1

ECONOMIC ISSUES, PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
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ECONOMIC ISSUES, PROBLEMS
AND PERSPECTIVES
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ECONOMIC ISSUES, PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
PIERFRANCESCO MORGANTI
AND
MARIA-BEATRICE COLTELLI
EDITORS
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Title: An introduction to the circular economy / Pierfrancesco Morganti,
(editor) Professor, Academy of History of Health Care Art, Rome, Italy,
Maria-Beatrice Coltelli (editor) .
Description: Hauppauge : Nova Science Publishers, 2021. | Series: Economic
issues, problems and perspectives | Includes bibliographical references
and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2021019482 (print) | LCCN 2021019483 (ebook) | ISBN
9781536192339 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781536196610 (adobe pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Recycling industry. | Sustainable development. |
Environmental policy.
Classification: LCC HD9975.A2 .I58 2021 (print) | LCC HD9975.A2 (ebook) |
DDC 338.4/76284458--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021019482
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021019483
ISBN: 978-1-53619-233-9
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

This book is dedicated to our families.
Moreover, we thank all the professional contributors who helped us to

realize this book on circular economy with the important support of
the NOVA Sciences's collaborators, fundamental to disseminate a
major knowledge on the existing means necessary to fight against the
great problem of waste and pollution.
An idea that is developed is more important than an idea that exists only as
an idea.
Buddha
Progress is impossible without change, and those who cannot change their
minds cannot change any things.
George Bernard Shaw
One of the first conditions of happiness is that the link between man and
nature shall not be broken.
Leo Tolstoy
The earth will not continue to offer its harvest, except with faithful
stewardship. We cannot say we love land and then take steps to destroy it for use
by future generations
John Paolo II
CONTENTS
Foreword xi
Amilcare Collina
Preface xv
Part I. Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Life Expectancy in the World and Relative Variables 3
U. Cornelli, M. Recchia, E. Grossi and G. Belcaro
Chapter 2 Circular and Green Economy: Which Is the Difference? 17
Pierfrancesco Morganti and Gianluca Morganti
Part II. Building Blocks of Circular Economy 41

Chapter 3 Past, Present and Future of Industrial Symbiosis 43
Sophie Hennequin and Daniel Roy
Chapter 4 Development of Indicators of Circular Economy and
Their Application in Water Management 67
Juan Carlos Leyva-Díaz, Valentín Molina-Moreno,
Jorge Sánchez-Molina and Luis Jesús Belmonte-Ureña
Chapter 5 The Present Contribution of Circular Economy to
Stimulate Economic Growth in the World 91
L. Marsullo
Chapter 6 Circular Economy for a Healthy Living Environment 97
P. Morganti and G. Tishchenko
Chapter 7 Circular Economy in China 113
Xing-Hua Gao and He Cong-Cong
viii Contents
Part III. Waste in Circular Economy 121

Chapter 8 Circular Economy in the European Union as an Example of
Wasteless Processing of Crustacean’s Waste 123
Galina Tishchenko and Pierfrancesco Morganti
Chapter 9 Circular Economy: Valorization of Waste Plant Biomass to
Produce Active Ingredients with Antimicrobial Activity against
Human and Plant Pathogens 143
Giovanna Simonetti, Elisa Brasili and Gabriella Pasqua
Chapter 10 The Circular Economy and Built Environment.
Maintenance, Rehabilitation and Adaptive Reuse:
Challenging Strategies for Closing Loops 165
Serena Viola, Stefania De Medici and Patrizia Riganti
Chapter 11 Waste Valuation for Environmental and Health Improvement on
Circular Economy View 183
William Michelon, Aline Viancelli, Apolline P. Mass,
Daniel Vicente Filipak Vanin, Rafael Dorighello Cadamuro,
Paula Rogovski, Aline Frumi Camargo, Charline Bonatto,
Fábio Spitza Stefanski, Thamarys Scapini, Gislaine Fongaro and
Helen Treichel
Chapter 12 Waste Recycling from Construction Sector within the
Circular Economy Paradigm 205
Álvaro Sánchez-Quintana, Juan Carlos Leyva-Díaz,
Jorge Sánchez-Molina and Valentín Molina-Moreno
Chapter 13 Circular Economy of Wastewater Streams by Means of
Membrane Technologies 229
Marco Stoller
Part IV. Reuse, Reduce, Recycle in Circular Economy 241

Chapter 14 Sustainable Food Production: The Transition towards a
Circular Economy of Plastic Food Packaging 243
Pedro Núñez-Cacho, Rody Van der Gun, Juan Carlos Leyva-Díaz
and Valentin Molina-Moreno
Chapter 15 Bioconverter Insects: A Good Example of Circular Economy,
the Study Case of Hermetia illucens 261
Rosanna Salvia and Patrizia Falabella
Chapter 16 Chitin and Lignin Waste in the Circular Economy 281
Pierfrancesco Morganti, Alessandro Vannozzi, Adnan Memic and
Maria-Beatrice Coltelli
Chapter 17 The Use of Coffee Waste to Produce Goods and Energy 297
Andrea Morganti and Pierfrancesco Morganti
Contents ix
Chapter 18 Natural Metabolites as Functional Additive of Biopolymers:

Experimental Evidence and Industrial Constraint 309
Arash Moeini, Gabriella Santagata, Antonio Evidente and
Mario Malinconico
Chapter 19 Regenerated Cellulose Sheet as Natural Tissue to
Make Biodegradable Baby Diapers 331
Alessandro Gagliardini and Pietro Febo
Chapter 20 Waste Recycling for Wound Care and Cosmetic Smart Economics:
Chitin and Lignin 341
Pierfrancesco Morganti, Gianluca Morganti, Alessandra Fusco and
Adone Baroni
Chapter 21 Biobased and Biodegradable Rigid and
Flexible Polymeric Packaging 365
Maria-Beatrice Coltelli, Vito Gigante, Patrizia Cinelli,
Alessandro Vannozzi, Laura Aliotta and Andrea Lazzeri
Chapter 22 Reuse and Recycling of Post-Consumer Textile Waste in
Smart Green Cities 391
Natalia A. Vukovic
Chapter 23 Circular Economy in the Fashion Sector and Textile Goods 405
Marco Piu and Mauro Rossetti
Chapter 24 Circular Economy in the Built Environment:
A Strategy for Flexible Housing through Flexzhouse 421
Mohd Zairul
About the Editors 437
List of Contributors 439
Index 445
FOREWORD
For a long time, our economy has been "linear". This means that the raw materials are
used to make a product which, after use, becomes waste and is thrown away.
Several factors - such as the generation of waste, the exposure to economic risks and the
availability of resources, the degradation of natural capital, the evolution of regulations -
indicate that the linear model is increasingly being challenged by the context in which it
operates, and that a more in depth change is needed in the operating system of our economy.
In this context, the circular growth model, which aims to dissociate economic growth
from the consumption of limited resources and make the economic system less vulnerable to
crises, is increasingly considered to be the trajectory of development to be followed.
The current paradigm of the linear economic model "production, use and disposal" is
destined to be replaced by the circular economy model whose paradigm is "reduce, reuse,
recycle".
The circular economy is a regenerative industrial system. It replaces the concept of end of
life with restoration, directs the use of renewable energies, eliminates the use of toxic
chemicals that prevent reuse and return to the biosphere and aims to eliminate waste through
better design of materials, products, systems and business models.
This economy is based on some simple concepts.
First, a circular economy aims to eliminate waste. Waste does not exist: the products are
designed and optimized for a disassembly and reuse cycle.
Secondly, circularity introduces a rigorous differentiation between the consumables and
the durable components of a product. Consumer goods in the circular economy are largely
made of organic or "nutrient" ingredients that are at least non-toxic and even better beneficial,
and can be safely returned to the biosphere, directly or in a cascade of consecutive uses.
Durable goods, on the other hand, are made up of technical substances unsuitable for the
biosphere, such as metals and most plastics. These are designed from the beginning to ensure
the reuse of the product or its components at the end of the primary use cycle.
Thirdly, the energy needed to fuel this cycle should be renewable in order to reduce
dependence on resources.
Ten principles define how the circular economy should work:
•
Waste becomes a resource: it is the basic principle. All the biodegradable material
returns to nature and the non- biodegradable is reused.
xii Amilcare Collina
•
Second use: reintroduce into the economic circuit those products that no longer
correspond to the initial needs of consumers.
•
Reuse: reuse products or product components to build new manufactured products.
•
Repair: prolong the life of damaged products.
• Recycling: use materials present in the waste.
•
Enhancement: exploit the energy deriving from waste that cannot be recycled.
•
Energy from renewable sources: elimination of fossil fuels for production, re-use and
recycling.
•
Eco-design: considers and integrates environmental impacts throughout its life cycle
for a product.
•
Industrial and territorial ecology: optimized management of stocks and flows of
materials, energy and services
•
Economy of functionality: new business models
An important starting point is the design of production processes, products and services:
the products must be redesigned to be used for a longer time, repaired, modernized,
remanufactured or, in the end, recycled, instead of being thrown away; the production
processes must be conceived taking into greater account the possibilities of re-use of products
and raw materials, as well as the regenerative capacity of natural resources.
The diagram below illustrates the model of the circular economy by schematizing the
main phases, each of which offers opportunities in terms of cost cutting, less dependence on
natural resources, growth and employment, as well as containing waste and environmentally
harmful emissions
Foreword xiii
The phases are interdependent, as the materials can be used in cascade: for example,
companies exchange by-products, products are refurbished or remanufactured. To ensure the
effectiveness of the system it is necessary to avoid as far as possible that the resources leave
the circle.
In the logic of the circular economy, the circle closes with the transformation of waste
into resources. (Ellen Macarthur Foundation: Towards a Circular Economy- Business
Rationale for an accelerated transition)
For this purpose the role of both the Scientific Community and the Industry of the
chemical sector is crucial for the development of new technologies.
The volumes of potentially transformable waste in resources - with the development of
appropriate technologies - is huge.
I can mention in this regard a report edited by the Research National Agency ENEA
(Study on the potential of carbonation of minerals and industrial residues. Report RdS
/2010/48) which analyzes the residues potentially suitable to react with carbon dioxide and be
transformed into reusable products generated in Italy by a number of industrial sectors.
The development of technologies of reaction of these residues with carbon dioxide has a
twofold environmental value:
• Transformation of a waste into a product

• Massive up-take of carbon dioxide from sources of emissions with reduction of the
environmental impact of these sources
The industrial sectors analyzed in the ENEA Report are the following:
• Iron and steel industry;

• Energy production;
• Waste-to-energy treatment;
• Mining;
• Cement production;
• Construction and demolition sector;
• Paper industry.
In conclusion I would like to point out that waste is an issue that affects the whole
European Union.
According to the European Commission, altogether, the EU produces up to 3 billion tons
of waste every year. On average, each of the 500 million people living in the EU throws away
around half a ton of household rubbish every year.
This is on top of huge amounts of waste generated from activities such as manufacturing
(360 million tons) and construction (900 million tons), while water supply and energy
production generate another 95 million tons.
Turning waste into a resource is a major key to the circular economy.
For this purpose, the availability of a rational set of rules concerning the “end of waste” is
crucial.
xiv Amilcare Collina
Amilcare Collina
Responsible for relationships with Scientific Community, MAPEI Group;

Member of Technical Committee, CONFINDUSTRIA
(Association representing Italian manufacturing and services Companies);
Member of Research & Innovation Committee, CEFIC
(European Chemical Industry Council)
PREFACE
According to the United Nations, one third (i.e., 1.3 billion tons) of all the food produced
is thrown away annually along its entire supply chain, representing a major contribution to
climate change .On the other hand million tonnes of waste plastics, used as containers or
packaging materials, are littering on the oceans surface under the form of micro/nanoparticles
because of humans’ incivility. These problems represent one of the main problems of our
society, who shows to be irrespective of one million of undernourished people and the
environmental problems. Thus the necessity of a sustainable development, achieved by a
better governance, an intelligent economy and finance, an increased investment in science and
technology and a more aware knowledge of manufacturers and costumers for preserving the
natural raw materials and the biodiversity of our planet. The adoption of the so-called circular
economy seems to be the best way to reduce or eliminate the negative impact of the actual
linear economy. By the circular economy, in fact, it would be possible to encourage activities
that preserve the value of energy, labour and materials, avoiding the use of non-renewable
resources which favor both human health and natural systems. This new economy, in fact, is
based on the prevention and management of the waste created, which redesigned, recycled
and reused, will preserve the economic value of the natural raw materials.
By the new bio-nanotechnologies, in fact, it is possible to curb food and plastic waste
pollution, managing it by mechanical and chemical methodologies. However, in the circular
economy the increased collection and selection of the different waste materials, their reuse
and recycling also to reduce the carbon footprint, remains as a priority.
The book is organized in the following four parts: by Part I Introduction, composed by
two chapters, many considerations on the humans’ way of living and life expectancy are
reported in chapter 1. Life expectancy and the means to provide food and maintain in health
all the family has to be considered at the first place, also for the fastest growing of an aged
population projected to reach 2.1 billion by 2050. However, while the increase of life
expectancy is evident, life span and longevity in different countries is not fully understood,
due to the many variables to be taken in consideration. This chapter consider 17 ancillary
variables, recorded as routine in relation to the environment, the demography and the
economy of 261 countries.
The possibility to live longer and healthy, maintaining the natural raw materials and the
planet biodiversity, is the main objective of the circular economy, based on the reuse, recycle
and regeneration of the raw materials obtained by a virtuous waste management.
xvi Pierfrancesco Morganti and Maria-Beatrice Coltelli
This the topic of chapter 2, which tries to introduce the lecturer to the meaning of the new
circular/green economy trying to persuade her/him in the necessity to leave the linear
economy. This innovative circular economy will achieve its target only if governance,
economy & finance, science & technology, individual & collective activities will integrate
one with the other. According to some international organizations, this new economical
approach will permit a more sustainable global development, reducing poverty and giving
people freedom together within the fundamental rights. Moreover the circular/ green
economy, based on the use of the waste and a redesigning of new goods made applying “zero
waste” principles with a reduction of water and energy consumption, could maintain the
natural raw materials for the future generations, preserving the earth biodiversity.
The concept of industrial symbiosis is reported on chapter 3 by the conduction of a full
bibliometric analysis based on the published research works. Thus, the principle of an
industrial symbiosis to obtain a sustainable development is discussed, comparing the existing
parallelism with the natural processes obtainable at zero waste by the use of a minimum of
energy and raw materials. While in the biological ecosystems the sustainability is obtained by
allowing high flexibility and adaptability of all the productive processes, the circular
economy can be seen as a flexible long term strategy system based on a permanently
changing environmental/ market/society conditions.
Chapter 4, considering the necessity the circular economy has to avoid scarcity in
ecosystems, introduces the important theme of water representing one of the greatest
challenges of current sustainability policies. According to the United Nations, it has been
reported that at least 25% of world population live with water scarcity. Thus, the necessity of
new legislation models to reduce the water consumerism for modifying its current
management.
Moreover, by the new economic rules it will be necessary to use at the best the digital
technologies for stimulating the economy growth. At this purpose a drastic change of the
people mentality after years of unbridled consumerism is considered of fundamental
importance for the incoming circular economy. This the topic focused on chapter 5 and 6
where it is underlined the importance to produce at zero waste for maintaining a healthy
living. It is, in fact, to remember that fishery's byproducts and plant biomass represent a
golden waste raw material of around 300 billion tonnes per year, utilized until now for less
than 20%.
Chapter 7, representing the end of this book section, reports interesting news regarding
the actual Chinese programs on circular economy. The Chinese government has becoming to
push the population to cut the use of not necessary packaging changing the lifestyle to
eliminate the food loss also. The chapter underlines that living green is not penance, but
rather a way of pursuing happiness and a less stressful way of life. On the other hand, it is
underway the transition from coal toward cleaner sources for developing more green energy,
so that special experts have been selected to help govern for placing the hazardous chemical
industry in key areas, while ramping up efforts to move plants out of densely populated areas.
These the papers reported on PART II: Buildings Blocks of Circular Economy, by five
chapters.
Chapter 8 and 9 are the first two papers of the PART III: Waste in Circular Economy
which, organized by six chapters, tries to give an idea on the industrial use of this waste.
Chapter 8 is focused on the current trend of the industrial production of chitin, chitosan and
their derived compounds. Thus many examples of these polysaccharides have been reported,
Preface xvii
because of their increased use due to the skin friendly and environmental friendly activity. At
this purpose, a view of the EU scientific publications during the last 10 years has been
reviewed.
On Chapter 9 it has been underlined as plant biomass represents the most important
source of phytochemicals, such as antimicrobial agents active against fungal and bacterial
pathogens, as well as new smart ingredients used in both pharmaceutical and cosmetic field
for their particular effectiveness and safeness. These ingredients result important not only as
natural compounds to be used for making innovative drugs and smart cosmetics, but also to
reduce agricultural waste converting it into value added metabolites, active against human
and plant pathogens. As industrial examples, some ingredients extracted from olive oil waste
and fruit juice are reported. Chapters 10-13 are focused on recycling and valorization of
different source of waste for obtaining an improvement of human health and the environment.
Chapter 10 discusses the attitude towards maintenance, rehabilitation, and adaptive reuse
as a strategy to give new life to decaying and abandoned spatial and social contexts.
Principles of the circular economy highlight the need to preserve and increase the value of
existing assets as both materials and buildings, when applied to the construction sector.
Therefore, there is a growing interest in urban mining from buildings, from both
environmental and economic perspectives. Thus, materials hidden in buildings are an
interesting alternative to raw materials. Chapter 11 underlines that, rethinking the production
process, represents an important strategy for industry, energy and agriculture reflecting on
human quality of life. Accordingly to the principles of circular economy, materials reuse and
recycling encourage technological innovation, new inspirations and research challenges,
aiming the development of cleaner technologies and a more healthy environment.
Chapter 12 is focused on the necessity to change the way to produce and consume,
transforming the current linear economy in the circular economy model, especially for the
construction field that became one of the largest producer of waste and greenhouse (GHGs)
emissions. Some suggestions, therefore, are reported to reduce waste and GHGs by the use of
the design out principle, recycling the construction materials, and utilizing new technologies
and material.
In Chapter 13 is underlined the valorization of the product stream and the increase of the
membrane longevity. The target of a membrane process, for example, is to separate the feed
stream in two separate ones, the process stream and the secondary stream, considered as a
waste. In any way, the design of the membrane process aims to reach on the target stream the
desired quality in terms of purification, concentration, and separation. Thus according to the
circular economy, this process has to be modified by innovative technologies to realize
recyclable membranes to be reused.
Driving toward a circular economy has became a necessity to save the limited natural raw
materials of our planet, increase the production of energy generated though renewable
resources, and reduce the increasing waste and pollution. Thus the necessity to rethink our
economic future through a circular model based on the so called 3R: reuse, reduce and
recycle. This the topic of PART IV: Reuse, reduce, recycle in Circular Economy, composed
of 11 Chapters.
In Chapter 14 the problem of food packaging is reported and discussed, underlining that
today it represents the majority of the non-biodegradable materials through out in the
environment. Thus the urgent necessity to solve this great problem by the use of materials that
can be recycled indefinitely.
xviii Pierfrancesco Morganti and Maria-Beatrice Coltelli
On one hand, it is remembered that the actual food packaging creates undoubtedly
significant advantages because the plastic materials used are cheap, durable, with a low
weight and a low energy need during manufacturing, and able to maintain fresh the food for a
longer period. However, the durability represents an disadvantage because the materials used
are not recyclable and have an high cost of recycling.
On the other hand, the use of alternative containers made by glass or aluminum result too
expensive and increase the GHGs emissions. Therefore, recycling plastic containers seems at
moment the best and more economic option to reduce the negative impact of plastic pollution.
This solution, in fact, is characterized by the lowest global warming and energy consumption,
compared to incineration or disposal in landfills. Chapter 15 reports an innovative application
for bio-converting agro-food waste material into valuable products through the insect H.
Illucens. This insect may be used to produce animal feed and/or an alternative energy source,
according to the circular economy. On the other hand, some derived compounds obtainable
from waste materials during the food processing, such as chitin, chitosan and their derived
compounds, can find many possible applications in agricultural, biomedical and
pharmaceutical fields. Bio-converting the insects, therefore, can offer the capacity to
valorizing organic waste from the agro-food industry through specific processes. In
conclusion, the breeding of insects for animal feed and as an alternative energy source could
represent one of the solutions to be adopted in the future to convert the food waste into goods.
As reported, plastic and food waste represent an important pollution problem for humans
and the environment, being actually dumped into land and oceans. Thus the necessity to
recycle plastics and reuse food extracting its bioactive ingredients, thus considering this waste
a business opportunity and richness for a new economy. Among the other possibilities,
Chapter 16 is focused on the way to use fishery's byproducts and plant biomass waste to
obtain chitin and lignin respectively. These two polymers, obtained in their micro/nano size
by a patented process, have been complexed each to other due to the different electrical
charges covering its surface: electropositive charge for chitin and electronegative for lignin.
They may be used to produce smart non-woven tissues facial masks, or advanced
medications, as result of the different active ingredients entrapped into the fibers obtained by
the electrospinning methodology. These tissues applied on the skin, in fact, seem able to
release the active ingredient at different time, according to the production method adopted.
Another source of waste is represented from both spent grounds and non-biodegradable
plastic containers of which are made the many coffee consumed worldwide, remaining in the
environment as pollution. According to Chapter 17, billion cups of coffee are drinking daily
across the world, while the spent ground is throughout as waste. As consequence, this spent
powder decomposes, releasing methane and increasing the greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions
in the atmosphere. On the other hand, coffee grounds, rich of many active ingredients, could
be used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields as well as in other industrial sectors to
make biofuel, for example, or bio fertilizers. Thus the necessity to utilize coffee waste more
intelligently and efficiently, making an important contribution to the waste management by
innovative technologies and a sustainable strategy according to the circular economy rules, as
focused on this chapter.
While packaging represents a great waste problem, on the other hand it is necessary to
preserve food from the microorganisms damages. The prevention from mold contamination,
in fact, is another big problem regarding the food packaging system. Contaminants, as
Penicillum Roquefort and Aspergillus Niger, are the main contaminants dangerous for human
Preface xix
health. Thus the necessity to design right packaging systems to protect food from any
physico-chemical and biological damage, preserving its quality and safety. At this purpose
Chapter 18 reports the more common polymers currently distributed in the market for food
packaging, focusing the attention on the new biological polymeric composites, active for their
biodegradable matrices.
Cellulose based nanocomposites and regenerated cellulose are other materials used in
packaging as alternative to petroleum-based ones. Their increasing utilization not only for
food but also to make biodegradable baby diapers, is due to their light weight, durability, and
bio recyclability.
Regarding the different fiber organization and size, nano-crystals and bacterial cellulose
are continually studied because both possess strong reinforcing effects on nanocomposites,
having highly favorable properties, including biodegradability, high surface area, low density
and good thermo-mechanical performance. Thus, they are becoming to be used for green
applications in baby diapers as reported in Chapter 19.
Waste recycling of cosmetic products and drugs for both their content and packaging
became a problem for the economy, as previously focused. This the topic of chapter 20 were
new biodegradable carriers are reported, obtained from waste materials. These innovative
vehicles, capable to overcome the skin barrier, are able to transport and deliver active
ingredients across its layers because of their nanosize and surface electrical charges.
On the other hand, chapter 21 is dedicated to the potentialities and opportunities of
biobased and biodegradable polymeric materials available on the market, considering their
regulatory and standardization aspects. Among the polymers reported, PLA-based
biocomposites seem to represent currently the more promising alternative to the petrol-based
ones. Chapter 22 is focused on the utilization, processing, and reuse of textile waste
worldwide in modern cities. Its recycling may be considered a promising base for a new Eco-
business, thus reducing the waste problem and its harmful effects on the environment,
according to the aims of circular economy and reported in chapter 23 also.
This chapter underlines the necessity to eliminate the use of hazardous chemicals during
fabric processing and organize the traceability of the textile raw materials for verifying the
absence of toxic compounds, thus permitting the recyclability and protect the consumer
health.
For living in good health and without waste and pollution it is necessary to change our
way of produce and consume food, cosmetics, drugs and all the goods utilize for our actual
lifestyle. Thus our house also has to be made by the recyclable materials to be in line with the
circular economy. At this purpose the book ends with chapter 24 which reports the use of the
so called flexZhouse business model that combines an innovative leasing with elements of the
circular economy useful to provide an affordable housing to the customers for ameliorating
their lifecycle chain. This new model is based on innovative strategic business useful to
reduce cost of manufacturing and production by economies of scale.
In conclusion, this book tries to debate on the significance of circular economy,
underlying the necessity to change our way of producing, consuming, and traveling on a daily
basis. The passage from a linear economy to a circular economy will help us to reduce the
degradation of the environment for avoiding future disastrous consequences, such as
depletion of biodiversity, scarcity of raw materials and drinking water, rising waters, etc. The
circular economy, therefore, involves designing a product so that it can be recycled or its
components reused. Thus, reuse consists of the product back into the economic circuit in its
xx Pierfrancesco Morganti and Maria-Beatrice Coltelli
original condition as well as repair makes it possible to fix a broken good and recovery
consists of reusing its components. This is the significance of the so called 3R strategy,
illustrated in this book.
Pierfrancesco Morganti
Academy of History of Healthcare Art, R&D Unit, Rome, Italy
Visiting Professor, China Medical University
Maria Beatrice Coltelli

