually
contains three horizontal lines, which are attached on the eyepiece of a telescope, known as cross
hairs. The upper (U) and lower (L) cross hairs are called Stadia hairs. The staff readings are taken
form staff held vertically
At the desired point.
The distance on horizontal sighted from the center of the instrument is given by
HD=KS
Where H = horizontal distance on a level surface
K = telescope constant
S=: staff intercepts (U - L)
Staff readings
The three staff
readings are
Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you, mine are still greater.
Ts.K
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Stadia Tacheometry
Though tacheometry has a low order of accuracy compared modern instruments it is still a use
full procedure for many surveying applications such as in contouring and topographic detailing
at small scale.The equipments used in this method consists of a telescope with horizontal cross hairs (stadia
hairs) and a graduated rod (stadia rod) The process of taking measurement consists of observing
through the telescope and determining the stadia interval or stadia reading.
Figure (a)
Principle of the measurement
The stadia hairs are indicated by points a and b (=I) .The apparent locations of the stadia hairs
on the rod are points A&B and the stadia interval is s. From similarity of triangle a’b’F and
ABF
⇒ f/d=i/s ⇒ f/I=d/s ⇒ d=(f/i)s=ks
Where k=f/i is a coefficient called the stadia interval factor .Which for a particular instrument is
a constant as long as conditions remain unchanged.
For horizontal sight
D=ks+(f+c)=ks+C
Where: C is the distance from center of the instrument to principal focus. Usually the value of
C is determined by the manufacturer& stated on the inside of the instrument box.
Usually, for
• internal focusing telescope C=0
• external focusing telescope C=1ft
The nominal value of k is usually100.
Note that both the values of C& k can be determined by carrying out a series of measurement
by varying the distance and calculate k & C by
• Simultaneously in pairs and the mean taken
• As a whole by the method of least squares
Inclined Sights
In stadia surveying, most sights are taken inclined and usually it is desired to find both the
horizontal& the vertical distance from the instrument to rod.
Figure (b)
Surveying I Basic Survey Measurements
Department of Civil Engineering, 2009 45
From Figure (b)
D=f/I(A’B’) +C angles A’&B’ are assumed to be 90°
AB=s ⇒ A’B’=s sinz=s cosα
⇒ D=ks sin(z)+C =ks cosα +C and
⇒ H=kssin2 (z)+Csin(z)=kscos2α+Ccos α
⇒ V=kssin(z)cos(z)+Ccos(z)=1/2kssin(2z)+Ccos(z)=1/2kssin2α+Csinα
Do not worry about your difficulties in Mathematics. I can assure you, mine are still greater.
Ts.K

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Pre by Tsegaye Kenenisa 2012 E.C

B) Care and security of equipment,

Care of instruments after the measurements

􀂾 Calculation of earth’s circumference (250 B.C)

4. Construction Surveying:- to provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions,

II. British (Imperial) system

1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1

: - 360 0 = 2π radian and

A. 3600 = 400g 50gx3600 = 450

1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)

IV. From degree, minutes, seconds (0,’,”) to decimal value

1dm2 = 100cm2 1km2 = 106m2

- It is in a form that’s awkward to use many applications.

Measuring distance with linear measuring instruments

Measuring distance with EDM

The source of errors in measuring

Cg = w2 L3 = - (0.17)2 (30)3 = - 0.003m

3) Correction for pull

instruments required are chosen,

 The horizontal axis KK should be normal to the vertical axis VV!

Horizontal angles are measured by following two methods

Swing left Swing right Swing left Swing right

0o 0o 90o 270o 90o 270o

Angles from the Horizon Zenith angles Nadir angles

Imperfect bisection to the object and

Sun/wind/vibrations/electromagnetic Use umbrella / avoid bad

LO 6:- Measure distances with stadia & Sub tense bar

Where-I is the length of substance

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