Associated Professor, Department Civil and Industrial Engineering,
University of Pisa, Italy
PART I. INTRODUCTION
In: An Introduction to the Circular Economy ISBN: 978-1-53619-233-9
Editors: P. Morganti and Maria-Beatrice Coltelli © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
LIFE EXPECTANCY IN THE WORLD

AND RELATIVE VARIABLES
U. Cornelli1,*, M. Recchia2, E. Grossi3 and G. Belcaro4

1
Loyola University School of Medicine Chicago, US
2
Department of Biostatistics, University of Lugano, Switzerland
3
Villa Santa Maria Institute, Tavernello, Italy
4
Irwin Labs, University of Chieti, Italy
ABSTRACT
Life expectancy in every country can be determined by demographic, ecological, and
economical variables.
Life expectancy (LE) was compared in 191 countries on the basis of 17 demographic
and economic variables. A stochastic approach was used consisting of simple correlation
coefficients, followed by principal component analysis, factor analysis and - lastly -
segmentation analysis.
The results ruled out 10 of the 17 variables as non-correlated. The surface area
covered by forests, the square kilometers of forests, the ratio of gross domestic product
(GDP) to education, the number of hospital beds, the particulate matter, the population
and the population density were not found to be determinant.
What emerged as directly correlated with LE were the Internet, GDPs (GDP/inhab,
GDP2 and GDP3, related to advanced industry and the economy respectively), urban
concentration, cars and mobile phones. An inverse correlation was found with GDP1
(related to agriculture, livestock and fishing).
LE in the world is not connected with the variables typically linked with the
environment, and is more closely connected with economic variables.
Keywords: life expectancy, ecology, gross domestic product, segmentation analysis
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: ucornelli@gmail.com.
4 U. Cornelli, M. Recchia, E. Grossi et al.
INTRODUCTION
Before considering the aspects of circular economy and the relative possibility to be
implemented one should consider in which context/s the humans are living. The most
important objective of the humans is to live, which means to eat and to provide foods for the
family. Because of this, life expectancy (LE) can be considered among the most important
variables. Humans in general are not oriented to the environment modifications, provided that
they can provide to satisfy the energy necessary to survive. This has to be clearly in mind
when efforts are undertaken to modify the human behavior.
Life expectancy (LE) has been steadily rising in the past two centuries and projected to
continue increasing. From the 40 year in 1990 [1, 2] has doubled since the beginning of the
20th century, and in most developed countries now exceeds 80 years in both man and women
[3] with an 80% probability that world population will increase to between 9.6 and 12.3
billion in 2100 [4]. LE is increasing in every area of the world and already in 2010 the
International Future modelling system (IFs) was calculating values ranging from 73 to 85
years for males, and 80 to 87 years for females [5]. Particular improvements were forecasted
for Sub-Saharian Africa, whereas slower improvements were expected in high-income
countries.
Considering data deriving from The Global Burden Disease Study 2015 the total death
increased by 4.1% from 2005 to 2015, but the age standardized death rate fell by 17% [6].
After 2015 many efforts were made by United Nation to achieve a world of prosperity,
equity, freedom and peace -according to the Millennium Development Goals- to stimulate the
implementation of primary health care. However, the gap between countries is still existing
and occurs for different reasons that should by analyzed with details [7]. Indeed, a wide array
of disease and injury sequelae affects the world’s population. Globally, in 2013 only 4.3% of
the population had no burden of disease or injury sequelae, slightly up from 4.2% in 1990,
and the Years Lived with Disability (YLDs) was also increasing [6]. According to these
considerations, globally LE at birth is projected to rise from 70 years in the period 2010-2015
to 77 years in 2045-2050 and achieve 83 years in 2095-2100.
Africa seems to gain about 19 years of LE by the end of the century. Such increases are
contingent on further reductions in the spread of HIV, and combating successfully other
infectious as well as non-communicable diseases. Both Asia and Latin America and the
Caribbean are expected to gain 13-14 years of LE at birth by 2095-2100, while Europe,
Northern America and Oceania are projected to gain 10-11 years. Globally, population aged
60 or over is the fastest growing. Furthermore, as fertility declines and LE rises, the
proportion of the population above a certain age rises and this phenomenon - known as
population ageing- is occurring throughout the world. In 2015, there were 901 million people
aged 60 or over, comprising 12 per cent of the global population. Europe has the largest
percentage of its population at ages 60 or over (24 per cent), and the number of older persons
in the world is projected to reach 1.4 billion by 2030 and 2.1 billion by 2050. Population
ageing will have a profound effect on the number of workers per retiree in various countries,
as measured by the Potential Support Ratio (PSR), defined as the number of people aged 20
to 64 divided by the number of people aged 65 or over.
Currently, African countries, on average, have 12.9 people aged 20 to 64 for every person
aged 65 or over, while Asian countries have PSRs of 8.0, Latin America and the Caribbean
Life Expectancy in the World and Relative Variables 5
7.6, Oceania 4.8, Northern America 4.0 and Europe 3.5. Japan, at 2.1, has the lowest PSR in
the world, although seven European countries also have PSRs below 3. By 2050, seven Asian
countries, 24 European countries, and four countries of Latin America and the Caribbean are
expected to have PSRs below 2, underscoring the fiscal and political pressures that many
countries are likely to face in the not-too-distant future in relation to their public health care.
The increase of LE is undoubtedly evident, however what is not fully understood is why
there are so many differences among countries. Life span and longevity are complex variables
and belong to the interaction between environmental, genetic, epigenetic, and stochastic
factors that can be influenced also by foods and drugs which according to the common
knowledge are considered valid factors to live longer. The aim of our study was to consider
the LE as a main variable to correlate with 17 ancillary variables that are recorded as routine
in most of the countries in relation to the environment, the demography and the economy. The
determinants of LE were measured through the stochastic and non-stochastic analysis to
discover the existence of common variables. On the basis of these conditions one may
consider where (and when) the circular economy can be implemented.
LIST OF THE COUNTRIES

All the 261 countries in the world were analyzed, considering the data of two years 2014
and 2015. Countries without some of the variables that were chosen for the analysis were
excluded, and because of this the final sample was limited to 191 countries. The LE in each
country was taken by the World Health Statistics Monitoring 2016 [8]. Those not reported
such as for Montecarlo and San Marino were taken by the CIA World Factbook 2016 [9].
At the end all the data concerning the year 2015 were reported since those of the 2014
were superimposable. The following 191 countries that have been analyzed are presented in
terms of descending order for life expectancy. Monaco; Japan; San Marino; Singapore;
Andorra; Swiss; Australia; Sweden; Liechtenstein; Canada; France; Norway; Spain; Island;
Nederland; New Zealand; Ireland; Germany; United Kingdom; Greece; Austria; Malta;
Luxembourg; Belgium; Taiwan; South Korea; Finland; United States; Denmark; Portugal
Bahrein; Chile; Qatar; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Panama; Costa Rica; Cuba; Albania;
Slovenia; Dominican Republic; Kuwait; Argentina; Santa Lucia; Lebanon; United Emirates;
Uruguay; Paraguay; Brunei; Slovakia; Poland; Morocco; Czech republic; Algeria; Ecuador;
Sri Lanka; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Antigua Bermuda; Libya; Lithuania; Tonga; Macedonia;
Georgia Brazil; Tunisia; Hungary; Mexico; Saint Kits and Nevis; Columbia; Mauritius;
Maldives; China; Barbados; Oman; Salomon Islands; Saint Vincent Grenadine; Saudi Arabia;
Romania; Malesia; Venezuela; Bulgaria; Seychelles; El Salvador; Thailand; Armenia; Jordan;
Estonia; Grenada; Jamaica; Egypt; Latvia; Turkey; Uzbekistan; Peru; Samoa; Vietnam;
Nicaragua; Vanuatu; Palau; Marshall Islands; Philippine; Micronesia; Indonesia; Belarus; Fiji
Islands; Bahamas; Azerbaijan; Greenland; Guatemala; Suriname; Lebanon; Cape Verde; Iraq;
Honduras; Iran; Bangladesh; Kazakhstan; Russia; Moldavia; Kirghizstan; North Korea;
Turkmenistan; Ukraine; Bhutan; Mongolia; Bolivia; Belize; Syria; Guyana; India; Timor Est;
Nepal; Tajikistan, Pakistan; Papua New Guinea; Burma; Tuvalu; Ghana; Kiribati;
Madagascar; Yemen; Gambia; SãoTomè and Principe; Togo; Cambodia; Kenia; Eritrea;
Laos; Equatorial Guinea; Comoros; Sudan; Haiti; Djibouti; Mauritania; Tanzania; Benin;
Senegal; Ethiopia; Malawi; Guinea; Burundi; Republic of Congo; Liberia; Ivory Coast; Sierra
Leon; Cameroon; Democratic Republic of Congo; Zimbabwe; Angola; Mali; Burkina Faso;
Niger; Uganda; Botswana; Lesotho; Nigeria; Mozambique; Gabon; Namibia; Zambia;
Somalia; Central African Republic; Swaziland; Afghanistan; Guinea-Bissau; South Africa;
Chad.
THE VARIABLES
The following 17 variables were considered taken by CIA World Factbook 2016 [9]:
Population: as number of inhabitants

Population density: in terms number of subjects/km2
Urb pop: rate (percentage) of urban population in comparison to the total population
GDP/inhab: Gross Domestic Product/inhabitants or the total values/inhabitants of goods
and final services related to economical activities, capital investments
Unempl: unemployment rate (percentage) of people looking for a job in relation to the
labor force
GDP 1: GPD rate (percentage) of the Gross Domestic Product in relation to primary
industry bound to agriculture, forests, livestock, fishing
GDP 2: GDP rate (percentage) of the Gross Domestic Product in relation to industry,
mining and construction industry
GDP 3: GDP rate (percentage) of the Gross Domestic Product in relation to commerce,
transportation, communication, tourism, insurance GDP 2+3: sum of the rate
(percentage) related to GDP 2+ GDP 3
Education: rate (percentage) of the investments in public and private instruction in
relation to GDP
HB: number of hospital beds/1000 inhabitants
Forests: as rate (percentage) of surface covered by forests
PM: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) in mcg/m3 measured in cities with > 100,000
inhabitants
Cars: number of cars/1000 inhabitants
Cell: number of mobiles/1000 inhabitants
Internet: number of people connected to internet/1000 inhabitants
Forests Kmq2: square kilometers of forest/1000 inhabitants.
LE was considered as the main variable to compare with all the others using two
approaches: stochastic and non-stochastic analysis. The first was based on the simple
correlations and on the Main Component Analysis (MCA with rotation Verimax), to explain
the correlation among the variables [10, 11]. This evaluation was followed by the Factorial
Analysis that used “factor scores” to transform the cluster of observations in more simple
structures or Factors [12, 13]. The Segmentation analysis was also used [13] on the base of
CHAID (Chi square Automatic Interaction Detection).
The methods employed for the analysis were the following: correlation matrix among all
the variables, considering as limit of significance the value of r ≥ 0.6. The Main Component
Analysis (MCA) was applied to explain the correlation among the variables as cause of “non
observable” or hidden factors [10, 11]. This was followed by the Factorial Analysis that used
the “factor scores” to transform the cluster of observations in more simple structures or
Factors [12, 13]. Followed the analysis to measure if the LE was correlated to the mutation of
any single Factor. After these three steps, only the factor scores capable to explain a
consistent percentage of variability (> 80%) will be considered, with the aim of isolating two
orthogonal factors, each consisting of a combination of variables, and project the need to
define a target variable191 countries on these two new axis. The segmentation analysis is
based on the construction of a decisional tree based on CHAID (Chi Square Automatic
Interaction Detection). The method needs at first to identify the target variable that in the
current case was the LE that ranges between 45 to 85 years. LE was divided into 4 groups of
similar dimension (between 45 to 50 countries) and CHAIDS allows the identification of
“optimal splits” that consent to maximize the differences among the groups [13]. In a first
step the sample was divided into two clusters of countries according to the most solid
“predictor”. The best predictor is chosen among the variables that contain 100% of the
variance and were isolated with the MCA (in this case 7 variables). The cluster isolated by the
first predictor can be further divided on the base of other predictors. The analysis gives back
the probability of a given LE based upon the dimension of the predictors. All the calculations
were carried out with JMP 12 SAS (Sas Institute inc. e XLSTAT).
RESULTS
Here are summarized the data of 2015 because those of 2104 were practically
superimposable to 2015. The correlation matrix is reported in Figure 1 and is limited to
variables with r value ≥ 0.6. According to the r ≥ 0.6 cut-off, five variables only were found
correlated to LE, namely: GDP 1; GDP 3; Cars; GDP 2 + 3; Internet. This last showed the
highest r value (r = 0.7697) Vs LE.
In the light of this simple analysis, two other aspects were considered. The first was to
isolate those variables that were considered “inhert” because they were not correlated with
any other variable. These were 10: population, population density, unemployment rate, GDP
2; Instr/GDP, HB, Forests, PM, Cell, Forests Kmq2. The second was to determine how the
remaining variables were mutually crossing, as reported in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Variables that are significantly correlate with “r” ≥ 0.6.

What can be drown is that GDP in all the aspects is either positively (GDP2 and GDP 3)
or negatively (GDP 1) correlated with LE, and the other highly interconnected variables are
Internet, Cars and GDP3 or GDP 2+3. GDPs are all correlates among them either in positive
or negative way. The proposed exploratory Factor Analysis (with rotation Verimax) that was
following allowed to explain the correlation between different variables in terms of a reduced
number of factors unobservable or latent. This analysis eliminate 10 of the 17 variables
because their information was already contained in the remaining 8. The following variables
were excluded: population and population density, unemployment, GPD 2 and GPD 3, HB,
Instr/GDP, forests, forest Kmq2, and PM. The seven remaining variables instead were
capturing 100% of the variance, namely: urb pop; GPD/inhab; GDP 1; Cars; Cell; GDP2+
GDP 3; Internet (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Weight of the 7 Factors that have been isolated from the initial 17 variables, Eigenvalues,
Percentages and Cumulative Percentages.
Where 1 = urb pop; 2 = GDP/inhab; 3= GDP 1; 4 =Cars; 5 = Cell; 6 = GDP 2+ GDP 3; 7

= Internet. The 7 Numbers were explaining 100 of the variance and two of them (see
Numbers 1 and 2 in Figure 2) capture as much as 80% of the variance. The Number 1
contains 66.83% of the variance and represents the combination of the following four
variables: urban pop, GDP 2+GDP 3, Cell, and GDP 1. The Number 2 contains 12.83% of the
variance and is represented by the combination of the following three variables: GDP/inhab,
Cars, and Cell. These two Numbers were called Factor 1 and Factor 2 respectively. The
correlations with LE of each variable contained in the Factors was calculated and it was
possible to determine the importance of every single variable by the “greatness” of the
relative coefficient (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Correlations coefficients of Factor 1 and the Factor 2 Vs the original variables composing the
Factors. Analysis with rotation Verimax.
By their "greatness" one may notice that: Factor 1 decreases with GDP 1 (negative
coefficient) and increases with increasing GDP 2 + 3, urban pop, and Cell, whereas
GDP/inhab and Cars were almost inconsistent; Factor 2 values increase mainly with the
growth of GDP/inhab, Cars, Internet. In this last case pop urb, GDP 1, Cell, and GDP 2 +
GDP 3 were shown less consistent. Internet correlation is present in both Factors but its
weight prevail in Factor 2. Only values > 0.6 were considered consistent. The “greatness”
allowed to identify within the two Factors those variables that were better defining the
Factor’s characteristics. For Factor 1 they were represented by urban pop, GDP 1, Cell, and
GDP 2+ GDP 3, whereas for Factor 2 they were represented by GDP/inhab, Cars, and
Internet. A regressive models comparing LE respectively Vs Factor 1 and Factor 2 was
calculated, and the results are represented in the following Figures 4 and 5.
Figure 4. LE of 191 countries in relation to Factor 1 (urb pop, GDP 1, Cell, GDP 2+3).
Figure 5. LE of 190 countries in relation to Factor 2 (GDP/inhab, Cars, Internet).

The regression line marked in the figure represents the growth of LE as a function of
Factor 1. For what concern Factor 2, represented by GDP/inhab, Cars and Internet, the
regression line and the points disposition are reported in Figure 5.
The last step of the analysis was the connection of the two Factors (Figure 6). This is
possible because they explain 80% of the variance and may form a “complex” variable to be
used for the final correlation. The results were represented in ascending order in Figure 6,
consisting of the new regression LE Vs Factor1 + Factor 2. The correlation is statistically
significant: r = 0.77 p < 0.001).
Figure 6. LE in relation to the sum of Factor 1 and Factor 2. Factor 1 (urb pop, GDP 1, Cell, GDP 2+3,)
+ Factor 2 (GDP/inhab, Cars, Internet).
For the Segmentation analysis four classes of LE were considered: 49-64 years, 65-73
years, 73-77 year and finally > 77 years composed respectively by 47, 44, 53, and 47
countries.
The CHAID (Chi square Automatic Interaction Detection) was used to determine the best
predictors among the seven variables isolated by the Factor analysis with rotation Verimax
(see Figure 3).
The first predictor hierarchically most important was Internet presenting two cut-off:
>436 and <436 (/1000 people). The first collect 90% of countries with LE > 73 years,
whereas the second only the 13%. The second predictor was GDP/inhab > 21633 and
21633 that were concentrating respectively 95% and 86% of the countries with LE >73. The
third predictor was Car > 360 and <360. In this last case the first allowed a concentration of
82% of the cases with LE > 73 and the second the 100%. In other terms, a country
characterized by internet > 436, GDP > 21633, and Cars >360 was offering a LE >77 years
with 98% of probability. Without taking into consideration the three predictors, the
probability of LE > 77 years was 52% only (52/191countries).
DISCUSSION
This is the first time that LE is compared with many variables that are usually employed
to define the condition/performance of a country. The weakness of this study belongs to some
points that has to be underlined. They are the precision/quality of some variables, such as the
PM, unemployment, and urban population. PM in fact was not taken in a standardized way in
terms of the period of the year, number of measures, and cities of a given country.
Furthermore, they belong to different origin, ranging from inert matter to very toxic
substances. In other terms the PM of cities close to the desert cannot be compared to PM of
the industrial areas. The unemployment can fluctuate in some country during the year, and the
urban population may be modified quite rapidly by the massive immigrations. The urban
population can change due to the emigration, since the war exploding in some countries that
can suddenly and dramatically modify the characteristics of the closest areas. However, in
general most of the variables can be defined as solid, and among the 191 countries the vast
majority was stable and free from dramatic events. The first observation emerging from the
analysis concerns those variables that were excluded as determinant for the LE and confirmed
in all the type of analysis. The classical and common concerns like PM, the Kmq2 of forests
or the forests dimension in a given country, the Instr/GDP, were excluded as direct factors
that may have impact on LE. For the extent of the forests, the HB and the Instr/GDP one may
only take the data as they are, and the reason why they are not emerging as determinants in
above the scope of this research. The PM instead can be matter of discussion due to same
particular aspect. PM is a complex mixture of chemical components that should be considered
together with many gas such as methane (CH4), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfate
(SO3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) aerosols and all the possible widespread air pollutants, present
wherever people live. These particles are able to penetrate deeply into the respiratory tract
and therefore constitute a risk for health by increasing mortality from respiratory infections
and diseases, lung cancer, and selected cardiovascular diseases. The WHO estimated in 2000
that the exposure to PM caused 800,000 deaths and 6.4 million YLDs and that the developing
countries accounted for two third of this burden [14]. In general the WHO stated that there is
no evidence of a safe level of exposure to PM or a threshold below which no adverse health
effects occur, and globally > 30% of the population lived in areas exceeding the WHO level
Target of 35 mcg/m3.
The data recorded for this study represent an average of the cities where the monitoring
stations were available. In order to present air quality largely representative for human
exposure, measurements of residential areas, commercial and mixed areas were used. Stations
characterized as particular “hot spots” or exclusively industrial areas were not included.
Furthermore, in some of countries particles <PM10 was largely based on estimates [15].
There are several studies conducted in different part of the world showing the negative effect
of the PM on health [16-18] but still there is need for further research to define the long term
toxicity [19] and whether some components and sources of PM may be more toxic than others
[20]. The indoor air pollution also is something that should be considered since it is causing
apparently 3.7 million of death [21]. In the Update report of 2106 [22] a comparison was done
to determine the trend of PM in the world between 2008 and 2013, ending up with an
estimation of 5% increase, despite some fluctuation within the macro-regions that were
analyzed. In the same period the LE was increased also, practically in every of the 191
countries that have been considered in this study, no matter if the PM was increasing or not.
This indicate that more precise measures should be taken for PM, because in the present
scenario it seems that they have a positive effect on the LE. Instead of the “classical threats”,
other variables have been isolated as determinants in the present analysis. Factor 1 which was
bound to urban population, Cell, GDP2+GDP 3, GDP1 Factor 2 which was bound to
GDP/inhab, Cars, Internet. These Factors should to be considered as “colors” that are made
by the combination of fundamental colors which may end up with different shade/aspect
according to the quantity of each base color. A more precise connection between variables,
without any overlapping was emerging from the ANN.
This analysis was confirming the importance of all the same factors in terms of nodes
connected to the LE nodes (low and high) with the exception of Cell. Considering in detail
some of the variables, the following observation can be made. The urban concentration (urb
pop) has a positive value for LE and seems far from the threat of the biodiversity [23]. This
finding may justify why people tend to concentrate, and the urban development is expected to
increase nearly to 5 billion by 2030 for the 55% in Asia, particularly China and India [27].
The urban concentration is one aspect of the more complex and dramatic problem of
emigration from the people living in the “South of the World” toward the “North of the
World”. Most of the humans seems to be attracted by the concentration, which means living
together. This allows LE becoming longer even though is bringing as collateral effect the
increase of YLDs. Aging is associated with a phenomenon of decline and YLD represents this
aspect which is rapidly increasing, since in 1990 it was 537.6 million years and jumped up to
764.8 million in 2013 [6]. Going to the leading diseases that characterize the YLDs one may
discover that low back pain and depressive disorders are in the top 10 diseases in every
country. Should the people afford all this in the hope to live longer? Good point, that would
need a discussion much above the scope of this research. A very short answer can be found in
the Psalm 89 (or 90 in some case) “Our days may come to seventy years or eighty if our
strength endures; yet the best of them are but troubles and sorrow for they quickly pass and
fly away”. Like to say humans have to pay a bill if they want to live longer. Another variable
to be discussed are Cell that was emerging as important in the MCA. Cellular phones are
known to spread more than other modern technology since they are perceived to improve the
livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries.
In 2013 the UN Deputy Secretary-General Jan Eliason declared that “6 billion of people
have mobile phones and only 4.4 billion have access to toilets or latrines [24]. The total
number of cell phones is now exceeding the world population [25] since they are regarded not
only as instruments to communicate but also to make business such as for microenterprise, in
particular where internet is not available [26], offering work to people with little education
and few resources. In conclusion, it seems that the direct correlation between of Cell and LE
is consistent. The variables related to the GDPs were found important determinants in all the
analysis.
They have a dichotomic behavior, since the GDP 1 in terms of LE behaves as a negative
variable whereas GDP 2 and 3 together with the urban concentration have positive effects.
The increase of GDP 2+ GDP 3 corresponds to the decrease of GDP1, which is bound to the
“primary” way to collect resources such as with agriculture, fishing, livestock. More
resources and in more rapid way will be available depending upon the GDP 2 and GDP 3.
The variables GDP/inhab, Cars and Internet should be also focused. GDP/inhab and Cars
mirror respectively the prosperity and the possibility of the independent capacity to move
within the territory.
Internet instead can be considered one of the easiest methods to communicate and collect
information, carrying an extensive range of opportunities and services enabling or
accelerating new forms of personal interactions. Its use grew rapidly in all world, such that as
the average penetration in 2016 reached about 3.68 billion of people (50% of the total world
population). The penetration rate goes from 28.7 of Africa, to 45.6 in Asia, 73.9 in Europe
and 89.0% in North America, almost parallel to the LE growth. The possibility of online
shopping through internet give access to small businesses and entrepreneurs. In short, internet
is a mixed variable containing both aspects of communication and business, which are
directly bound to GPD. The importance of the variables that composed the Factor 2 (GDPs,
Cars and Internet) was confirmed by the Segmentation Analysis indicating that, people living
in countries characterized by Internet > 436 and GRD/inhab > 21633 have a probability of
89% to reach a LE > 77 years. The probability increases up to 98% in those countries with
Cars > 360. The ANN was detecting more information than the stochastic analysis and found
more complex relations among variables. The analysis was confirming that Internet is the
most important determinant since it is the node more directly connected with LE nodes (high
or low). When LE is low, the other node indirectly connected is unemployment, whereas
when LE is high the closest node is GDP 3. The other variables that has been isolated with the
previous analysis (GDP/inhab, Cars, urban population, GDP 1, GDP 2, GDP 2+ GDP3)
seems to have less impact, but still are “indirectly” connected nodes having some influence.
In conclusion the two different analysis, stochastic and non-stochastic, are indicating similar
variables that are determinant for LE: GDPs, Internet and Cars are emerging in every
analysis. There is no simple explanation of why the “classical threats” seems not involved.
Apparently, what can be depicted as the heaven on earth, represented by fresh air, forest,
lucky solitude, health, knowledge, resources coming from the environment, and finally
“unemployment” are not bound to LE. Much more important are resources deriving from a
modern way of leaving, no matter if they are carrying also some troubles.
CONCLUSION
The life expectancy (LE) in 191 countries was compared on the base of 17 demographic
and economic variables. Two approaches were followed: the stochastic and non-stochastic
analysis. The results excluded at least 10 out the 17 variables. The surface covered by Forests,
the Kmq2 of forests, the ratio of the Domestic Gross Profit (GDP) with education, the number
of hospital beds, the particulate matter, the population and the population density were not
considered determinant. What was emerging as directly correlated with LE were internet,
GDPs (GDP/inhab, and GDP 2 and GDP 3 related respectively to the advance industry and
economy), urban concentration, cars and cellphones. An inverse correlation was found with
GDP 1 (related to agriculture, livestock, fishing), The conclusion is that LE in the world is far
from the variables typically bound to the environment and more linked to the economic
variables. At the end a more holistic point of view should be considered: probably Adam and
Eve were kicked out from the Paradise not because of an apple, but to give them the chance to
live longer.
It is a matter of fact that circular economy cannot be applied in every country, since it
needs to be implemented in those countries where a complex of factors can be modified and
generate stereotypes which than can be transferred to the rest of the world, aimed to an
evolution and not as a fashion or even worse a revolution.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Funding: No funding was requested for this study.
Author contributions: UC and GB conceived the study and collected all the data; UC and
MR were making the calculation for the stochastic analysis; EG was applying the non
stochastic Neuronal Network Analysis (ANN); UC and GB wrote the paper.
Competing interests: There are no competing interests.
Data and material availability: All the data are available upon request to the corresponding
author (in the form of excel files).
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of the global burden of disease attributable to outdoor pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol.
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[16] Lippmann, M., Chen, L.C., Gordon, T. et al. (2013) National Particle Component
Toxicity (NPACT) initiative: integrated epidemiologic and toxicologic studies of the
health effects of particulate matter component. Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst. 177, 5-13.
[17] Crouse, D.L., Peters, P.A., Brook, J.R. et al. (2015) Ambient PM2.5, O3, and NO2
exposures and associations with Mortality over 16 years of follow-up in the Canadian
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exceptional aging, and rate of centenarians: a nationwide analysis of the United States,
1980- 2010. Environ. Health Perspect. 124: 1744-1750.
[19] Henschel, S., Atkinson, R., Zeka, A. et al. (2012). Air pollution and their impact on
public health. Int. J. Public Healt 57: 757-768.
[20] Adams, K., Greenbaum, D.S., Shaikh, R. et al. (2015) Particulate matter components,
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[26] Lynn, J. Mobile phones help lift poor out of the poverty: UN study News Centre March
October 14 2010.
Chapter 2
CIRCULAR AND GREEN ECONOMY:

WHICH IS THE DIFFERENCE?
Pierfrancesco Morganti1,2, and Gianluca Morganti3

1
Academy of History of Health Care Art, Rome, Italy
2
China Medical University, Shenyang, China
3
ISCD R&D Nanoscience Center, Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT
In the billion year of earth history all the planet' living organisms functioned by
natural equilibrate cycles based of a thermodynamic autonomy and interchanging energy
and matter with their environment. Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it is
transformed: it is always constant. Nature doesn't produce significant amount of waste
that is impossible or very difficult to decompose or lay out for many years. Only humans
create wastage materials! Human ecosystems, in fact, being unbalanced are producing a
high quantity of municipal and industrial waste that became day by day a tough managing
problem. The majority of waste is represented first of all from food lost and non-
recyclable plastics invading lands and oceans in addition to yard trimmings and
electronics. Thus, the so called 3Rs, such as the reduction, recycling and reuse of each
product help to cut down the amount of waste we throw away, saving money and land,
according to the green circular economy. This means a new way of operating and living
not only the industrial mode of production, but also the lifestyle and, therefore, the way
by which consumers use food and goods. The paper tries to persuade the readers in the
necessity to leave the linear economy which can be briefly described as the modality to
produce and use products which release in the environment waste and dangerous
pollution. On the contrary, the circular economy considers waste a source useful to
produce new manufacturing goods or to update what was previously used. According to
some international organizations, this new approach will permit a more sustainable global
development reducing people living in poverty and giving them the "currently denied
fundamental rights and freedom." Moreover, it will strengthen the general well-being,

Corresponding Author’s Email: pierfrancesco.morganti@iscd.it.
18 Pierfrancesco Morganti and Gianluca Morganti
promoting sustainable urban and peri-urban development and preserving natural raw
materials, environment and the earth biodiversity for the future generations.
Keywords: circular economy, green economy, recycling, waste, pollution, sustainability,

environment, food systems, innovation, green cities
INTRODUCTION
In natural ecosystems the flow of materials and energy are perfectly and strictly regulated
to guarantee the planet species’ evolution without production of waste. For 4.5 million years
the Earth functioned by a circular principle based on the natural cycles according to the well -
known saying attributed to Lavoisier, "nothing is lost, nothing is created and everything is
transformed." Contrariwise, in human ecosystems this equilibrium has been disrupted and
both production and consumption leaves a huge variety of increasing waste which invades the
environment by toxic materials. Thus, the necessity to organize a more sustainable
development for guaranteeing preservation of the natural ecosystems for the future
generations [1]. This result would be obtained by the 3R principles of circular economy
(reduce, reuse, recycle) reported also as 5R (by the inclusion of remanufacture and repurpose)
or 9R as reported in Figure 1 [2, 3].
Figure 1. Linear Economy versus the 9R Circular Economy (by the courtesy of UN).
Circular and Green Economy: Which Is the Difference? 19
All these principles, enabling to increase the product level efficiency, reduce waste
generation, safeguarding the natural raw material. Also if through different school of thought,
the circular economy is a restorative and regenerative industrial system, where products and
processes are redesigned to maximize the value of resources with the aim and hope to
decouple economic growth in few years (Figure 2) [3-5].
Figure 2. Circular Economy as a regenerative system (by courtesy of Ellen MacArthur Foundation [5]).
Thus, according to the United Nations Environment program [4], it has been estimated
that, by this new way of producing and living, the yearly greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
could be reduced between 79% and 99%. Moreover, it has been supposed that the value-
retention processes (VRPs) of circular economy could create new demand and opportunity for
skilled labor, favoring and improving all the industrial sectors [4]. The VRPs, in fact, based
on remanufacturing, refurbishing, reusing and repairing each product, enables its retention
value, creating new value for both the producer and customer, at a reduced environmental
impact. "Companies, therefore can unlock the substantial benefits of VRPs through a
combination of product redesign, developing performance such as based business models,
scaling-up reverse-logistics and collaboration across sectors and along the value chains" [4].
As a consequence, the adoption of VRPs would reduce the new material input requirements
together with the embody material energy and emissions. These new methodologies would
reduce the energy needs in the production processes, cutting the consequential production
waste. Moreover VRPs, creating jobs and offset labor costs, could also increase the
opportunity of exportation. It has been estimated, for example, that "resource efficiency
improvements all along the value chains could reduce material inputs from 17% to 24% by
2030, while a better use of resources could represent for European industry an overall saving
potential of €630 billion per year" [2]. In addition to overcoming the market barriers, waste
prevention, eco-design, reuse, and recycle could bring a European business net savings of €
600 billion.
LINEAR AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Which the difference between linear and circular economy? In the linear economy the
only source of value is the product and the profit is determined by the difference between the
product' final market price and the production cost. Thus, to increase profit, companies try to
sell as much as possible, reducing all the productive and distributive' chain costs. The
innovation is used only to stimulate costumer for buying new products. In fact, to repair the
old ones isdifficult and time and money consuming! The consequence is the production of
waste without limits! On the contrary, by the circular economy the producer has to guarantee
not only the product longevity, but also its reusing, repairing possibility, with the final
recycling. So doing, the safeguard of economic and environmental resources with the
consequential social benefits, will be increased (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Linear economy versus circular economy with the relative benefits (by the courtesy of EU
[8]).
Naturally, to repair, reuse, restructure and regenerate the final product, a correct eco-
design project is required, guaranteeing its post-use circularity also [6]. At this purpose, "the
global community has to work collectively and individually to serve societal needs... at the
best," to transform the actual linear economy to the circular ones [6]. The circular green
economy requires, in fact, fundamental changes in the production-consumption systems such
as a better food use, people mobility and energy consumption and housing. For such
transition profound changes in "dominant institutions practices, technologies, policies,
lifestyles and thinking" are believed necessary [7-9]. At this purpose, the European 7th
Environment Action program has given "appropriate signals to producers and consumers for
promoting resource efficiency" [8, 9] and changing the lifestyle system by the circular
economy, with the aim to achieve the 2050 vision of "living well within the limits of our
planet" [7-9]. As a consequence, the circular economy would certainly provide positive
effects on actual waste/pollution, reducing the GHG emissions, balancing land recycling and
ameliorating urban development and infrastructure, as well as to bettering place-based
management, water consume and green energy. However, it is not to be forgotten the
important role of forests and green cities, because plants consume daily the dangerous carbon
oxide, emitting into the air the precious oxygen, indispensable for human living. Reforesting
and making the cities greener, therefore, are other important objectives of the circular
economy. A sustainable development and better social-ecological systems, in fact, have to
"meet the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their needs" [2, 3].
Unfortunately, both level of air pollution and releases of nutrients from agriculture and
wastewater remain too high, causing acidification and eutrophication in ecosystems, so that
the global climate continue to change with loss in the planet biodiversity. Currently the most
important impact of air pollution in the environment and biodiversity is, in fact,
eutrophication caused by airborne nitrogen deposition to ecosystems, as well as the use of
chemical fertilizers in cropland and the incorrect pastures. However according to the new
rules adopted by the circular economy, the nitrogen oxide emissions decreased in Europe by
approximately 42% between 2000 and 2016 [10]. On the other hand due to the worldwide
crisis further raised by the COVID-19 pandemic, the economic growth is slowing worldwide,
eroding also food production and security. As a consequence social inequality and poverty are
notably increasing, contributing to the 25 per cent of diseases and deaths, attributable to
environmental causes [7, 8]. Thus, increasing the resource efficiency and enhancing the
ecosystem resilience by the circular economy is considered essential to sustain the socio-
economic progress in a world of finite resources.
Food and Plastic Waste
Municipal waste, food and plastic production and consume, solid waste collection
represents one of the major problems of urban and rural areas worldwide, first of all, due to
the recovered heterogeneous material (Figure 4) [11].
Its management, in fact, requires solutions financially sustainable, technically feasible,
socially and legally acceptable and environmentally friendly [12]. Regarding both waste
produced and recycled, the major problem to solve is the high quantity of food lost and the
different types of non-recyclable plastics wich, especially used as packaging, represents for
humans and animals the more dangerous pollutant accumulating in the environment. Just to
better understand the problem, roughly one-third of the edible parts of food produced for
human consumption is globally lost during its supply chain, representing about 1.3 billion ton
per year i.e., 95-115 kg/ year/pro capita in EU and USA and 6/11kg/year in sub-Saharian
Africa and South/Southeast Asia.[13]. This not eaten food not only is lost as aliment, while
hundreds of millions of people remain undernourished, but produces also a carbon footprint
that, estimated to 3.3 Gigatonnes of CO2, represents the third top emitter after USA and China
(Figure 5).
This wastage is, therefore, also a great economical loss for the global economy, estimated
in US$ 680 billion in industrialized countries and US$ 310 billion in developing countries.
Regarding production and consume of non-biodegradable plastics the problem of their
eventual recycling and reusing is more complex and difficult to solve because the living
micro-organisms of both animals and environment haven't the enzymes for catabolize these
synthetic polymers. Moreover, the majority of the plastic containers are often realized by
different types of polymers, impossible to separate each other and to recycle. As a
consequence, "95% of plastic packaging material for a value or US$ 80-120 billion/year is
lost to the economy, after a short first use" [14]. However, 72% of this plastic material is not
recovered at all: 40% is landfilled and 32% is often illegally dumped or mismanaged as the
reported overview in Figure 6 [14, 15].
It has been estimated also that at least 5.25 trillion individual plastic particles (i.e.,
~269,000 tons) are floating on or near the ocean's surface, remaining in land and oceans as
dangerous pollutants. Moreover, plastics without being littered, release in land and water
toxic compounds used in their manufacture, such as bisphenols and phthalates, acting as
disrupted of endocrine system in terrestrial, aquatic animals and humans [16]. Thus, given the
prohibitive cost to remove this particular waste, the solution is focused on preventing its
improper disposal, limiting its use or, alternatively producing and using biodegradable
bioplastics. However, the reuse and recycling of both food, plastics and their relative waste
materials has become a must for our society.
Figure 4. Waste materials ~50 of which is represented from trimmings, food and plastics (by courtesy
of UNEP [11]).
Figure 5. Food loss is China and the third GHG emissions emitter after USA (by courtesy of World
Resources Institute).
Figure 6. Total plastic production and waste (by courtesy of Ellen MacArthur Foundation [5]).
CIRCULAR AND GREEN ECONOMY

Which is the difference between circular economy and green economy? According to the
European Environmental Agency (EEA) [8, 9], the circular economy represents the greatest
part of the green economy, which fundamentally deals with the human welfare. On the one
hand, circular economy refers to an industrial model based on waste management, waste
prevention and resource efficiency (Figure 7) [17].
Figure 7. Circular economy versus green economy (by the courtesy of EU [8]).
Reuse, recycle, and regeneration of the raw materials obtained by waste is, therefore, the
main objective to achieve, alternatively their extraction from natural products. On the other
hand, as previously reported, the green economy has the objective to preserve the natural raw
materials but is also focused on an extensive and inclusive human well-being able to preserve
the planet' natural capital and natural ecosystems generating increasing prosperity. Thus
according to UNEP [18], the green economy can be defined as an evolving economic system
based on the production, distribution of goods and services for obtaining human well-being
and social equity in the long period, while environmental risks and ecological scarcities are
significantly reduced for the future generations, safeguarding the planet ecosystems. Adopting
these new rules between 2000 and 2017, the EU resource productivity (i.e., economic output
per unit of material used) has been increased by 39% with declined consumption of fossil
fuels by 21%, forecasting to further increase by 14% between 2014 and 2030 (Figure 8) [19].
Improvements in resource efficiency, therefore, resulted in a lower consumption of
materials, a better economic development and a global increased competitiveness,
fundamentally obtained by investments in innovation [20]. The improvement of productivity,
in fact, is necessary to increase competitiveness and secure access to raw materials and
energy, with a contemporary lowering pressure on the environment by the use of waste
materials. About the resource productivity by country, Switzerland in EU has the top position
followed by Netherland, UK, Luxembourg and Italy pollution and GHG emissions [20].
Figure 8. EU resource productivity and domestic material consumption 2000-2017 (by courtesy of EU
[8]).
Pollution and GHG Emissions
However, according to the 2018 Environmental indicator report, while the EU's natural
capital is not jet being protected, some resource efficiency improvements has been obtained.
Unfortunately, the overall environmental impact of production and consumption has been not
sufficiently reduced. Thus, while the global emissions of air and water pollutants have been
substantially reduced, in EU's urban areas persist air and noise pollution with the chronic
exposure of the population to complex mixture of chemicals, such as nitrogen dioxides, dust
particles, ozone and nitrogen [21]. At this purpose, it is to remember that 75% of the natural
resource consumption occurs in cities which produce 50% of the global waste and 60-80% of
GHG emissions. As a consequence, EU air pollution is estimated to cause 400,000 premature
deaths per year [22]. Cities are therefore the major cause of resource depletion, environmental
degradation and climate change so that, "emissions in air are the major concern worldwide
due to its direct consequence on human health" [22]. Unfortunately and probably for these
reasons, the total GHG emissions and energy consumption in EU households increased while
nitrogen losses from agricultural land did not decreased further between 2010 and 2014,as for
prevision of the EU Programs. These results may be accounted for the different performances
registered between Member States for promoting waste management and recycling [22]. Only
six Members, for example, have effectively eliminated landfilling of municipal waste,
reducing it from 90% to less than 5% in the past 20 years, reaching recycling rate of
85%,while in the others over 90% of waste is still landfilled and less than 5%recycled [22,
23]. However, the overall rate of EU recycling (material recycling, composting and digestion)
increased from 31% in 2004 to 45% in 2016 (Figure 9) [22, 23].
Thus, the necessity to rethink the key actual urban systems such as a new way to make
buildings and live the cities mobility by introducing, for example, a greener innovative
circular economy is still exists. The Social Challenge of the EU Work Program for 2018-2020
is, therefore, focused on the realization of a greener and more efficient economy in agreement
with and supporting the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and the targets of the COP21
Paris Agreement (www.unfccc.int/paris_agreement/item/9485.phpa) [22, 23]. It has been

estimated, in fact, that improving the efficiency along the whole value chain could reduce
need for material inputs by 17-24% by 2030, representing an overall savings potential of €
630 billion per year for the European manufacturing industry [22, 23, 24]. Thus the new EU
work program, therefore, is based on six priorities: (a) Climate action in support of the Paris
Agreement; (b) circular economy; (c) raw materials; (d) water, economy and society (e);
innovation cities; (f) protection of cultural assets value. In addition, specific attention is paid
to climate change and cooperation with key international partners [22].
Figure 9. Proportion of municipal waste treated by different methods in EU (By courtesy of EEA [14]).
CIRCULAR ECONOMY AND INNOVATION

It is interesting to underline that by the circular-green economy all the scientists are
trying to solve the same problems which were at the base of the Club of Rome's project, the
ideas and proposals of which were published on 1972 by a booklet: The limits to Growth
[25]. By the project of this restrict group of 70 multidisciplinary scientists, coming from
twenty five Countries and gathered in the year 1968 in the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome,
were established the first cyclical economic models. In that occasion it was examined and
tried to solve "the complex of problems troubling men of all nations : poverty in the midst of
plenty; degradation of the environment; loss of faith in institutions; alienation of youth;
rejection of traditional values; inflation and other monetary disruptions." Unfortunately the
today problems are still the same world-wide! The hope is the possibility to start solving them
by the Circular-green economy representing nevertheless only 9.1% of the global world
economy, after 40 years from Rome's club! [6]. However, apart the different economic and
ecological perspectives, reported by many popular and scientific papers and scholarly studies
on the circular-green economy, its realization is considered fundamental for the majority of
scientists to preserve the integrity of our Planet. The majority of ideas and proposals to
achieve the target of a sustainable green economy have been based on seven key elements [6]:
(a) Prioritize Regenerative Resources; (b) Preserve and Extend What's Already Made; (c) Use
Waste as Resource; (d) Rethink the Business Model; (e) Design for the Future; (f) Incorporate
Digital Technology; and (g) Collaborate to Create Joint Value (Figure 10) [6].
Figure 10. The seven key elements of the Green-Circular economy [by the courtesy of circle-
economy.com).
Figure 11. Four pillars of sustainability (by the courtesy of Anne Taufen Wessels [27]).
With the many difficulties to overcome and without claiming to offer a definitive
solution, these new models of thinking and operating can help us to realize the circular-green
economy whilst safeguarding the economic development and preserving both natural capital
and the limited amounts of raw materials of the planet. However, it is to underline that vision
and objectives of this innovative economy are not based to slow down the current economic
growth nor to diminish the benefits for the end users. On the contrary, it is to be considered a
process of innovation, transformation of business models, and resources saving, based on the
worldwide collaborations by new ideas and innovation between industries and customers
[26]. It is, therefore, a new virtuous economic mean able to preserve natural capital, pursuing
economic growth by the four pillars of sustainability (Figure 11) [27].
Waste Recycling and Research
Despite the higher GDP of both USA and EU estimated about US$ 14 trillion and US$ 16
trillion respectively and depending almost entirely from fossil fuels, new rules are fortunately
in progress and at the center of the international debate to build more sustainable economies
[28], as previously reported. An example of these debates may be the meeting of the United
Nations University held in Maastricht, Holland, on July 2018, where researchers,
policymakers and students of UN and university discussed on the Science, Innovation,
Technology and Engagement as the sustainable pillar goals of Circular Economy (Figure 12)
[29].
Figure 12. The goals of the sustainable development discussed in Maastricht (by the courtesy of Armani
SV [29]).
Figure 13. Skyscrapers in Milano (Italy) made according to the circular economy approach.
To achieve the goal of a green economy possibly at zero waste, in fact, it seems necessary
not only to completely innovate the industrial production and distribution chains, but also to
increase, by school and mass media, education and training for a better understanding of the
sustainability's significance and purposes Research and Knowledge, in fact, lead to intensify
and bettering both production processes and services, helping countries to complete and
integrate them into the global marketplace [22]. Thus for example, a major use of the so-
called white biotechnology, based on the support of enzymes and micro-organisms, would be
able to improve the industrial processes for creating products with novel-value-added,
generating little or no waste [30]. At this purpose, the European Research Council [22] are
supporting fundamental research studies through investments of € 650 million under Horizon
2020 and € 5.5 billion under the Structural Funds, in order to address the transition from a
linear to a circular economy. Among the target to achieve the provisional results, there is the
necessity to boost, reuse, and recycling municipal waste to a minimum of 65% and increase
the recycling rate for packaging waste to 75% by 2030 [22]. The respective goals will be a
binding landfill reduction of 10% by 2030 and a further development of markets for the
obtained high quality secondary raw materials, useful to increase the business confidence.
However, many of the EU measures have the aim to promote reparability, durability of
products, along with energy efficiency, to boost use of organic and waste-based natural
fertilizers and support both role of bio-nutrients and wastewater reuse. Additionally, it is to
underline the strategy on plastics addressed to its recyclability and biodegradability, by the
use of biodegradable polymers and the elimination of hazardous substances from the
productive process to obtain a sustainable development with the goal to significantly reduce
and possibly eliminate the marine littering [12, 14, 15]. All these innovative processes will
help to decarbonize industry, making it more efficient and sustainable, thus boosting the
European competitiveness. As examples of the EU Research studies done and in loges, it is to
remember, for example, the Lipid project which developed innovative materials harnessing
the sun's power to clean up air and water; the Eco2Co2 project which developed a low cost
method to turn carbon dioxide into fine chemicals for products such as perfume or flavorings,
ProSum which developed secondary raw materials from building mine waste and BAMB
projects that reports pilot projects for more green and smart cities (Figure 13) [31] or n-
Chitopack and PolyBioSkin projects which realized respectively, transparent, bacteriostatic
and compostable films for food packaging [32] or surgical and beauty masks (Figure 14) [34]
and hard containers (Figure 15) [33] for medical and cosmetic purpose, all produced by the
use of chitin nanofibrils and nano-lignin and other polysaccharide polymers obtained from
waste biomass [35, 36].
Figure 14. Biodegradable Film (on top) and non-woven tissue made according to the Circular economy
approach (by the courtesy of Morganti et al. [32]).
Figure 15. Hard and soft containers made according to the circular approach (By the courtesy of Cinelli
et al. [33]).
CONCLUSION
As previously amply focused, circular-green economy represents the actual hope to
achieve more sustainable productive processes and a novel way of living, to generate
increasing prosperity, maintaining the natural raw materials and biodiversity of our planet
(Figure 16).
Figure 16. The Green Economy and circular economy approach(by courtesy of EC [31]).
This novel economical concept requires an interactive and multi-disciplinary approach,

involving experts in material, mechanical and biomedical engineering, molecular cell biology,
in architecture, bioethics, regulatory affairs, business administration, commercialization and
marketing, and naturally in new economic systems. However, at the base of the circular-green
economy there is first of all the necessity to involve, bio-nanotechnologies and digital
technologies to develop, use and store the relative industrial processes. On the one hand,
nano-biotechnology as the convergence of engineering and molecular biology, is the branch

of nanotechnology applied by biological structures and biochemical means [37, 38]. On the
other hand digital technology is an electronic discipline that has risen to be an important"
critical determinant of economic growth, national, security, and international
competitiveness... having also a profound influence on the world's societal wellbeing" [39,
40]. For these reasons, the electronic technology also plays an important role in the transition
towards the Circular-green Economy. In fact, bio-nanotechnology and digital technology deal
with the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers or tools which could recorder matter
on a molecular or atomic scale, mimicking the natural systems [37, 38]. By these novel
techniques, therefore, it may be possible to realize the circular-green economy, utilizing the
great advancements in molecular biosciences and biotechnology obtained during the last
twenty years. All the methodologies, necessary to recycle products or to made them by waste
agro-forestry biomass or industrial by-products, in fact, are based on environmental friendly
biodegradation processes, delivered from the molecular biology and the relative
biotechnological systems [35, 36]. Thus, waste materials could be drastically reduced, if used
on a global scale by bio-based production, as reported by the circular bio-economy. As a
consequence supply and value chains have the opportunity to be developed more locally,
instead to be originated at the sources of fossil feedstocks with subsequent transportation
across oceans and lands, to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions [22, 31].
However, as bio-based production is often still more expensive than fossil-based ones, a new
generation of R&D companies and research laboratories are necessary to create jobs much
closer to biomass feedstocks. As a consequence, new skill workers, specialized technicians
and bio-based experts will be required on a large scale from school and university, involving
also the political class to take the right decisions through interventions and regulatory
initiatives of public acceptance. As has been previously reported, in fact, education and
training result "increasingly important in a globalized and knowledge driven economy, where
a skilled work force is necessary to complete in terms of productivity, quality, and
innovation" [23-28]. Additionally, key stakeholders, workers, mass media and consumers
need to be involved in the transition from the linear to the circular bio-economy [22, 31].
They have to better understand the necessity to change the way of producing, consuming,
living and thinking for maintaining the natural raw materials for the incoming generations,
respecting the planet biodiversity also. A clear reply showing the necessity of a more strict
collaboration among industries, consumers and politicians may be given looking to the actual
production and use of plastics and bio-plastics. Depending on the consumers demand, in fact,
the global plastics size was evaluated US$ 522.66 billion in 2017 expanding at a mean CAGR
of ~ 4% and expected to reach US$ 721.14 billion by 2025 [41]. About half of this plastic
material is used for packaging purpose with a very low percentage of recycling (Figure 17)
[42].
However, its ubiquitous use, such as consumer packaging, healthcare, textiles, food,
beverages, etc. has been contributing to the generation of a huge volume of plastic waste with
the greatest production of polyethylene as main plastic component (Figure 18) [42].
Figure 17. Plastic packaging polymer, its use and relative percentage of recycling (by courtesy of
Lemonick [42].
Figure 18. Global Plastic Packaging 2014-2020 (by courtesy of Zion Research Analysis [43].
In term of location most of the plastic material manufacturers are located in the Asia-
Pacific region (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Locations of the plastic manufacturers by region (by courtesy of Plastics Europe-Worldwide
Institute).
On the other hand the global bioplastic market was evaluated US$ 21.126 million in
2017, and is projected to reach US$ 68.577 million by 2024 with a provisional CARG of~
30% to 2030 (Figure 20) [43-45] with the major increase in Europe especially due to the
adopted and adopting new rules and the changing way of living of consumers.
Figure 20. Global plastic market versus bioplastic.
However, on the one hand, as reported from OECD[46],the green growth, supported by
the development of circular/bioeconomy policies and research (Figure 21), is fostering
development, ensuring resources and environmental services on which our well-being relies.
Figure 21. Investments in R&D during the period 2000-2015 (by courtesy of Henry-Nickie et al. [39]
and National Science Foundation [40]).
On the other end the necessity for a better balance between upstream R&D that would be
more laboratory based, and downstream research activities that need to create an industrial
ecosystem, without creating overlaps and duplication. Thus, all productive bioprocesses and
energy policies would be standardized around the world, together with better control over
existing practices of illegal trade in important secondary raw materials flows. In conclusion,
"the conservative use of the worldwide available resources is a key challenge for business,
politics, and society" as well as a novel way for "expanding economic growth to emerging
and developing countries." So doing the worldwide poverty will be reduced by the use of a
global sustainable development, an increase of R&D innovation, and a change of the citizens'
domestic expenditures [22-32, 40, 46]. This the common objectives of EU, OECD, and UN
which are based on the actual policy of six key entry points: human wellbeing and
capabilities; sustainable and just economies; food systems and nutrition patterns; energy
decarbonization and universal access; urban and peri-urban development and global
environmental commons (Figure 22) [31, 46, 47].
Figure 22. The 6 fundamental points of a sustainable development (by the courtesy of UN [42]).
To meet these targets, governance, economy & finance, science & technology, individual
& collective action have to deploy all together. The Circular-Green Economy is going on this
direction.
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PART II. BUILDING BLOCKS OF
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Chapter 3
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

OF INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS
Sophie Hennequin* and Daniel Roy

University of Lorraine, LGIPM, Metz France
ABSTRACT
To explore the concept of industrial symbiosis proposed thirty years ago by R. A.
Frosch and N. E. Gallopoulos, we conduct a bibliometric analysis of published research
works, capturing more than 100 articles. In this way, an analysis of existing
implementation and improvement proposals is carried out, such as the development and
study of possibilities offered, both in a theoretical and practical framework considering
real industrial applications. To simply describe the principle of industrial symbiosis, we
can start from the definition of biological symbiosis, which namely refers to a close,
long-term interaction between two different species, from the Greek συμβίωσις: living
together. This biological symbiosis, studied since the end of the 19th century, inspired
recently many developments that highlighted all possible relationships between firms in
industrial parks, whatever their characteristics, to improve their environmental
performance, more precisely the waste management and resources use, by cost-effective
actions. In this chapter, we therefore detail these works and research orientations in order
to emphasize the benefits of drawing inspiration from nature by setting up industrial
symbioses into industry but also by pointing out the limitations and main difficulties
encountered. We specify the different approaches and methodologies used as well as the
tools developed to facilitate the implementation of industrial symbioses and their
perpetuation over time. We conclude by developing the perspectives around the concept
of symbiosis and the future avenues of research.
Keywords: industrial symbiosis, eco-industrial parks, environmental, economic and social

benefits, waste optimization, materials and energy exchange
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: sophie.hennequin@univ-lorraine.fr.
44 Sophie Hennequin and Daniel Roy
INTRODUCTION
The concept of industrial symbiosis (IS), an industrial ecology subfield stated in 1989 in
[1], is defined as an industrial system which “in addition to minimizing waste production in
processes, would maximize the economical use of waste materials and of products at the ends
of their lives as inputs to other processes and industries” [2]. R. A. Frosch [2] drew a parallel
between industrial and natural ecosystems, trying to ensure that industrial ecosystems reuse
matters and wastes to reduce the need in raw materials coming from Earth resources. To
briefly describe, industrial symbiosis corresponds to an organization of industrial entities so
that the unused outputs (used water, steam, heat, waste) of some processes of those entities
can serve as inputs (energy, water, raw materials after transformation or not) for some
processes of other entities [3] or more generally for other entities, which allows this concept
to be registered as a model for circular economy. Applying this concept at the scale of a small
industrial area gives rise to eco-industrial parks and networks that exchange materials and
realize collective sustainable benefits for firms and states [4].
The first full realization of an industrial symbiosis has been located in Kalundborg in
Denmark to reduce both costs and to lessen environmental impact on the community. The
involved companies have learned how to use each other's waste to create viable commercial
products [5]. Indeed, IS allows converting business problems (like trying to catch any
potentially hazardous waste or too costly to transform/treat) into a potential revenue stream
by finding ready buyers and increasing profits coming from gains in recycling, reduction in
greenhouse gases emissions and of course resource saving [6]. However, it was noted that a
close proximity of the firms involved in the IS is necessary and known as an initial driving
force for exchange flows [7]. This proximity depends on the geographical distance but also on
the mental distance of each engaged actor [8]. Furthermore, the evolutionary characteristics
and dynamic behavior of direct (facilitating companies and industries) and indirect
(governments) actors can greatly facilitate or on the contrary prevent the implementation of
an industrial symbiosis and its sustainability over time [9]. While the case of Kalundborg
(still in operation for decades) emphases IS's principles can be efficient and work, the various
stakeholders must propose methods, tools, exchange on best practices, etc. in order to develop
a viable generic implementation model.
This chapter presents the main achievements and research works, and sketches out future
challenges to shaping ISs and paving the way towards a climate-neutral circular economy
[10-11] where pressure on natural resources including freshwater as well as ecosystems is
minimized. It will be divided into 3 main parts as described below. First, we will define the
principle of industrial symbiosis, its functioning and advantages, and main challenges. To do
this, we will start from a concrete implemented case, the well-known Kalundborg’s one and
the analyses carried out. This allows us to highlight the main difficulties of implementation in
time and space. Once the complete characterization of the IS’s principle has been defined, we
will focus in a second part on describing the different models defined, as well as the projects
currently being developed around the world and the pursued objectives, whether or not they
are achieved. Finally, we will conclude by presenting some research avenues to guide future
activities in terms of industrial symbiosis and the applications that can result from it.
Past, Present and Future of Industrial Symbiosis 45
PAST OF INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS

In this section, we begin with the principle of industrial symbiosis (IS), first definitions
and prospective models, bounding IS in time and space by introducing the development of
eco-industrial parks. At this point, it is important to precise that it was early implemented
following local political willing before becoming a field of study. Therefore, we will present
the well-known case of Kalundborg in Denmark developed since the 1960’s [12]. This well-
known IS case highlights that IS has been initially developed in an empirical way before
becoming a scholarly field with a clear codification [13]. Then, we detail how IS can improve
environmental and economic benefits. We also give the main limitations encountered and
strategies deployed to address them. In addition, the study of industrial applications extended
from American eco-industrial parks [14-15] to Asian industrial cases [16], allow us to
describe how this transition was made, with which methods and approaches, analyzing both
environmental [17] and economic benefits [18] and the different tools used to assess these
performances.
Principle of Industrial Symbiosis
The principle of industrial symbiosis is inspired by the relationships and exchanges

between living species within biological symbiosis, defined by naturalists in the 1870s and
1880s as a "mutualization" between different species for a common benefit [19-20].
Furthermore, in this living together strategy, Nature does not proceed by a rigid scheme in the
role. It assigns to each specie, but It adapts to the particular relationships and needs in each
case [19]. It should be noted here that the different identified biological symbioses are
between a very small number of species (usually two) even if the number of individuals per
specie can be very large.
With this in mind, at least two or more independent firms can mutualize by exchanging
materials, energy or information and thus achieve mutual gain. The individual benefit may be
economic, environmental and/or societal in nature, but industrial symbiosis mainly aims
reducing the collective environmental weight of firms in a given territory. The development
and reuse of a by-product, waste, water, or available energy (for example heat or steam) thus
allows an environmental gain while presenting new business opportunities for symbiotic
firms. This biomimicry [21] therefore leads to a reconsideration of the productive system by
abandoning a usual linear vision (strong pressure of human activities on the biosphere thus
jeopardizing its functioning) in favor of a more circular vision of flows with reuse at the end
of the cycle. This is also the basis of the principle of circular economy within an ecosystem in
which closed loops of industrial production are implemented in order to have circular
industrial production routines. The possibilities of an entity (simply a plant) to achieve
symbiotic synergies are illustrated through its synergistic potential in an industrial ecosystem
(therefore, in the absolute, not limited to a geographically confined area [22]).
The particularity of IS (unlike industrial ecology and circular economy) comes from the
fact that it was physically implemented in the 1960’s before being scientifically defined in the
1990’s. This real implementation was done in Denmark as explained below.
Kalundborg‘s Case
The IS in Kalundborg has been initially built between six processing companies, one
waste handling company and the Municipality of Kalundborg [23-24] starting from a
cooperative project between Saint-Gobain Gyproc and Dansk Veedol in order to construct a
pipeline to deliver gas [7]. The IS has evolved to include more companies today and is one of
the most perfect examples of IS, even if at the beginning the guiding was more focused on
saving resources than on achieving an IS. The philosophy is that the partners exploit each
other’s residual or by-products on a commercial basis, see Figure 1. From this partnership
(with private and public entities), firms share resources (initially the water) and take
advantage of other waste resources as heat, steam and gas. This allows to develop new
opportunities (different resources and waste flows) and to develop closed-loop practices
without central organization.
Figure 1. Flows of materials and energy in Kalundborg.
At the end, this gradual cooperative partnership results into a network that encourages
sustainable collaborative relationships to use each other's by-products and otherwise shared
resources [25] with a high level of environmental consciousness. It has to be noticed that this
project has not been the result of a careful environmental planning process but of the
involvement of participants who are constantly exploring new avenues of environmental
cooperation. The overall consumption of water has been reduced by 25%. Furthermore, 19
thousand tons of oil and 30 thousand tons of coal are saved each year that results in 130
thousand tons of CO2 equivalent reduced. The main observed outcomes are: i) reduced
consumption of resources and environmental strains by cooperation among industries, and ii)
increasing of viability of firms by the continuously cooperation between firms. Furthermore,
based on this case, the more companies are involved, the greater the opportunity for
symbiosis. The case of Kalundborg has been largely studied and commented in the literature
from different point of view. We can cite: organizational [26-28], structural [29-30],
functional with studies related to expected gains in sustainable development [31-33] and of
exchanged flows [34] in most cases at a strategic/tactical level. All these studies highlight its
potential and thus promote the implementation of many other more or less successful
applications.
Eco-Industrial Parks and the Role of IS
Most serious environmental problems (air and water pollution, solid waste accumulation
and disposal of toxic and hazardous wastes) come from transport and industrial processes of
petrochemical plants and refineries, metal smelters, chemical industries, heating and
electricity generation... but not only. These pollutions result in diseases, very costly for
countries and firms, pushing governments to define strategies (taxes, standards,
environmental laws…) to force enterprises to find ways to limit their environmental impacts.
However, small and medium-sized companies, especially in developing countries, are not
able to define their own pollution control systems. For such companies, IS could be an
interesting way of reducing environmental impacts as was the case in Kalundborg. Even if, in
this case, it is not a developing country and concerns more large groups, but it can serve as an
example for deployments in such contexts.
Since this first promising implementation, the United Nations with its United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) program has helped, early in the 1970’s,
many countries (Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Iraq, Nigeria, Peru, Vietnam, China and Kazakhstan to
cite few of them) to develop sustainable projects and set guidelines for green industrial park
consideration, construction and management [35]. With this in mind, a green industrial park,
or an eco-industrial park (EIP), is defined as [36]: “a community of manufacturing and
service businesses seeking enhanced environmental and economic performance through
collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues, including energy, water, and
materials… The goal of an EIP is to improve the economic performance of the participating
companies while minimizing their environmental impact”. De facto, in an EIP, an industrial
symbiosis can exist between small and medium-sized companies in order to limit the
consumption of non-renewable resources by moving towards a more eco-friendly solution,
such as waste recycling and the use of alternative raw materials. An EIP is considered as an
industrial ecosystem in which communities of companies exist, allowing the appearance of an
IS such as in a biological ecosystem: a company may not find an interest in its own waste, but
this waste could be used as a raw material for another company [3]. Thus, EIPs could include
IS since they allow to obtain economic benefits and new business opportunities, reducing
environmental impacts (like greenhouse gas emissions, scarcity of natural resources and
waste), but also other elements as using renewable energy and green buildings.
In accordance with these principles, EIPs all around the world have been developed. The
direct environmental benefits include reducing greenhouse gas and toxic air emissions,
promoting pollution prevention on the cooperation basis, improving the use of energy and
water, the conservation of materials through short circle loops between firms and reducing of
waste [37]. Furthermore, EIPs allow promoting green technology development and diffusion
and the redevelopment of brown field industrial sites. All this of course makes it possible to
obtain important economic gains such as direct benefits coming from cost savings (reduced
waste management, improved process and product efficiency) and indirect benefits such as
retaining existing business and increasing inducted tax revenue, generating new local
employments from innovative firms and new marketing opportunities [22, 38-39]. This
emphasis is based on resource recovery including energy cascading, and materials exchange,
on a small geographical zone. Industrial symbiosis could then play an important role in the
development of EIPs, but a number of drivers and barriers could happen as described below.
Main Challenges with IS
Close distance between enterprises is very important to improve symbiotic connections

for the transportation of waste/by-products but also for profitable cooperation [40]. Indeed,
the role of geographic proximity is generally considered as an essential component for IS
[13]. In particular, the importance of the intensity of exchanges between companies, the
interdependence in the choices made about recycling and waste reuse processes, the
transformations required in production processes directly raise the question of the
geographical dimension. Consequently, the grouping of companies involved in an EIP is a
considerable asset in the development of inter-industrial trade, insofar as it facilitates the
circulation of material and information flows, while limiting transport costs and transaction
costs related in particular to the search for relevant productive partners [41]. Many studies are
currently focusing on the spatial dimension and its impact on cooperation [42]. In the case of
IS, it is probably also due to the central role played by Kalundborg in the shaping
expectations of IS, or perhaps also to the presumed low value of the waste/by-products
exchanged. However, authors have shown that the distance traveled by a resource in a
synergy does not statistically correlate with the resource value or mass [43]. In China, the EIP
of Tianjin [44] and in USA, the EIP of Choctaw [45], show that an IS can appear also
between more distant enterprises.
The other important key factor is to find options, as to with whom, to form a symbiosis
and what resource(s) to exchange. Generally, authors focus on how to optimize already
identified industrial symbioses within an eco-industrial park [46-47]. However, symbiosis
could be developed also outside the EIP and then offer much more possibilities of exchange
and business opportunities. Indeed, the bounded geographical space should not be a limit to
the symbiosis as we have seen above (even if it is indeed easier to collaborate and mutualize
resources while being close). The only element that can be cleavable in this case could come
from the mental distance and the fact that the common objective is less obvious (even if
sustainable development is holistic). A low mental distance allows, on one hand simple
interactions between individuals and on the other hand easy comprehension between
individuals. One way to achieve this would be, as in the case of Kalundborg, to have actors
already convinced of the importance of acting in terms of sustainable development and
therefore to have a common objective that does not contradict individual objectives. Another
way would be a better understanding of the common overall objective as it is possible in a
given industrial sector (e.g., agro-food, in which case, the spatial restriction is less severe
because the mental distance is smaller). Furthermore, most existing approaches focus on
inputs and outputs of the same type inside the EIP [48]. In this way, they may miss
opportunities and do not facilitate generalization. Initially, in Kalundborg, the objective was
to reduce the water consumption rather than optimize the gypsum inside the IS. Thus, the
identification of inputs and outputs was therefore simple, which is not always the case
depending on the type of firms and the market. Similarly, many works focus on a particular
area to reduce the difficulty like for example in chemical industry [49], construction industry
[50-52] or agro-food [53]. However, even in this case, data collection is not always simple.
Indeed, the structural and functional heterogeneity of the actors (small companies, large
groups) does not facilitate the recovery of homogeneous information (very diverse flows,
variable denomination/characterization of materials, etc.). In addition, competition problems
may arise that does not facilitate the exchange of data (which can be considered as
confidential) and problems of interdependence between companies may distort identification.

Methods exist that can partially facilitate this identification of inputs and outputs for each
concerned company like the Enterprise Input-Output Model which allows to identify all
inputs and outputs of a part of an entity like the production processes, or the entity itself [34].
The last point that can make complex the implementation of industrial symbiosis within
an EIP is the perception of the common objective relatively with individual objectives. We
have already detailed this point, but it deserves to be detailed because of the barriers it can
induce. Of course, the main driver pushing firms to mutualize resources in IS is the potential
economic benefit resulting from this mutualization [54]. Indeed, below a minimum expected
economic gain, companies will not wish to make the effort of cooperation in the IS [55]
especially if the economic advantage of a symbiotic cooperation is lower than the minimum
expected advantage (the company will not start/maintain an IS relationship). The economic
gain corresponds to the difference between costs spent and sales achieved [56]. The sales
depend on products traditionally marketed by the firm but also on sales of waste to other
firms created by IS relationships. The costs depend on purchase costs, transportation costs,
production costs (labor, energy, etc.) and perhaps additional costs required to operate the IS
exchanges (like treatment costs of waste which can arise when a waste need a treatment
process before it can be used as input for other firms inside the IS) minus reduced waste
disposal costs. The treatment can generate supplementary costs since treatments of waste may
require changes in the production process and therefore additional investment costs in
addition to the consumption of energy and materials required for this treatment. To ensure
sustainability, the necessary investments in the production processes require innovating to be
sure to maintain sustainability by reducing the number of materials and energy used without
impacting the quality of products, by-products and waste produced... But these aspects only
concern economic gains, other gains can be obtained resulting from the reduction of
environmental (such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, scarcity of natural resources and
reduction of waste) and social impacts (job creation, reduction of health problems caused by
various pollutants and awareness of the challenges of sustainable development). Although not
directly financial, current thought patterns and societal pressure mean that the gains on these
aspects may well be decisive in determining the willingness to integrate an IS. However,
these gains could be more complex to characterize.
Nevertheless, EIPs have large possibilities of development like site design, park
infrastructure, individual facilities, and shared support services with the help of local
governments, integration of new actors, etc. which can promote and facilitate an industrial
symbiosis strategy [57] and industrial symbiosis can facilitate the management of EIP [58].
Several EIPs are already well developed but most are still in the planning and feasibility
stages [59]. In the same way, several projects concerning industrial symbiosis are defined all
around the world. In the following section, we propose to detail these projects.
PRESENT OF INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS

In this section, we study proposed methods and models offered in the literature to explain
concepts behind the design, the management and the control of IS. We will start from current
implementations and projects in the world to give the main results and orientations. Then, we
will study proposed models from a strategic, tactical and operational levels and methods in
link with the main challenges defined above. Based on the study of these works, we draw a
parallel with industrial ecosystems in order to highlight areas for progress and ways to
increase the propagation of this practice.
Projects and Implementations of IS and EIPs in the World
Real industrial eco-parks and regional industrial symbioses (at a very local range like
Kalundborg in Denmark) have been largely explored around the world [8].
In this way, in North America, when the US President's Council on Sustainable
Development defined eco-parks [60] more than 60 projects have been developed in both the
USA and Canada [61]. We can cite in USA, the Houston Ship Channel in Texas which is an
interesting example of a spontaneously EIP in which the different industries exchanged
materials at a large scale [62]. The projects carried out are more in line with efficient
industrial development with significant economic gains than in a pure circular economy and
IS framework, even if very good results have been obtained [63].
In Mexico, the Altamira-Tampico industrial corridor has been implemented twenty years
ago with success [64]. The authors in their study highlight the importance of stakeholder
involvement in this success but also in a comprehensive approach of the region since the
companies will act also by considering their historical story (industrial culture and
commitments). For a given year, this IS allowed savings 44,820 tons of wastewater, 44,400
tons of carbon dioxide, and 26,720 tons of carbon monoxide. However, this success has not
been sustained over time and some companies involved at the beginning are not yet invested
(as in many other EIP and IS projects). In South America, for the moment to the best of our
knowledge, only one project located in the state of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil was completed. It
aimed to develop waste synergies and by-products between various industries [37]. However,
further efforts are needed to ensure the sustainability of these actions over time.
In Asia, Japan has initiated a national program in 1997 to study possibilities of industrial
symbioses [65-66] and China initiated its first project in 2001 [67], and since then 108
projects are underway [68]. In China, the Guangxi Guitang Group is an example of the
application of the IS to the agro-food industry with the use of by-products of sugar
production, first within a single company, then in a broader network including other sugar
producers in the city of Guitang and sugar cane farmers [69]. The success of this IS is due to
the fact that the first investments were all made within the single company, not between
separate companies, and an important reduction of the urban carbon footprint [70]. From this
single company, an eco-industrial network has been developed, including other sugar
producers and farmers. In Shandong Lubei, another case in China [71], the IS has an
important number of activities between different kind of companies like water and wastewater
companies, thermal power plants, farms, pharmaceutical company, paper company, cement
companies, automobiles and machinery industries, among others. In South Korean, a 15-year
plan has been defined to retrofit existing industrial complexes into eco-parks from 2000 to
2015 [72]. In India, the concept and application of IS facilitates industrial and urban
developments [8]. All projects carried out are generally very ambitious and medium/long
term and therefore the expected results are still pending. We also remark that an important
number of projects focus on technological improvement of manufacturing processes

(including energy).
In Europa, through different funds and guidelines from the European Commission [73]
more than 130 million euros have been invested since 2006 in different research projects
allowing to develop a platform that facilitates the uptake of industrial symbioses by different
actors [74]. To give few examples, in Sweden, an IS network permits to create jobs with 5
new companies and to reduce CO2 emissions through resource sharing [75]. This case
concerns a small number of companies with a very little diversity, since the symbioses are
developed between growers of mushrooms and farmers or between brewers and breeders. In
United Kingdom, several projects have been developed [55] highlighting the importance of
cooperation and therefore the impact on the results of good coordination [76]. In Germany
and Austria, recycling strategy networks are stimulated, based on industries that are not
located on the same site, but that are present in a particular Länder (i.e., an administrative or
geographic region). In the Netherland, the Industrial EcoSystems project initiative including
seven refineries, eleven companies involved in inorganic chemistry and thirteen in petro-
chemistry has been developed in a district of Rotterdam [42]. This project is based on
exchange of residual products between industries in order to obtain both environmental and
economic benefits with a calculated reduction in CO2-emission of 2775 tons per year. In
Italia, some projects have been developed for specific industrial sector as chemical,
automotive, and agro-food industries. In Belgium, at the Herdersbrug Industrial Park, where
the main CO2 emissions are due to energy consumption and the incineration plant, 67% of
total CO2 emissions can be saved with the renewable energy generated in the park. In the
majority of European projects, the impetus of national governments and European support has
made possible to develop strategies to significantly reduce emissions and limit waste, but not
always in a spirit of circular economy and IS, although efforts are currently being made in
this direction [18]. Furthermore, projects are dedicated to specific region and specific
activities like in Finland with forestry activities [77].
In Australia, the national government and a local council developed the Australia's first
eco-industrial estate, named Synergy Park near Brisbane in 1996. The industrial symbiosis
has been limited to two types of resource synergies (based on physical exchanges of materials
or by-products) and utility sharing (shared use of infrastructure to provide process water,
energy, etc., or common treatment of effluents or wastes). From this project, another project
has been launched near Perth [78] with a large regional industrial symbiosis project: the
Kwinana Industrial Area Project. The Kwinana project comprises 47 symbiotic projects
between 22 firms and is well developed until now with for example one of the cogeneration
plants which accepts excess refinery gas from the oil refinery and supplies in return process
steam back to the refinery.
In Africa, eco-industrial projects have been initiated in Egypt and South Africa with the
help of UNO but are still in progress. For some developing countries, IS and EIPs are a very
promising means of economic development and enable these countries to participate in
sustainable development without making too much investment [79-80]. Furthermore, the case
of Beshghardash Region in Bojnourd, Iran [81] allows considering not only environmental
specifications (like the desertification) but also the importance of special cultural
characteristics of the society in order to obtain sustainable development.
The conclusions made by several studies highlight that the most relevant roles in the
industrial symbiosis are, apart the proximity of production plants already mentioned, the
infrastructure, utility, and services availability, the volume and homogeneity of waste, the
limited presence of hazardous materials, the homogeneity (sometimes but rarely
heterogeneity) of industries, geographical characteristics (cultural, social and also the
sustainable development involvement of actors) and finally the number of industries and
processes involved in the IS. Many projects are currently being developed around the world
(especially in China, the USA and the European Community) to define EIPs including
symbiotic synergies. We have not presented all projects in an exhaustive way but the most
studied projects in the reference articles. The different studied cases in literature reflect an
important variety in the size and types of activity involved in IS. However, even on the most
advanced projects, many actions remain to be carried out, such as optimization of IS networks
and synergies, comparative analysis of IS developments to characterize an optimal design,
assessing benefits of IS developments, optimal strategies linked with regional and local
sustainable developments, future trend for IS. Furthermore, these works have very different
approaches in the sense that some are oriented towards a very strategic and upstream vision
(to set up an IS), others are articulated on more tactical activities and the fact of maintaining
an IS over time and finally some works address the operational level of symbiosis. We will
develop these ideas in the following considering the possible levers for improvement.
Improvement Strategies for IS
First, we focus on strategic works which core on the design of an IS. Then, we study the
implementation and sustainability of symbiosis over time and finally describe the levers for
operational improvement of ISs.
Considering the first point, at the strategic level, a physical representation of firms and
links between firms is necessary. It could be obtained by a formal representation of IS
grounded in graph theory [30, 82]. In this case, a network study can be conducted as well as
the links representing the interactions. This study can therefore assess the network itself, but
also its weaknesses and opportunities. However, these studies do not really take into account
the social dimension of the network. Another important point is correlated with collaboration
within diverse multi-stakeholder groups [27]. To study these collaborations, two main
directions are taken.
Firstly, a holistic approach with a focus on stakeholders is made. In this case, the
characterization of stakeholders and their involvement can be studied based on multi-agent
systems [46, 83]. The identified actors could be institutions regulating industrial symbioses,
networks of companies or organizations and companies or individuals. The modes of
organization are also studied with very top-down government mandates to bottom-up
independent programs with self-initiated synergies to facilitated and coordinated IS networks
[13]. The approach, coupled with the relationship of these actors to Nature, also depends on
how interactions between the actors are organized (ranging from intentional coordination like
most of the projects developed to a collective culture like in Kalundborg). In this case, the
limitations observed are often linked to the identification of the possibilities offered
(subsidies, facilitation and exchange of data, processing of waste in order to make it usable by
others, etc.) and the linking and facilitation of cooperation [42]. In addition, stakeholders
could enter into the IS collaboration for various strategic reasons and as long as these reasons
are met, the collaboration will be successful. The identified reasons are increasing the
participating firms' chances of survival, obtaining essential scarce resources, pressure from
external institutions and norms, gaining legitimacy, publicity and a competitive advantage,
and finally reducing costs. Some authors stress the importance of innovation in strategies
developed not only at the process level but also in information sharing [26]. They also
highlight three key points to be integrated to ensure the sustainability of IS: potential partners,
tradable resources and the impact of time in interactions.
The other direction concerns the organization and coordination between actors (which
may also include their support). We can cite for examples social network analysis [68], their
impacts on results and difficulties in information sharing [84]. The proposed works generally
have a theoretical approach to the problem, most often omitting the spatial dimension and its
impact on the results expected or obtained as part of a symbiosis. However, symbiosis
(biological or industrial) develops itself in a given environment (with its own constraints and
characteristics). The symbiosis is therefore directly impacted and linked to this environment
but will also impact this environment. This point must be included to improve the design of
an IS in a given region. As detailed above, an important point concerns the definition of IS
relationships into an existing industrial park by identifying possible synergies between
companies [13].
At a tactical level, generally, authors try to clearly identify inputs (which can be energy,
water, materials) and outputs (waste, used water, steam/heat). Authors proposed to identify all
possible inputs/outputs of the same type, for example water and waste water [48]. Otherwise,
a design structure matrix which intends to support the identification of substitution
opportunities [47] could be defined associated with a graph of the formal IS. This approach
allows finding symbiosis opportunities that would not be found by classical input-output
matching approach but does not consider possible convert resources and does not allow
catching further symbiosis opportunities. Furthermore, this characterization and quantification
require clear system boundaries. The evolution of relationships in Kalundborg has been
largely studied from a grounded theory approach to highlight key factors. This theory is an
inductive, qualitative approach well suited to situations where existing theories do not exist
[5]. Then, it allows describing success factors but also organizational barriers [28] such as
geographic proximity, which is a well-recognized element that facilitates industrial symbiosis
[85]. Other approaches focus on the analysis of environmental gains with analyses conducted
in relation to the life cycle assessment [86, 90]. The Material Flow Analysis makes possible
to carry out an inventory and to assess the construction models around the diversity and
quality of the possible mutualizations. A logistics vision of flows is also envisaged for similar
reasons but with the objective of sharing on the supply chain [24]. Logistics makes it possible
to encompass all internal or external activities that add value to goods for customers by
considering the flows of materials exchanged as well as the flows of information. Energy
flows are not often taken into account, but many recent studies integrate environmental
impacts into classical supply chain studies [91]. The various studies carried out highlight the
importance and characterization (flows, types…) of symbiotic exchanges (from an
environmental point of view, although the social dimension could be addressed in the
expected benefits). At this tactical level, more technical and less economical approaches are
most often used (like life cycle assessment...). However, a more logistical approach makes it
possible to integrate concepts such as value creation into a more systemic approach.
At an operational level, few works have been developed to the best of our knowledge.
The existing approaches consider design optimization but they are still suffering from several
major problems due to dominance of the global IS optimum over the local individual
optimum, limited number of optimization objectives falling into the categories of economic
and environmental objectives (forgotten social objectives) and optimization performed
without considering possible operational uncertainties. Indeed, transformations within the
symbiosis and its evolution over time are never taken into account, which is crucial (as we
have seen with many of projects). Two directions can be mentioned. The first concerns the
performance within the industrial symbiosis. Thus, in [92], authors propose indicators derived
from an agent approach, in [58], authors focus on defining a dashboard to optimize the
management of the IS, and in [93], authors focus on the performance obtained at the
exchange level. In [94] a semantic approach is proposed to set environmental indicators for IS
and in [95] a resilience indicator is proposed for EIPs. The second direction concerns the
evaluation of gains in order to improve the results obtained. We can thus cite the definition of
mathematical models which allow characterizing gains and improving them under different
possible scenarios by simulations. So, in [56] and [96], the authors seek to define optimal
material flows based on two objectives: symbiotic profit and economic profit of the industrial
park. A bi-objective mathematical model is obtained and the optimal Pareto front is
determined. The results obtained make it easier for the decision-maker to take decisions to
determine grant or tax levels in order to effectively promote industrial symbiosis. In another
work [97], the authors propose a Stakelberg game model for waste recycling based on waste
pricing under three scenarios: non-symbiosis, partial symbiosis and complete symbiosis
between two firms. Then, based on this game theory model, they show that the internal (like
recycling cost, harmless disposal cost and the degree of waste recyclability) and external (like
price of raw materials and the government price subsidy) factors affect the existence of
symbiotic relationships. They highlight that coordination between enterprises is then needed
to promote waste management inside the industrial park.
Thus, by studying the structural organization of industrial symbiosis, researchers and
practitioners could provide a better understanding of industrial ecosystems that are complex
adaptive systems [27]. In this perspective, methods from complex systems permit to examine
the evolution and resilience of IS [46, 98]. By studying the functional organization of IS,
authors focus on relation between methods and expected results like for example quality [99]
and sustainability [100-101] issues. In addition, the identification of environmental gains with
minimization of waste, GHGs produced and reuse of materials [102] is essential and therefore
widely studied [103-106]. Industrial ecology allows the analysis of the flows of materials and
energy considering the life cycle of products, the design of buildings, infrastructure and
industrial parks and the reuse, recovery and recycling of resources in a manner which is
cleaner and more efficient [41]. Circular economy aims to redefine growth, focusing on
positive society-wide benefits. IS and EIPs could then play a major role inside industrial
ecology and circular economy for the society as described in the following section.
FUTURE OF INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS

We end by a synthesis of evolution of works concerning IS. Thus, we give an overview
of industrial symbiosis developments potential in new schemes. We analize selected
publications based on the research of articles with keywords "industrial symbiosis" in the title
as well as in the document in order to identify the largest number of publications. The
consulted academic databases comprise the publishers with the greatest number of articles
published in this domain such as ACS Publications and Annual Reviews, Elsevier, Emerald
Insight, Inderscience Online, IEEE Xplore, MDPI, SAGE Journals, Springer, Taylor &
Francis Online, Wiley Online Library instead of Web of Science and Scopus, since they offer
more articles (see also [107]). Obtained articles are research articles in journals or
conferences, book chapters and editorials with peer-reviewed processes. Looking at the
number of publications on IS over time, we can see that in recent years (and more precisely
since 2007 and especially since the rise of projects developed in China) this number has
exploded exponentially, see Figure 2. the publications could be classified into three main
types: theoretical studies, review articles and case studies from real applications and projects
in the world. Looking at the potential of applying industrial symbiosis in new places, new
categories are defined such as urban industrial symbiosis presented below. Moreover, the
most recent works carried out makes it possible to return to and highlight the issues of
industrial symbiosis as initially defined (following the Kalundborg case), as we will see in the
following. From this analysis, we present the most recent developments and their objectives,
integrating the gaps still identified and the avenues for future research. We conclude this
section by presenting IS outside a purely industrial framework and show how interesting it
can be on other developments than EIPs.
Figure 2. Research works in time relatively with IS.
Potentials of IS
IS is generally studied from an issue dealing with limited resources and pollutions but we
must not neglect the economic role it can play in the regional development [108]. As we have
seen, IS is highly studied at the strategic level with main interest concerning the development
of a region and a lot of works focus on geopolitical/geo-economical aspects and interests in
terms of sustainable development [31]. However, the spatial dimension and its impact of IS
results is rarely studied. Although, the expected gains depend on this spatial dimension and
they can also influence it, see Figure 3. Indeed, the culture/history of population and its level
of life, the possibilities in terms of raw materials and resources will greatly affect, in a
positive or negative way, the implementation of IS. For the Kalundborg’s case, it is evident
that the success comes from implementation parameters since the involvement of
stakeholders also in terms of sustainable development is important for a long time, and the
facilitation in collecting different kinds of data since concurrency is lesser important than
transparency in Denmark for examples.
Figure 3. Ecosystem and IS.
It should be pointed out here that the ecosystem under consideration is not limited to the
study of a limited geographical area (like in an EIP) but may include more distant interactions
with other actors (as in a supply chain). As a reminder, an industrial ecosystem has the
capacity to maintain itself alone through the efficient use of its resources, whether
manufacturing or natural, with an environmental impact that tends towards zero while
allowing maximum economic and social benefits (and thus towards sustainability) [109].
New Developments
In the most recent developments, many studies are interested in the application of the
concept of IS to cities since IS allows to gain advantages involving physical exchange of
materials, energy, water, and by-products by mutualization between separate entities in a
collective approach. This idea could then be further extended to urban waste and energy
exchange from industrial complexes. This concept is known as urban symbiosis [111]. The
industrial symbiosis as urbanization has been initially applied in the Japanese Eco-town
program [112] in 1997 in order to revitalize local industries and also to extend the life of
existing landfill sites, an important aspect in Japan. This program permits to optimize waste
management and develop recycling industries. Furthermore, a best quality of life of local
population and the appearance of a sense of belonging to a community are obtained. From
this program, it is evident that companies could improve their results and productivity with
short circular loops and reuse of waste as in case of ISs, but the civil society also gains with
the improvements of the well-being of communities [111]. So, both IS and urban industrial
symbiosis focus on waste recycling, heat/steam exchange and a symbiotic network that can
offer benefits to the entire city [113]. Transport, manufacturing and logistics can also be
included and helpful dedicated tools like platforms could be developed to facilitate the
implantation in cities [114-117].
Another way of research which could be also very interesting in implementation of IS
concerns the direct application of biological symbiosis in the definition of relationship
between entities into industrial clusters and innovation efficiency. Indeed, two types of
relationships deriving from ecological relationships could be defined: i) opposite
relationships, which could be predation or competition, and ii) symbiotic relationships with
mutualism, commensalism, amensalism and parasitism [118]. In fact, generally in order to
obtain the best benefits, symbiotic relationships are developed inside innovation and
industrial clusters. However, resulting from the evolution of the market and the concurrency,
the first type of relationships could appear. This opposite relationships should be taken into
account in the defined study along the evolutional path to address the particular links between
stakeholders of different subsystems and entities. From a purely innovation point of view, it
has to be noticed that symbiosis occurs mainly between two entities. The first one expresses a
particular need and the second ones the solution to this need [119]. Then, the measurement
and analysis of the symbiotic modes can allow describing the development and evolution of
innovations in a cluster, and it can then allow defining future directions and strategies. The
integration of these different kinds of relationships is more vital in the case of vast territory
and various marked regional differences to be sure to gain real coordinated ISs.
Among these works, almost no work integrates the potential offered by industry 4.0 and
the associated new emerging tools. We can still mention the facilitation in data management
through big data analysis [120]. Industry 4.0, the fourth industrial revolution initiated in the
early 2000s, is a term, which refers to the developmental digitalization process in the
management of industry [121]. However, the tools offered in this framework, such as new
information and communications technologies and artificial intelligence would most certainly
facilitate the design, deployment and implementation, as well as the optimization of ISs. One
example is the new ways of storing and securing information, with for example blockchains,
that could make it possible to overcome the problems of historization and confidentiality.
Industry 4.0 is intended to be the future of the industry in general; it may be the future of
industrial symbioses in particular.
CONCLUSIONS
Through the analysis of more than 100 articles, we sought to understand what industrial
symbiosis represented and how it could act in terms of sustainable development from a
circular point of view. Through the analysis of the articles found, we have been able to note
that the IS is simple to define but much more complex to implement. The first known
implementation of industrial symbiosis was defined in Denmark at Kalundborg early in the
1960s. Since then, it is still up-to-date, still effective and growing. The works having studied
this real case have been able to highlight different key elements of this IS (such as geographic
proximity, stakeholders’ involvement, economic, social and environmental gains). Since then,
an important number of projects have been carried out in the world: (i) in developing
countries, with the help of the United Nations, to build green industrial zones, also called eco-
industrial parks, and (ii) in developed countries either to revitalize industrial activities or, as
in Kalundborg, to build industrial symbiosis on existing or future industrial sites. These real
applications of industrial symbiosis are done around projects carried out by the state
governments and are therefore registered in a particular region most often restricted in size.
Unfortunately, the results are not always there (lack of implications of the actors,
difficulty of implementation, too strong constraints...) nor do last either in time (some actors
leave the symbiosis or this one disappears). As a result, many authors have proposed ways to
improve and eliminate those problems with approaches that are often strategic (to optimize
the design of the IS) and tactical (to optimize its deployment and its chances of success). Few
works are articulated at the operational level yet decisive in the continuity of implementation.
From a strategic point of view, the work focuses mainly on the exchanges and organization of
the actors. At a tactical level, a comprehensive and detailed knowledge of the material and
energy flows of a given sector or geographical area is generally considered as a prerequisite
for IS. To successfully carry out this diagnosis, all data on company’s flows must be
identified. This is met with considerable reluctance in a number of industrial sectors, given
the high degree of competition that may exist and the resulting culture of confidentiality. The
choice of a homogeneous sector can simplify but some opportunities for symbiosis are lost.
All works highlight, from upstream to downstream, the models for building collective action
and the diversity of possible symbioses. Furthermore, such as for industrial ecology and
circular economy, the number of research papers concerning IS explodes.
To conclude, if we make a comparison with naturel systems, four main principles [122]
should be respected in IS. (1) The roundup capacity: recycling activities like in Nature where
the actors involved cooperate through waste material and energy utilization. (2) Locality:
actors inside the IS cooperate in diverse interdependent relationships in and outside the IS,
but in relation with regional conditions and limiting factors that should not be forgotten. (3)
Diversity: the basic idea is similar to biological ecosystems where the sustainability is
ensured by allowing high flexibility and adaptability, the existence of diversity can be seen as
a long-term survival strategy of ecosystems as a consequence of permanently changing
environmental/market/society conditions. (4) gradual change: this point is more difficult to
obtain since companies should adapt themselves with rapid changes (due to market, industrial
evolution, social and cultural transformations, etc.). However, innovation, resilience and deep
learning methods would help firms to adapt to rapid changes. So, to construct a universal
design principle of IS, it is necessary to keep in mind these four principles and make regional
efforts and initiatives to improve EIPs. Furthermore, as detailed above, it is necessary to
inscribe the research carried out in a framework integrating the spatial and temporal
dimensions This could be facilitated with the help of tools and methods developed in the
context of Industry 4.0. Moreover, a vitally important point is innovation in product and
process design to reduce resource inputs per unit of output and to extend the lifecycle of end
products through durability, reparability, upgradability, and recyclables, but also in
cooperation and mutualization. In this case, the knowledge coming from Nature and
ecological symbiosis studies could help to define new strategies for the long-term decision-
making for industrial ecology and circular economy by integrated new insights.
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Chapter 4
DEVELOPMENT OF INDICATORS OF CIRCULAR

ECONOMY AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN WATER MANAGEMENT
Juan Carlos Leyva-Díaz1,, Valentín Molina-Moreno2,

Jorge Sánchez-Molina3 and Luis Jesús Belmonte-Ureña4
1
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Oviedo, Spain
2
Department of Management-1, University of Granada, Spain
3
Department of Chemistry, University of Francisco de Paula Santander, Colombia
4
Department of Economy and Business, University of Almeria, Spain
ABSTRACT
One of the main characteristics of circular economy is that it is a restorative and
regenerative economy, which means that any input within the production process must be
restored. This implies reducing as many negative externalities as possible, thus avoiding
scarcity in ecosystems. Circular economy stands as an alternative production and
consumption model, whose objective is to solve current environmental challenges and
create business and economic growth opportunities. The transition towards an economic
model based on circular economy is considered as the only feasible option in order to
preserve earth’s resources and eliminate or mitigate those negative externalities produced
by the linear economy model.
One of the great challenges of current sustainability policies is water management.
According to United Nations figures, water redistributive management is not optimal and
at least 25% of world population is expected to live in a country affected by chronic and
repeated scarcity of fresh water by 2050. Due to all the above, circular economy provides
an important opportunity to improve the efficacy and efficiency in water management. In
this respect, United Nations sustainable development goals consider that it is essential to
change the currently dominant water management model. This model is not viable in the
medium and long terms, as the availability of water resources in terms of quantity and
quality is at risk.

Corresponding Author’s Email: jcleyvadiaz@uniovi.es.
68 Juan Carlos Leyva-Díaz, Valentín Molina-Moreno, Jorge Sánchez-Molina et al.
Despite the strategic importance of water, Spain has not developed any specific
policies from the point of view of circular economy. In addition, the available data
regarding this topic is scarce. The scientific community and international organizations
recommend the introduction of indicators for the evaluation and follow-up of the progress
towards a sustainable development, given that they are essential tools when it comes to
making decisions in order to improve resource efficiency and minimize waste generation.
This chapter puts forth the literature revision of indicators of circular economy and
water management, as well as the proposal for their design so as to be applied in the field
of wastewater treatment, which allows quantifying the degree of approximation to a
circular economy model. In this paradigm, wastewater, which is initially seen as waste, is
transformed into a resource or technological nutrient that can be partially reintroduced
into the production process.
On this basis, the decision-makers from both production sectors and public
administrations can incorporate them into the creation of new legislation and
sustainability models and, in this way, contribute towards a change of model, from linear
to circular economy.
Keywords: circular economy, indicator, water management, bibliometric analysis,

sustainability, technological nutrient
INTRODUCTION TO CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Economic growth sustainability and environmental protection have become a priority
from the beginning of the 21st century. Social awareness is rooted and citizens’ opinions are
clear, as environmental damage is a fact and confirms what experts had already anticipated
years ago. A political agreement was necessary in order to manage the global production
system, including different variables to catalog growth, instead of only considering those that
measure richness with economic purposes.
Political initiatives were implemented in several climate change and environmental
sustainability summits. The most important of them was perhaps the 2015 Paris Climate
Summit, where 96 signatory countries (in June 2017, after the US elections, Trump
announced US exit from this agreement so as to safeguard the financial interests of the
nation) presented their answer in order to mitigate the emissions of polluting gases which are
contributing to the greenhouse effect. The main proposal was to restrict those emissions from
2020 onwards, when the agreement would come into effect.
The Paris Summit was a consequence of an initial impulse: the 2030 Agenda. With it, the
UN General Assembly set the objectives of sustainable development (OSD) in September
2015, with the aim of combining economic prosperity and environmental sustainability. The
strategy was clear: to reduce the negative externalities generated by the current production
process in both private and public sectors [1]. The purpose is to make those stakeholders
participating in the economic system understand the critical situation of the planet and the
need for a change in the management of corporate governance [2].
The European Union, as a signatory of the Paris Summit, has maintained an active
position in its fight for environmental sustainability. In fact, a roadmap has been designed
based on the European Commission regulations (2012, 2015) in order to introduce a low-
carbon production system according to the circular economy model.
Development of Indicators of Circular Economy and Their Application … 69
Within this framework, circular economy can be contextualized as the production system
that is regenerative and, consequently, environmentally friendly, as the main energy source
usually comes from renewable energies [3]. In addition, it is characterized by minimizing
resources and obtaining by-products and waste, mainly in the farming sector [4-6]. Due to all
the above, production within the circular economy paradigm seeks to optimize production
processes and minimize the negative externalities generated thereby. It is regenerative by
design, the energy that it uses is renewable and it reduces chemical waste generation [7].
THE NEED FOR WATER MANAGEMENT WITHIN THE CIRCULAR

ECONOMY PARADIGM
In 2018, the European Commission published a report presenting the need for a system of
monitoring indicators so that the implementation of circular economy in various production
sectors could be introduced in a gradual and optimal way throughout the EU countries.
Regarding water, it is important to highlight that the above mentioned report does not
make any reference to variables related to water management, since it is mainly based on the
flow management of raw materials and pays particular attention to material recycling and the
use of secondary raw materials.
However, Spain (and some other EU countries) has developed the draft 2030 Spanish
Circular Economy Strategy, along with a proposal for an action plan (2018-2020) containing
several guidelines. In chapter 7 of this document, a system of indicators of water management
is specified.
This shows the necessity to create a specific model of water indicators in order to
promote water as a resource or nutrient that must become a referent within the new circular
economy paradigm.
One of the principles of circular economy is that it is restorative and regenerative, so it is
fundamental to minimize and optimize productive inputs, which must be reintroduced into the
different production processes. In this respect, water is an essential resource that must be
managed efficiently and effectively, inasmuch as it is a dwindling resource.
When the creation of indicators is suggested, the various theories of business
management indicate that they must be referred to units of reference, of both a material and
an economic nature. For instance, being able to determine the economic performance
generated by a cubic meter of water used in agriculture, services or industry provides us with
essential information when it comes to making decisions about the management of this
resource.
Within the circular economy paradigm, water is considered as a technological nutrient
and thus a productive factor that can be regenerative and restorative as an element of natural
wealth. For these reasons, it is important to create indicators that enable us to understand its
management within this new paradigm.
Hence, the main aim of this chapter is to present the different contributions made within
the framework of indicators of circular economy and water management as well as to
formulate a design proposal of them in the field of wastewater treatment. In order to do so,
scientific articles on this subject published on Scopus database have been analyzed. The
results show the contributions to this line of research, which allows identifying the principal
forcing agents, its future trends and some gaps in critical knowledge.
STATE OF THE ART ABOUT INDICATORS OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY

REGARDING WATER MANAGEMENT
Evolution of Scientific Production
The evolution analysis of the number of scientific articles published and annual citations
(Figure 1) shows the variations in this research field during the study period, between 2012
and 2019. No publications were found for the year 2013. Only 1 publication was found for the
year 2012, although this figure increases to 15, which represents 39% of total articles, in
2019.
Figure 1. Total of articles published and annual citations in the period 2012-2019.
It should be highlighted that there is a growing interest on this subject since 2018 (8
articles), when the number of annual articles doubles. In 2015, there was a marked increase
regarding citations: from an average of 4 annual citations to 92, becoming the year with the
greatest number of citations in the period under discussion, since one of the most cited articles
(65 citations) belongs to that year. Since that moment, there have been variations, reductions
and slight increases, reaching 39 citations in 2019.
The first article published in 2012 is entitled “Energy consumption, resource utilization
and environmental protection in Beijing - Practice and challenges,” with one citation, and the
last article on this subject, which is published in November 2019, is “Recycling of end-of-life
reverse osmosis membranes: Comparative LCA and cost-effectiveness analysis at pilot
scale,” not cited yet.
The most cited article (65) is from 2015, followed by another one from the same year
with 27 citations (Table 1). The total count of citations of the ten articles appearing in Table 1
(225) represents 88% of total citations.
Table 1. Most cited articles in the period 2012-2019
A AN TC Y J
Quantitative assessment of industrial Wen, Z., Meng, X. 65 2015 Journal of Cleaner
symbiosis for the promotion of circular Production
economy: A printed circuit boards industry
in China's Suzhou New District.
Life Cycle Assessment from food to food: Strazza, C., Magrassi, F., 27 2015 Sustainable
A case study of circular economy from Gallo, M., Del Borghi, A. Production and
cruise ships to aquaculture. Consumption
Mapping Industrial Symbiosis Domenech, T., Bleischwitz, R., 25 2019 Resources,
Development in Europe_ typologies of Doranova, A., Panayotopoulos, Conservation and
networks, characteristics, performance and D., Roman, L. Recycling
contribution to the Circular Economy.
Towards a Circular Economy in Australian Pagotto, M., Halog, A. 22 2016 Journal of Industrial
Agri-food Industry: An Application of Ecology
Input-Output Oriented Approaches for
Analyzing Resource Efficiency and
Competitiveness Potential.
Supporting phosphorus management in Zoboli, O., Zessner, M., 21 2016 Science of the Total
Austria: Potential, priorities and Rechberger, H. Environment
limitations.
What gets measured, gets done: Nuñez-Cacho, P., Górecki, J., 17 2018 Sustainability
Development of a Circular Economy Molina-Moreno, V., Corpas- (Switzerland)
measurement scale for building industry. Iglesias, F.A.
Design of indicators of circular economy as Molina-Moreno, V., Leyva- 15 2017 Water (Switzerland)
instruments for the evaluation of Díaz, J.C., Llorens-Montes,
sustainability and efficiency in wastewater F.J., Cortés-García, F.J.
from pig farming industry.
The low-entropy city: A thermodynamic Pelorosso, R., Gobattoni, F., 12 2017 Landscape and
approach to reconnect urban systems with Leone, Urban Planning
nature.
Eco-efficiency indicator framework Rönnlund, I., Reuter, M., Horn, 11 2016 International
implemented in the Metallurgical industry: S., (...), Ylimäki, L., Pursula, T. Journal of Life
part 2 - a case study from the copper Cycle Assessment
industry.
Proposal of sustainability indicators for the Molina-Sánchez, E., Leyva- 10 2018 Water (Switzerland)
waste management from the paper industry Díaz, J. C., Cortés-García, F. J.,
within the circular economy model. Molina-Moreno, V.,
A: article name; AN: name of authors; TC: total number of citations; Y: year of publication of the article; J: name of
journals.
Distribution of Publications per Subject Category
Between 2012 and 2019, the scientific production on indicators of circular economy and
water is grouped around five subject categories. The area of Environmental Science
represents the main category (76%), with 29 of the total articles (Figure 2). This category has
experienced a growing evolution since 2014, acquiring more representative importance since
2017. Since 2012, the second category, Engineering, has maintained itself as one of the
categories where a great number of articles are cataloged (26%), with the exception of 2013
and 2017. The area of Social Sciences, with 24% of articles published, has had a growing
tendency, mainly since 2017.
Figure 2. Comparison of growth trends of the subject categories in the research (2012-2019).
Subject categories are useful when it comes to classifying articles in specific journals that
deal with this research topic, although its approach will vary depending on each journal. The
top five journals publishing 34% of analyzed articles (Resources Conservation and Recycling,
Sustainability, Water, Journal of Cleaner Production, Science of the Total Environment) have
sustainable management and conservation of natural resources as their main subject.
Evolution of Indicators of Circular Economy
Several studies have designed classifications of indicators of circular economy. Table 2

shows various classifications according to different authors.
Table 2. Indicators of circular economy for water management [8-11]
Code Indicator
A Abstraction
A1 Percentage of water abstracted directly by users with respect to total amount of abstracted water
A2 Percentage of desalted water with respect to total amount of abstracted water
B Supply
B1 Use of energy and raw materials
B11 Amount of energy used per cubic meter of water
B12 Percentage of energy coming from green and renewable sources
B13 Amount of energy generated by water services
B14 Carbon footprint produced by water supply
B15 Use of natural resources for water treatment
B2 Infrastructure
B21 Leakage in water systems
B22 Kilometers of dual water distribution (water supply from different sources depending on the purpose)
B23 Materials used for the creation of infrastructures and equipment for water treatment
B3 Economic (investment and cost in the water sector)
B31 Investment in new infrastructure and equipment
C Water use
C1 Total volume of water used (or registered)
C2 Use of water per unit of reference
Code Indicator
C3 Water footprint
D Sanitation and reuse
D1 Impacts
D11 Volume of wastewater treated
D12 Percentage of wastewater treated and reused
D13 Volume of reused water
D14 Destination of treated water
D2 Efficiency
D21 Use of energy and raw material per unit of wastewater treated and reused
D22 Use of by-products resulting from wastewater treatment
D23 Percentage of sludge that is used and its destination
D3 Infrastructure and economic
D31 Investment in treatment, reutilization and cost
E Supply
E1 Impacts indicators
E11 Volume of water for supply
E12 Volume of treated wastewater for supply
E13 Source of water for supply
E2 Efficiency indicators
E21 Use of energy and raw material per unit of water for supply
E3 Infrastructure and economic
E31 Investment in water abstraction, supply and cost
F Indicators of water environmental condition
F1 Environmental condition of water bodies
Table 3 shows how these indicators have been reflected in several scientific studies,
between 2014 and 2019.
Table 3. Evolution of indicators of circular economy for water management
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

A1 Laner et al., Dominguez et Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
2017 al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
A2 Laner et al., Oliveira et al., 2019
2017
B11 Strazza et Rönnlund et al., García- Ignacio et al., 2019
al., 2015 2016 Bustamante et Oliveira et al., 2019
Wen, & al., 2018 Kiselev et al., 2019
Meng, 2015 Nuñez-Cacho Rapsikevičienė et al.,
et al., 2018 2019
B12 Rönnlund et al., Laner et al., Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
2016 2017 Kiselev et al., 2019
B13 Strazza et Rönnlund et al., García- Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
al., 2015 2016 Bustamante et Ignacio et al., 2019
Wen, & Zoboli et al., 2016 al., 2018 Kiselev et al., 2019
Meng, 2015 Nuñez-Cacho Oliveira et al., 2019
et al., 2018 Rapsikevičienė et al.,
2019
Tretyakova, 2019
B14 Zhao, & Strazza et Osorio et al., 2016 Molina- Molina- Domenech et al, 2019
Ma, 2014 al., 2015 Pagotto, & Halog, Moreno et al., Sánchez et al., Kiselev et al., 2019
Wen, & 2016 2017 2018 Niero, & Kalbar, 2019
Meng, 2015 Rönnlund et al., Pelorosso et Zhong et al., Rapsikevičienė et al.,
2016 al., 2017 2018 2019
Zoboli et al., 2016 Roychand et al., 2020
(*)
Table 3. (Continued)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Senán-Salinas et al.,
2019
Simon, 2019
Tretyakova, 2019
B15 Zhao, & Huang, Osorio et al., 2016 Dominguez et Aravossis et al., 2019
Ma, 2014 2015 Rönnlund et al., al., 2018 Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
2016 Nuñez-Cacho Rapsikevičienė et al.,
Zoboli et al., 2016 et al., 2018 2019
Zhong et al., Senán-Salinas et al.,
2018 2019
Tua et al., 2019
B21 Wen, & Osorio et al., 2016 Nuñez-Cacho Domenech et al., 2019
Meng, 2015 et al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
B22 Domenech et al., 2019
Oliveira et al., 2019
B23 García- Domenech et al., 2019
Bustamante et Roychand et al., 2020
al., 2018 (*)
B31 Strazza et Pagotto, & Halog, Molina- Molina- Domenech et al, 2019
al., 2015 2016 Moreno et al., Sánchez et al., Kayal et al., 2019
2017 2018 Micari et al., 2019
Niero, & Kalbar, 2019
Rapsikevičienė et al.,
2019
C1 Laner et al., Nuñez-Cacho Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
2017 et al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
2019
C2 Huang, Osorio et al., 2016 Laner et al., García- Aravossis et al., 2019
2015 2017 Pelorosso Bustamante et Oliveira et al., 2019
et al., 2017 al., 2018 Senán-Salinas et al.,
Xiao et al., 2019
2018
C3 Zhao, & Huang, Osorio et al., 2016 Molina- Molina- Ignacio et al., 2019
Ma, 2014 2015 Pagotto, & Halog, Moreno et al., Sánchez et al., Rapsikevičienė et al.,
Wen, & 2016 2017 2018 Nuñez- 2019
Meng, 2015 Rönnlund et al., Cacho et al., Simon, 2019
2016 2018 Xiao et Tretyakova, 2019
Zoboli et al., 2016 al., 2018
D11 Strazza et Dominguez et Micari et al., 2019
al., 2015 al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
2019
D12 Cobo et al., Micari et al., 2019
2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
Dominguez et
al., 2018
D13 Zoboli et al., 2016 Laner et al., Dominguez et Micari et al., 2019
2017 al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
2019.
D14 Huang, Osorio et al., 2016 Pelorosso et Dominguez et Aravossis et al., 2019
2015 al., 2017 al., 2018 Niero, & Kalbar, 2019
Nuñez-Cacho Senán-Salinas et al.,
et al., 2018 2019
Tretyakova, 2019
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

D21 Zhao, & Huang, Osorio et al., 2016 Pelorosso et Ignacio et al., 2019
Ma, 2014 2015 Rönnlund et al., al., 2017 Roychand et al., 2020
2016 (*)
D22 Huang, Pagotto, &Halog, Cobo et al., Aravossis et al.,
2015 2016 2018 Zhong et 2019
Rönnlund et al., al., 2018 Tua et al., 2019
2016
D23 Cobo et al., Micari et al., 2019
2018 Tua et al., 2019
Dominguez et
al., 2018
D31 Strazza et Pagotto, & Halog, Molina- Molina- Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
al., 2015 2016 Moreno et al., Sánchez et al., Kayal et al., 2019
Wen, & Rönnlund et al., 2017 2018 Nuñez- Micari et al., 2019
Meng, 2015 2016 Cacho et al., Oliveira et al., 2019
2018 Xiao et Rapsikevičienė et al.,
al., 2018 2019
Roychand et al., 2020
(*)
E11 Zoboli et al., 2016 Laner et al., García- Ignacio et al., 2019
2017 Bustamante et Micari et al., 2019
al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
Zhong et al., Senán-Salinas et al.,
2018 2019
E12 Zoboli et al., 2016 Laner et al., Cobo et al., Micari et al., 2019
2017 2018 Zhong et Oliveira et al., 2019
al., 2018 Senán-Salinas et al.,
2019
E13 Strazza et Pagotto, & Halog, Laner et al., García- Ignacio et al., 2019
al., 2015 2016 2017 Bustamante et Micari et al., 2019
Wen, & Pelorosso et al., 2018 Oliveira et al., 2019
Meng, 2015 al., 2017 Xiao et al., Rapsikevičienė et al.,
2018 2019
E21 Zhao,& Huang, Osorio et al., 2016 Molina- García- Aravossis et al., 2019
Ma, 2014 2015. Pagotto, & Halog, Moreno et al., Bustamante et Ignacio et al., 2019
Strazza et 2016 2017. al., 2018 Kiselev et al., 2019
al., 2015 Rönnlund et al., Pelorosso et Molina- Niero, & Kalbar, 2019
2016 al., 2017 Sánchez Roychand et al., 2020
Zoboli et al., 2016 et al., 2018 (*)
Nuñez-Cacho Tua et al., 2019
et al., 2018
Xiao et al.,
2018
Zhong et al.,
2018
E31 Strazza et Pagotto, & Halog, Molina- García- Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
al., 2015 2016 Moreno et al., Bustamante et Micari et al., 2019
Wen, & Rönnlund et al., 2017 al., 2018 Kayal et al., 2019
Meng, 2015 2016 Molina- Rapsikevičienė et al.,
Sánchez 2019
et al., 2018 Roychand et al., 2020
Nuñez-Cacho (*)
et al., 2018 Tua et al., 2019
Xiao et al.,
2018
Table 3. (Continued)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

F1 Zhao, & Huang, Albertario, 2016 Molina- Cobo et al., Gravagnuolo et al., 2019
Ma, 2014 2015 Pagotto, & Halog, Moreno et al., 2018 Ignacio et al., 2019
Strazza et 2016 2017 Molina- Kiselev et al., 2019
al., 2015 Osorio et al., 2016 Sánchez et al., Niero, & Kalbar, 2019
Wen, & Rönnlund et al., 2018 Rapsikevičienė et al.,
Meng, 2015 2016 Xiao et al., 2019
Zoboli et al., 2016 2018 Roychand et al., 2020
Zhong et al., (*)
2018 Simon, 2019
Tretyakova, 2019
Tua et al., 2019
(*) Published in 2019.
METHODOLOGY
These bibliometric analysis tools will enable organizing the information regarding this
research. In order to do that, it will be necessary to access the information available at the
repositories of international scientific information, such as Scopus database. This database is
chosen since it is the largest repository of scientific articles in relation to both authors and
scientific journals. This research methodology is in line with other studies [12-15].
Once the search was carried out, there was a total of 38 articles, from which it has been
possible to obtain information variables about publication years, authors, lists of
coauthorships, institutional affiliation, countries and keywords defining the subject of the
study.
Regarding scientific production indicators, authors’ productivity, countries and
institutions were presented taking into account both the total number of papers published on
each subject and the citation count. In addition, by using the tool VOSviewer (version 1.65 –
Leiden University, The Netherlands) it is possible to present the network maps reflecting the
collaboration between authors and countries as well as research trends based on keyword
analyses. Network maps, which are especially suitable for studies based on bibliometric
analysis, have become a widely used technique in order to process and group words [12, 16,
17].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Author’s Productivity, Collaborations and Countries
The main characteristics about the authorship of the scientific production that has been
published about Indicators of circular economy for water management are presented in Table
4. It is remarkable that among the five authors with the greatest number of publications on the
subject, two of them are Spanish. Valentín Molina Moreno, a researcher from the University
of Granada, is at the top of the list with the greatest number of articles (3) and citations (41).
His most cited article [7] is “What gets measured, gets done: Development of a Circular
Economy measurement scale for building industry,” from 2018. In total, 140 authors have
published on this subject. The five most important researchers have contributed with 11
articles (29% of the total production under analysis) and 56% of total citations, a low
percentage that clearly indicates the multiplicity and diversity of authors contributing to this
subject.
Table 4. Authors with the greatest number of articles in the period 2012-2019
Authors A TC TC/A Insitution C 1st A Last A H index

Molina-Moreno, V 3 41 13.67 University of Granada Spain 2017 2018 8
Cortés-García, F. J 2 24 12.00 Autonomous University of Chile Chile 2017 2018 4
Leyva-Díaz, J. C 2 24 12.00 University of Oviedo Spain 2017 2018 13
Rechberger, H 2 27 13.50 Technische Universitat Wien Austria 2016 2017 27
Zoboli, O 2 27 13.50 Technische Universitat Wien Austria 2016 2017 7
A: number of articles; TC: number of citations for all articles; TC/A: number of citations by article; C: country.
The analysis of the main articles written by these authors evinces the preference of
interaction and articulation between authors of the same nationality and/or from the same
institution (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Map of collaboration between the main authors.
Italy leads scientific production, with 21% of total published articles coming from this
country (Table 5). China stands second, with seven articles, registering the greatest number of
citations and Spain is in third place, with six articles and 49 citations.
Table 5. Countries with the greatest number of publications in the period 2012-2019
Country A TC TC/A H-index

Italy 8 46 5.75 3
China 7 79 11.29 3
Spain 6 49 8.17 4
Australia 2 21 10.50 1
Austria 2 27 13.50 2
A: number of articles; TC: number of citations for all articles; TC/A: number of citations by article.
Table 6 shows the main collaborations between countries for the publication of research
papers.
Table 6. Main international collaborations in the period 2012-2019
Country NC Main collaborators IC TC/A

IC NIC
Spain 3 Chile, Australia, Poland 50.0% 13.67 2.67
Italy 3 China, Germany, Russian Federation 37.5% 3.67 7.00
Australia 1 España 50.0% 0.00 21.00
China 1 Italy 14.3% 8.00 11.83
Austria 0 0.0% 0.00 13.50
NC: number of collaborators; IC: percentage of articles made with international collaboration; TC/A: number of citations
by article; IC: international collaboration; NIC: no international collaboration.
Spain is at the top of the list (50%). Half of the articles has been published with countries
in three different continents. Italy has published 37.5% of articles with countries such as
Germany, China and Russia (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Map of collaboration between the main countries.
It is important to remark that there is not a direct relation between the number of citations
and the articles with international coauthorship. The articles present different numbers
regarding the percentage of citations, which does not vary depending on collaborations.
In this collaboration network, Europe has a significant representation with the largest
number of countries [5]. Within Europe, Spain and Italy lead participation with the greatest
contribution: six out of the fourteen articles published in these two countries were in
collaboration. It should be highlighted that the institutions working on these publications are
mainly universities. Three Spanish universities (University of Granada, University of Jaén
and University of Cantabria) are at the top of the list with seven publications.
Keyword Analysis
The term “Circular Economy” was not included among the keywords nor were some
indexed keywords, added to the records by Scopus, since it was considered that they did not
accurately represent the thematic content of the documents or provide any further relevance to
the analysis.
Table 7 shows the top fifteen most frequently used keywords in the 38 articles about
Circular Economy for Water Management during the period evaluated (2012-2019). Their
importance and evolution were analyzed according to the number of documents containing
those terms. “Sustainable development” was the most important term in the period, with 18
occurrences (47.4% of total documents). This keyword first appeared in 2012 and continued
appearing regularly (except in 2014) until 2019, when it was included in 6 out of the 15
articles that were published that year.
Table 7. Main keywords in the period 2012–2019
Keyword 2012-2019
A %
Sustainable Development 18 47.4%
Sustainability 8 21.1%
Life Cycle Analysis 7 18.4%
Water Management 7 18.4%
Environmental Impact 6 15.8%
Industrial Economics 6 15.8%
Waste Management 6 15.8%
Economic Development 5 13.2%
Economics 5 13.2%
Energy Utilization 5 13.2%
Environmental Indicator 5 13.2%
Life Cycle 5 13.2%
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 5 13.2%
Recycling 5 13.2%
Wastewater Treatment 5 13.2%
A: number of articles; %: percentage of articles in which it appears.
The term “Sustainability” is in second place, with eight associated articles. It first
appeared in 2016 and remained constant until 2019. The third term is “Life Cycle Analysis,”
which was included in seven articles. Since 2016, and until 2019, this term has taken part in
the main researches.
The keyword analysis was carried out based on bibliometric information maps. These
keyword co-occurrence maps reflect the most important terms selected by authors and
database managers. The descriptors appearing on network maps were selected by the software
(VOSviewer), according to the number of occurrences (at least 5) and the strength between
words, indicating and representing the strongest relationships by means of lines and groups of
different colors (cluster).
Three clusters, representing the structure of the 38 articles analyzed, are identified in
Figure 5. The first and most important, with 6 terms (red), indicates the key elements of
circular economy, such as the area where it focuses, which is mainly industry, since it
transforms the greatest amount of raw material into products by using different energy
sources and generating emissions and waste of various kinds. “Sustainability,” which is the
foundation of this economic model, is also highlighted in this cluster. This term emphasizes
the integral management of resources as well as the reduction and substitution of non-
renewable inputs in order to obtain economic, environmental and social benefits.
Sustainability evaluation is achieved by means of measuring parameters such as
“Environmental Indicators,” a key tool when it comes to implementing the circular economy
model, thus the importance of this term in the network.
Figure 5. Map of term co-occurrence.
The second cluster (green) shows five terms that clearly identify the commitment to the
model of circular economy and boost mechanisms that contribute to an efficient management
of resources by fostering the use of secondary raw materials, recycling materials and
incorporating waste and/or by-products into the production processes in order to avoid
materials loss of value and extend their life. The third and last cluster (blue), which groups 4
terms, reflects the benefits and advantages of implementing the circular economy model:
reduction of environmental impacts, production and use of renewable energies and economic
benefits (by reducing raw material costs and avoid payments regarding waste and/or by-
products disposal). All these aspects are oriented towards the achievement of sustainable
development.
Figure 6 represents the network map with a timeline (2017-2018) of the keywords used in
the analyzed studies, which allows us to observe in greater detail how some of them have
emerged recently, mainly those related to circular economy implementation strategies,
resources that are prioritized for further use and treatment as well as follow-up and evaluation
tools.
Figure 6. Timeline map of keyword evolution.
PROPOSAL FOR INDICATORS OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY

IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Introduction
Once the state of the art about indicators of circular economy for water treatment has
been analyzed, a proposal for indicators of circular economy will be carried out. These
indicators will be applied to wastewater treatment coming from a specific sector.
As a consequence of the increasingly restrictive environmental legislation, it is necessary
to transform wastewater into technological nutrients which allow its transformation into
resources and its subsequent reintroduction within the production process, with the aim of
minimizing and reducing its environmental impact [18, 19].
A series of general indicators of circular economy is defined below. These permit
evaluating the degree of approximation of a specific production process to that model. The
definition of those indicators will be applied to different resources that can be recovered
during the wastewater treatment process according to the state of that resource (liquid, solid
and gas).
Indicators of Circular Economy for the Liquid Phase
Firstly, the indicator of technological nutrient performance for the liquid phase is
presented (ILP,TN). This indicator allows evaluating the treated water that can be obtained and
reused in the production process from the wastewater generated in that process. It can be
evaluated according to Equation (1):
∑n
i=1 Qw,i
ILP,TN = (1)
Qww
where Qw,i is the water volumetric flow recovered during stage i of the wastewater treatment
process and Qww is the volumetric flow of wastewater generated by a specific sector.
Secondly, the indicator of circular economy efficiency for the liquid phase (ILP,CE) is
presented. Such indicator provides information about the reduction of the water that is
consumed in order to carry out a specific manufacturing process. It can be evaluated
according to Equation (2):
∑n
i=1 Qw,i
ILP,CE = Qw,t
· 100 (2)
where Qw,t is the total water volumetric flow consumed during the production process.
This indicator can range between 0 and 100%: 0 means that no water was recovered
during the process and 100% is the ideal case of sustainability, with no external water
consumption.
Indicators of Circular Economy for the Solid Phase
Following a process similar to the one in the previous section, two types of indicators are
proposed. The first one, the indicator of technological nutrient performance for the solid
phase (ISP,TN), provides information about the amount of sludge recovered during the
wastewater treatment process that can be reused in the production process depending on the
wastewater generated in that sector. It can be evaluated according to Equation (3):
∑n
i=1 ms,i
ISP,TN = (3)
Qww
where ms,i is the mass flow of mineral load recovered during stage i of the wastewater
treatment process.
The second one, the indicator of circular economy efficiency for the solid phase (ISP,CE),
can be determined by Equation (4):
∑n
i=1 ms,i
ISP,CE = · 100 (4)
ms,t
where ms,t is the mass flow of total generated sludge.

This indicator supplies information about the amount of sludge recovered during a
specific production process in relation to the amount of total generated sludge. It can range
between 0 and 100% according to the proportion of recovered sludge.
Indicators of Circular Economy for the Gas Phase
As in the case of liquid and solid phases, it is possible to define two indicators for the gas
phase. The indicator of technological nutrient performance for the gas phase (IGP,TN) indicates
the biogas volumetric flow recovered during the wastewater treatment process depending on
the wastewater generated by a specific sector, according to Equation (5):
Qbg
IGP,TN = (5)
Qww
where Qbg is the biogas volumetric flow recovered during the wastewater treatment process.
In relation to the indicator of circular economy efficiency for the gas phase (IGP,CE), it
provides information about the reduction of natural gas consumption during a specific
industrial process. That indicator can range between 0 and 100% depending on the supply
level of the biogas generated. Equation (6) shows the mathematical form of this indicator.
Qbg
IGP,CE = · 100 (6)
Qng,t
where Qng,t is the natural gas volumetric flow consumed in a specific production process.
Application in Paper and Pig Industries
Both paper and pig industries generate a great amount of wastewater, which causes a
severe impact on the environment and poses a risk for the humans and fauna of the place [20-
22].
Table 8 shows the different indicators of circular economy in wastewater treatment
coming from paper and pig industries.
Table 8. Different indicators of circular economy in wastewater treatment coming

from paper and pig industries
Indicator of Paper industry Pig industry References

circular economy
I LP,TN 0.90 m3 water m-3 paper 0.97 m3 water m-3 pig manure Molina-Moreno et al., 2017;
mill wastewater Molina-Sánchez et al., 2018
I LP,CE 85.10% 47.01%

I SP,TN 0.70 kg sludge m-3 paper 49.40 kg biofertilizer m-3 pig manure Molina-Moreno et al., 2017;
mill wastewater Molina-Sánchez et al., 2018
I SP,CE 39.70% 4.75%

I GP,TN - 5.33 m3 biogas m-3 pig manure Molina-Moreno et al., 2017
I GP,CE - 5.33%
Consequently, wastewater can be considered as a technological nutrient which can later

be reintroduced into the production process, allowing reusing the resources that it contains.
These indicators offer new measuring tools to each and every production sector so that
they become a reference in the area of sustainable production, thus reducing the negative
externalities of industrial processes.
Taking these indicators of circular economy into account, decision-makers from both
production sectors and public administrations can incorporate them to their sustainability
model. This can facilitate the transition toward the circular economy model, minimizing
waste generation and improving the efficiency in the use of resources.
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Chapter 5
THE PRESENT CONTRIBUTION OF CIRCULAR

ECONOMY TO STIMULATE ECONOMIC
GROWTH IN THE WORLD
L. Marsullo
Finpublic & Finenergie Co., Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT
The fast increase of the world population in the last thirty years has led to a wild
exploitation of the planet's resources which are becoming increasingly inadequate to meet
its needs. The circular economy, based on long lasting products and recycling and reuse
of raw materials, it is the only possible way to satisfy the needs of the world population
without depleting the planet and its resources. First of all it is necessary a drastic change
in people mentality after years of unbridled consumerism; then, all the production
systems must be adapted to the new economy: two very ambitious goals, not easy to
achieve.
This is strategically important, considering the present status of the economy, which
is oriented towards an “Immaterial Capitalism with the application of digital technologies
in the new social conflict”. The contribution of circular economy to Stimulate economic
growth.
INTRODUCTION
In the last few years CIRCULAR ECONOMY has become a very important topic
discussed by economists in association with political agencies, such as international
organization like United Nations, OECD, European Commission and various international
banks, representing a response for a sustainable growth [1-4]. Linear economy, in fact, has

Corresponding Author’s Email: luigi.marsullo@finpublic.it.
92 L. Marsullo
created and continue to create high inequalities and rinsing levels of food insecurity and
undernourishment, affecting the quality of life of million people [5].
Certainly, to expand circular economy it is essential to take advantage of the multiple
benefits of renewable energy.
In fact, renewable energy provides many benefits, both direct and indirect, to facilitate
the expansion of circular economy.
Renewable energies play, in fact, a basic role in the development of the present socio-
economic and industrial structures among the most important benefits to achieve a sustainable
development of industrial as well developing countries. The diffusion of renewable energy
has promoted since second half of last decade an increasing development of new sources of
production in all sectors such as agriculture, agricultural industry, industry and advanced
industries, almost everywhere in the world. Such widespread diffusion of investment in
renewable energies has provided an increasing production in various sector such as transport
sector, thermal sector and of course electric sector. In the last fifteen years the contribution of
aeolian energy has increased and then remained stable. The solar energy has increased of
about 10%. [6, 7, 8].
THE POSSIBLE BASIS FOR THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY

These is no doubt that the economic growth of our planet has increased considerably in
the last one hundred years at an increased speed, soon after the Second World War. This
development has been confused and fast: every country producing almost everything with no
planning. Just as an example, each EU citizen generates more than 4.5 tonnes of waste
annually and almost half of it is disposed of in landfill sites! [1, 2].Today we are in presence
of a mature economy of the world. In fact, few decades ago some economists considered
seriously that the economic development of our world had increased so much and at a
systemic growth rate to suggest that probably the world development was so mature in
presence of a rate of growth ZERO, to necessary to consider the globalization of the economy
a necessary step. We have been very critical of the so widespread consideration about the
globalized economy. In fact, if we consider carefully the trends of many sector and many
countries of the world, we have to consider globalization as a necessary step after which it is
now much more important to proceed with a “specialization” economy. It is not difficult to
underline that the globalization economy has been only an intermediate step which has now
been bypassed by some clear evidence at world level. The globalization has been used to
show the various problems of a mature growth development close to ZERO RATE [9].
PRESENT SITUATION
Among the principal problems stressed by the globalization these is the identification that
the world cannot go on and proceed with a clear specialization era. In short, all countries of
the world, past the globalization era, have now to identify and determine their needs and
choices by a programmed economy. In short, every single country has to consider carefully
the new social public and private choices which will determine the shape of a New Past
The Present Contribution of Circular Economy … 93
Globalization Era. Once problems and solutions have been identified, it will be necessary to
admit that after the “globalization era”, it is now time to reconsider the hidden advantages of
a circular economy, envisaged by the globalization period. These hidden advantages represent
a new production approach which we can call: circular economy.
The circular economy, therefore, is represented by the complex of the hidden advantages
which now is time to identify seriously and implement in an efficient and not expensive
economy. This new approach of a worldwide circular economy demonstrates that is clear that,
after globalization, every single country has to develop its own plan and strategy within this
new concept utilizing hidden technologies available at a low cost. In simple terms we like to
stress that now every single country, after the productive problems of globalization – have to
proceed in a new economy in a new direction.
A new approach has to be utilized in an economic way using the existing hidden and not
utilized opportunities of the world. Let us make a simple example. For instance, every single
country has to realize that now it is no more time to proceed every country with the same and
old pattern of industrial production.
Every single country must admit that it is no more convenient to produce the same old
pattern of industrial production as in the past. A good example is the automobile industry
sector. Now for every single country is no more convenient to produce what they need but
must produce what it would be possible to produce in a new global contest of distribution,
according to opportunities of a circular economy at a planetary level of specialization.
The automobile industry sector has already, demonstrated that now after the globalization
period the world has to proceed with specialization in a new contest of circular economy and
specialization. That is to say that is quite clear now that it is wrong and not economic for
every single country developing its own automobile industry. Already we assist to a diffused
widespread pattern development at world level of the various national automobile industries
in large multinational companies merging in groups larger, more powerful commercial and
economically and specialized as a result of the application of the scale economy [10-14].
At beginning of the 20 century there were 5 industries producing cars; that after 50 years
soon after the Second World War the national automobiles industries increase to about fifty
industries. Now from the beginning this new 21 century the twenty years gone have
demonstrated that automobile industries will decrease to about 20 groups at world level and
later to about 10 - 15 lines of production within the concept of a multinationals groups such
as. Italy, USA, France, Japan, Germany, etc., this is exactly the approach of circular economy
at world level and for a single sector where specialization imposes to produce and select
production in an economic context not of the need of every single country in a new economic
strategy scale in economy concept at world level. Collaboration among countries with
different specialization increase the different know-how in a wide range of sectors but not in
automobile industries. The demonstration of this assumption has been that in the last 20 years
many national automobile companies have disappeared and merged in larger groups.
This mean that globalization has imposed the diffusion of specialization in a context of
worldwide free economy controlled by specialization to implement and achieve the success of
the circular economy at a much lower costs and better results [11]. Once this concept of
circular economy has been accepted than the world at the whole has to determine policies of
every groups of countries, sector by sector.
This is a very ambitious goal and program which can be implemented by strengthening
the existing international political and economic organization in more efficient bodies from an
94 L. Marsullo
economic point of view. Most likely the existing formal and inefficient international political
organization and distribution with a more effective political organization and bodies have to
restructure themselves or to be substituted by new organization with effective political force.
Thus it will be able to impose the circular economy in every single country to achieve better
results and produce more wealth, to fulfill the need and request of the developing countries.
In fact this group of countries, which control most of the natural resources of the world,
have to combine their industrial capabilities with all other countries in a global contest where
every political economic organization has to contribute in an efficient economic way and not
only formally. Thus it will be achieved a better result for all those countries which,
participating to a new economic development based on these super national organization, will
have the possibility to obtain the result of the circular economy. As a consequence, the
resources will be fully utilized for the benefit of the humanity. On the whole, perhaps, an
example can be considered the organization of the European Union to be designed on new
programs and policies at a world efficient economic scale and development level.
Only in this way it will be possible to reduce the various gaps between rich and poor
countries, agricultural and industrial economies. Between this new economic efficient
approach all countries will gain in terms of socio-economic development and education. Also
to improve labor prospects of course it is necessary that all countries – one by one – has to
understand the advantages of this not socialist economy, but an intelligent economic way to
utilize the limited resources of our planet which is becoming more and more smaller and
smaller afflicted by economic wars, unemployment and crises caused by limited development
with the constant dramatic increase of the rate of development of world population.
In 1971 at the headquarter in London at the International Cooperative Alliance, when I
was serving as International Secretary for Agricultural Cooperation at world level, in the
course of my new responsibility and role I delivered a speech as a master lesson on “The
prospects in 1971 of economic development and growth of the world population”. A short
summary was published in the press of I.C.A [9] in London UK. New Delhi in India was
what I stressed on that occasion, underlining that at the world level there was an urgent need
to consider the rapid increase of population in the next few years. In my view I prospected
that within in the next 30 years the population at the time (1971) estimated in about 3 billion
people would double and reach by year 2000 6 billion people. Now, in 2019, the population is
estimated to be about 7,5 billion people. This dramatic explosion of the increase of population
rate has been due to many factors: medical assistance, better food, better conditions of life,
etc. This trend will continue in the next decade.
The fast increase of the world population has been caused by the need of the poorest
countries to produce more children so that they could take care of the old generation. I
stressed my opinion in July 1972 [15] in Bombay at the important event “India Forum” in
presence of politician and many international representatives of UN Organization. On both
events I stressed that the world was developing in a wrong way and I argued that to make sure
to secure all people of the planet food, housing, human stability, all countries of the world had
to organize themselves in a more economic way as far as the utilization of the limited planet
resources and that our world was in need (in 1971/72) of a change of terms more health, food,
housing, jobs, social security at world level [9, 15]. As from the United Nations Report, in
fact, world population from the actual 7.5 billion will reach 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2
billion in 2100 [16].
The Present Contribution of Circular Economy … 95
In the last 40 years the world surface has not changed: but the increase of population has
continued and now there in more need of health, food, housing, jobs and social security
especially in developing countries of the world [9]. This lack of efficiency has produced the
massive immigration and wars in all countries of the world with the natural follow up of
revolution of nations (Venezuela, Mexico, Siria, Libia, African countries, etc) and the
following deterioration of collaboration of countries and people of the world [17, 18].
CONCLUSION
The circular economy can provide an economic tool to solve many of the mentioned
problems. There are at least two important sectors by which, applying the circular economy
methods and share strategies, it will possible to solve most of the problems of the world
today. These two sectors are 1) energy and 2) finance.
Our planet is full of energy at all levels and in every country. The planet itself is the most
important natural source and deposit of energy. Energy is essential to produce almost
everything and often what is needed is a limited amount of energy resources utilizing new
technologies. The second sector which can give impulse to fasten and operate circular
economy are the finance [9], resources available at all levels with financing available to all
countries so that everyone will have the possibility to utilize the hidden resources of the
circular economy.
As a first conclusion it is possible to indicate that circular economy can be implemented
by everybody using doses of energy and finance. Of course we are in a position to
demonstrate by facts and projects that by applying increases quantities of finance and energy
the countries of the world will be able to produce in a more economical way food, housing,
jobs, social security with less wars and drugs and more education.
These proposals were also presented during the collaborations I had in the period ’71-‘86
with F.A.O. (Food and Agricultural Organization) and I.F.A.D. (International Fund of
Agriculture Development), where a cost-benefit analysis was developed, as previously
reported [7, 8, 11]. The above proposals were illustrated by specific problems regarding
Renewable energy, Road Infrastructures, Irrigation and Agricultural Development [8, 10, 11].
Among others conferences, I had the occasion to illustrate the situation and prospects of
the energy sector in Italy, submitted and illustrated in 2008 at the Italian Embassy in London
and at the United Kingdom Energy Research center in London, on behalf at the Italian
Minister of Economic Development [8, 11].
The above conclusions are strategically relevant, considering the present status of the
economy, which is oriented towards a “Immaterial Capitalism with the application of digital
technologies in the new social conflict” which will produce a “NEW ECONOMIC SOCIAL
ORDER”, based on resource conservation and and energy efficiency [19].
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96 L. Marsullo
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[7] Marsullo, L. (Ed) (2013). Evaluation, Control and Monitoring of Public Investment;
with preface by Paolo Savona more times Minister and Professor of Political Economy,
Mondadori, Rome; Italy.
[8] Marsullo, L. (2014). Efficiency of Public Investment in Italy, Conference, Mondadori,
Milano, september.
[9] Bullettino of the I.C.A. (1971) London, UK.
[10] Marsullo, L. (1987). Economic Evaluation of Public Investment Objects.Higher
Institute of Public Administration, Office of the Prime Minister, Mondadori, Milano,
Italy.
[11] Marsullo, L. (2018). Cost - Benefits Analysis of Public Investment, Mondadori, Rome,
Italy.
[12] Winch, D. M. (1971). Analytical Welfare Economics, 1971, Pergamon Press, Penguin
Books, London.
[13] MacArthur, Ellen. (2020). The Circular Economy in Detail Ellen MacArthur
Foundationfoundation. www.ellenmacharthurfoundation.org (Accessed February 17,
2020).
[14] MacArthur, Ellen. (2013). Toward The Circular Economy. Economic and business
rationale for an accelerated transition, Report, Ellen MacArthur Foundation.
[15] Marsullo, L. (1972). Bullettin of the I.C.A, New Delhi, India.
[16] UN. World Population Ageing 2019. Highlight United, Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, New York, USA.
[17] Marsullo, L. (1984). Approccio Metodologico Benefici-Costi per la Valutazione Degli
Investimenti in Infrastrutture Stradale [Cost-Benefit Methodological Approach for the
Evaluation of Investments in Road Infrastructures]. Seminary, Roma "Sapienza"
University, Italy, June 11 - 12.
[18] Marsullo, L. (2002). Il Cofinanziamento delle Infrastrutture di Trasporto Alla Luce
della Legge Obiettivi [Co-financing of Transport Infrastructures In the Light of the
Objectives Law], Rivista Trimestrale Sistemi di Trasporto, Rome, Itay.
[19] Ecosense. (2012). Resource Efficiency Challenge, Forum for Sustainable Development,
Ecosense Report, Berlin, Germany.
Chapter 6
CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR A HEALTHY

LIVING ENVIRONMENT
P. Morganti1,2, and G. Tishchenko3

1
ISCD Nanoscience Center, Rome, Italy
2
3
Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences,
Praha, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT
Food processing and food loss, which generate from 45% to 59% of the total waste
further increased by industrial by-products and plastic materials, created a great
environmental pollution on lands and oceans, no more sustainable. Thus the necessity to
use this waste, considering it not as a simple loss but as an interesting richness.
Redesigning goods and tissue production to facilitate their recycling, remanufacturing,
and reusing has to be considered a necessity for preserving the natural raw materials for
the future generations. Natural polymers, such as chitin and lignin, obtainable from food
and agro-food waste, as well as bio-polyesters such as polylactic acid (PLA) and
Polyhydroxyalcanoates obtained from renewable resources, have been proposed to
produce biodegradable products. By these natural polymers it is possible to produce
biodegradable films and non-woven tissues which, characterized for their structure ECM-
like, may be used in the medical and cosmetic fields. The different activity of these
tissues is due not only to the different productive methodology adopted but also to the
selected active ingredients embedded into their fibers. It is, in fact, possible to bound to
the fibers various ingredients, able to slow down the aging processes or reduce the
inflammation phenomena and repair the skin affected by burns or wounds. The
effectiveness of these innovative tissues, made prevalently by chitin and lignin, has been
reported by the results of the first feasibility research studies conducted in vitro and in
vivo on burned skin. In conclusion, redesigning, reproducing, reusing and producing
goods obtained by the use of their biodegradable natural polymers, it seems possible to
reduce or eliminate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions adopting the circular economy'

Corresponding Author’s Email: pierfrancesco.morganti@iscd.it.
98 P. Morganti and G. Tishchenko
rules. So doing it will possible to save the human health and the environment,
safeguarding natural raw materials and biodiversity of our planet.
Keywords: polysaccharides, chitin, lignin, natural polyesters, food packaging, waste,

pollution, skin scaffold
INTRODUCTION
The food sea industry generates between 6 to 8 million metric tons of shrimp and lobster
shell waste, while it is estimated that about 1.3 billion tons per year is human food
consumption lost or wasted globally every year [1]. The majority of this waste is dumped
back into the ocean or into landfills, creating great problems of pollution for the environment
[2]. As a consequence, per capita waste by consumers is between 95-115 kg a year in Europe
and North America while in sub-Saharian Africa, south and South-Eastern Asia, people throw
away no more than 6-11 kg only. According to FAO this global wastage, causing an
environmental carbon footprint which impacts on climate, water and biodiversity, could be
recycled and used as opportunity for improving food security and production of goods, if
opportunely recycled (Figure 1) [3]. Just to remember, a product's carbon footprint is the total
amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions emitted throughout its life cycle in kilograms of
CO2 equivalents [3]. Thus, the necessity to reduce the food wastage not only to reduce the
food cost and bettering its quality, but also to ameliorate the environmental perspective
slowing down the GHG emissions.
Figure 1. Food Wastage worldwide (by courtesy of FAO [3]).

Circular Economy for a Healthy Living Environment 99
Figure 2. Saving money by the circular economy (by courtesy of Ellen MacArthur Foundation [4]).
It is to underline that the average carbon footprint of food waste is about 500 kg CO2
equivalent, per capita and per year [3]! Apart the prevention measures which occur to reduce
or eliminate the food wastage during the production, distribution and consume supply chain,
it appears necessary its reuse to obtain raw materials to make goods, according to the circular
economy. At this purpose, by a study of Ellen MacArthur Foundation [4] it has been
established that applying the circular economy to the actual current business models, 1 trillion
USD will be saved by 2025 (Figure 2) [4]. Therefore the necessity to create new products by
waste, therefore, is considered an easy method to rethink, reduce, recycle, recover, refurbish,
repurpose, remanufacture, reuse and repair, for going towards a circular economy
conceptualized as a combination of the 9Rs [5].
The generated waste, in fact depends on the technology used, the nature of raw materials
processed and how much of it is discarded at the end of the supply chain. Thus became a must
the necessity to consider a new way of living by producing and consuming goods and services
more efficiently, possibly at zero waste [6]. At this purpose, the agro-forestry biomass as well
as the fishery's by-products can provide a great quantity of raw materials to produce a wide
range of innovative value-added products without consuming the precious natural raw
materials of our Planet. Beyond the fact that agriculture is responsible for a quarter of the
GHG emissions, a better food system can unlock solutions to climate changing, contributing
to environmental and health benefits [4]. However cities, where are living around an half of
worldwide population are living, can play an important role in sparking a shift to a different
food system, becoming centers where food by-products may be transformed in value-added
goods. Moreover, marketing food products by appealing people to use more local, available
and seasonal ingredients, could increase cities' connection with local farmers, helping their
traceability and safety, thus reducing the pollution created from transport from long distances
also [4]. It is to underline, in fact, that “for every dollar spent on food, society pays two
dollars in health, environmental and economic cost.” Just to know, half of these costs are due
to the way the food is produced and consumed worldwide, being its global costs estimated in
USD 5.7 trillion/year [4]. In conclusion, it should be necessary to use by-products obtained
from both agro-forestry and industrial biomass, choosing products coming from recyclable
raw materials and marketing fresh food instead of canned ones, using also more recyclable
packagings and less non-biodegradable ones. At this purpose from the waste feedstocks and
by different methodologies, it is possible to obtain polymeric polysaccharides, such as
cellulose starch, pullulan, alginic acid and chitin/chitosan as well as biopolyesters, such as
polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs and PHBs), based on renewable
resources. All these ingredients are natural polymers, 100% biodegradable and biocompatible
which may to be used in different industrial fields.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are stable polymers which, providing biomaterials with interesting
mechanical properties and aqueous stability, can better withstand different processing
conditions, being also easily made into various shapes and sized [7]. They are condensate
polymers resulting by a type of covalent linkage known as glycosidic bond, formed between
monomeric units of carbohydrates kwon as monosaccharides. However, polysaccharides are
the most abundant natural, polymers on the planet, serving as major defensive elements in
plants (i.e., cellulose and lignin) and barrier elements in animals(i.e., chitin in arthropods and
hyaluronic acid in mammals), or as food storage material (i.e., starch or glycogen). Because
of the monosaccharides's stereoisomerism, during the condensation reaction different types of
polysaccharides are synthesized, characterized by different properties and functionalities.
Thus for the versatility and the possibility to engineering and customizing these natural
polymers, it is possible to make, hydrogels, fibers, non-woven tissues and films by innovative
and easy technologies, such as micro/nano emulsions, encapsulation, electrospinning and
casting for realizing many different products to be used for medical and cosmetic applications
also. As consequence, the possibility to develop tissues or films engineered to obtain right
interactions between the cellular environment and appropriate and compatible biomaterials,
useful for example, to make specialized scaffolds suitable to mimic the human physiology
[8]. Due to the vast amount of literature available on polysaccharides, this paper has been
restricted on the different use of chitin and chitosan for food, cosmetic, and medical
applications.
CHITIN, CHITOSAN AND CHITIN NANOFIBRILS

Chitin, easily recovered as waste material, is the second most abundant polysaccharide
present in nature after cellulose, unique for its higher content of nitrogen (~7%). It is a
composite material of ordered crystalline microfibrils embedded in a matrix of protein and
minerals [9]. Like cellulose, in fact, chitin is a long unbranched polymeric chain made of
N- acetyl-D-glucosamine units. Found in a crystalline or semi-crystalline form, as the skeletal
material of crustaceans and insects, and as component of cell walls of bacteria, mollusks and
fungi, this polymer works as a resistant material barrier against the environment and parasite
aggressions. Its deacetylated molecule is named chitosan (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Chitin and chitosan formule compared to cellulose.
Figure 4. Intra- and inter-molecular hydrogen bonding of chitin (by courtesy of Pillar et al. [10]).
Figure 5. Chitin needle-like structure at SEM (by Courtesy of Coltelli et al.).
Because of its linear structure with two hydroxyl groups and an acetamide group, chitin is
predominantly a crystallin polymer characterized by strong intra- and inter-molecular
hydrogen bonding, thus exhibiting high modulus and strength along its axis (Figure 4) [10].
In living tissues, this polymer appears as an ordered semicrystalline hierarchical structure
organized in sheets of nanofibrils made by the aggregation of 17-25 chitin chains exhibiting a
needle like morphology (Figure 5).
These needles are made of more or less pure crystallites containing on their molecule
15% or more amino groups, depending from the industrial productive method. By the
industrial methodology adopted and patented by our group it is possible to obtain a 2%
suspension of nanofibrils (3 billion/ml) characterized by a mean dimension of 240 x 7 x 5 nm
covered by around 15,000 -NH2 groups. Having cationic characteristics, these nanocrystals
possess self-assembly capabilities, so that the nanofibrils form micro/nanoparticles in water
suspension, when in contact with anionic polymers or molecules, such as Hyaluronic acid and
Lignin (Figure 6) [11]. Apart from the amino groups which impart to chitin and chitosan their
distinctive biological functions, they have two hydroxyl functionality useful for effecting
appropriate chemical modifications [10].
However, both chitin and chitosan are polycationic polymers, odorless, nontoxic, non -
allergenic, biocompatible, eco-compatible, and easily degraded by human and environmental
enzymes to glucosamine, acetyl glucosamine and glucose, used from human cells and
environmental microorganisms as food and energy [11]. The degree of deacetylation, that
may vary from 60% to 98%, is generally defined as glucosamine/N-acetyl glucosamine ratio.
When the percentage of N-acetyl glucosamine is higher than glucosamine, the biopolymer is
called chitin [12]. Despite its huge annual production and easy availability, chitin still remains
an underutilized polymer, also if its fibers have attracted a great attention for their highly
promising applications as interesting biomaterials, which can be easily modified into various
forms such as films, beads, sponges, and more complex shapes [13]. However, for its
antimicrobial, antioxidant, immunomodulating and skin repairing activities, this natural,
polymer is finding application in biomedical and tissue engineering [14-16], especially under
the form of chitin nanofibrils, able to facilitate the cell adhesion and proliferation, because of
their hydrophilic nature, nano size dimension and enhanced biocompatibility.
Figure 6. Chitin Nanofibril-Hyaluronan (on top) and chitin Nanofibril-lignin (below).
In any way, any kind of polymeric fibers, having diameters between few nanometers up
some microns, can be successfully used for a wide variety of applications such as
reinforcement in nanocomposites and nanoparticles for packaging purposes [17,18] or as
scaffolds for tissue engineering and/or innovative cosmetic applications [19-20]. The
harnessing of biomass is, therefore, at the hearth of bioeconomy from the agro-forestry to
aquatic feedstocks through the waste streams and new alternative sources, the acquiring and
processing of which is essential to achieving success. As a consequence, the role of new
technologies and innovative industrial processes, are at the base for improve efficiencies and
lower costs of production. Thus, for example, in the cosmetic field results fundamental to
minimize the environmental impact by developing products and containers skin-friendly and
environmentally-friendly, characterized by their good usability and beautiful design.
Naturally, the access to feedstocks and the efficiency of their use have to be evaluated and
developed, as well as the safety assessment of both nanoparticles and nanocomposites used
have to be incorporated into a designed and innovative network, well programmed and
controlled for its effectiveness and safeness by in vitro and in vivo studies [21-23].
Figure 7. Chitin and hyaluronic acid have the same backbone.
Chitin nanofibrils and chitosan, therefore, are considered the right polymers candidates
for the skin scaffolds, showing many advantages over synthetic biomaterials for their stable
and porous structure. Moreover, they are easily manipulable by electrospinning and casting
technologies, being also free of cytotoxicity with antimicrobial, immunological, and wound
healing activities, as previously reported. Additionally, the N-acetylglucosamine moiety of
both chitin nanofibril and chitosan is structurally similar to hyaluronic acid (Figure 7).
Moreover, their holding specific interactions with the skin growth factors and the specific
receptors and adhesion proteins, shearing similar biochemical characteristics with natural
tissues, facilitate for example the regeneration of a burned skin [24-25].
SKIN STRUCTURE AND SKIN SCAFFOLD

Skin is the largest organ of the human body that, by less than 2 mm of thickness, provides
a protective barrier for a lifetime, keeping microbes and environmental chemicals out from
essential body fluid and organs (Figure 8) [26]. Such temporal demands require not only a
perfect integrity, but also mechanical strength and durability. Skin is a three-layered self-
renewable structure composed by: epidermis, dermis, and sub-cutaneous tissue.
The epidermis, by the outmost layer (i.e., Stratum corneum) and the overlapping structure
of keratinocytes, prevents moisture and heat loss as well as the bacterial infiltration from the
environment, contemporary modulating permeability and transdermal delivery of every
substance applied on its intact surface.
The dermis, separated from the epidermis at level of the dermal-epidermal junction, is
composed by a scaffold gel-structure, named extra cellular matrix (ECM), composed of fibers
binding water as a sponge. The collagen and elastin fibers, synthesized from the fibroblast
cells which are living into this gel matrix, result necessary to maintain the skin hydration.
This complex hydrated structure is indispensable to slow down the aging phenomena, also
because active in neutralizing all the environmental assaults, including the sun harmful
ultraviolet radiation (UV) and the air toxic nanoparticulate.
Figure 8. Skin layers and environmental aggressions.
Just to remember, ECM is mainly composed of both polysaccharide chains, called

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) covalently linked to protein in the form of proteoglycans (PGs)
(Figure 9), and fibrous proteins, including collagens, elastin, fibronectin and laminin, possess
fundamentally a structural and adhesive function [27].
Collagen provides tensile strength, while elastin and other proteins provide the skin
elasticity. However, ECM is embedded in a highly negatively charged gel-network made by
linear polysaccharides called glycans which bound to yaluronic acid contribute to protect,
stabilize, and maintain the skin hydration state with its barrier function [27, 28]. The
glycosylation process of cell membrane proteins, during which the N-acetylglucosamine is
involved, plays an important role in cell-cell interactions, cell adhesion, proliferation and
differentiations swell as in remodeling the ECM, hydration, and antimicrobial activities
(Figure 10) [27, 28]. Moreover, it contains cell receptors and enzymes which, regulating gene
and protein expression, defines fate and signals of the skin cell [29]. Thus, ECM acts not only
as a space filler and a mechanical scaffold for the cells, but also as a bioactive and dynamic
environment capable to mediate the cellular functions [30]. Its components, in fact, regulate
the cell proliferation, survival, differentiation, and migration, being function of the normal
aging process, with a decreased and a disorganized distribution of collagen type 1 [29].
Thus the necessity to know and understand composition and structure of the natural ECM
for making synthetic scaffolds. These scaffolds may be utilized in tissue engineering
applications to repair burn or wound or trying to rejuvenate a prematurely aged skin by the so
called regenerative medicine. This medical brunch, in fact, has the aim to recuperate lost or
altered tissues by guiding cell growth and restoring the original tissue architecture [31].
At this purpose chitin scaffold, used from other authors also, [32] has been recently used
with success by our group to regenerate a burned skin by the use of tissue-scaffolds made by
nanochitin-nanolignin' fibers bound to nanoparticles of nanostructured silver [23]. The
obtained results have shown this kind of non-woven tissue is able to repair the burned skin in
a shorter time, in comparison with the usual products, without provoking any side effect, such
as hypertrophic scar or keloid. Moreover, this innovative tissue is totally biodegradable,
showing to have a great compatibility with the skin, possessing sufficient mechanical strength
and elasticity also. Additionally the presence of N-acetyl glucosamine, as part of the chitin
molecule, probably has a specific positive role, being an important component of the
glycation phenomena, as previously reported (Figure 10). Finally, it is to underline that all the
active ingredients and polymers used to make this tissue have been obtained from waste
materials.
Figure 9. Polysaccharides and glycosaminoglycans in ECM.

Figure 10. Involvement of N-acetylglucosamine in the glycosylation process.
FOOD WASTE AND PACKAGING

The Technological advancement in the field of agro-industry has led to the availability of
large quantity of agricultural products and waste, so that it has been estimated that the food
processing generates 45-59% of the total industrial pollutants [3, 4]. Food production, in fact,
derived from agriculture, horticulture, and fisheries processes, represent an increasingly
market driven in a contest of population increase, urbanization and climate change. As
previously reported, the waste of food processing contains good amount of biodegradable and
nutritionally rich material which may be utilized by appropriate and sustainable technologies
to produce for example bioplastic nano-composites. Synthetic plastics, in fact, have a
negative outcome for the environment because of the great waste invading land and oceans of
the planet from many years. Thus it has been estimated that “at least 5.25 trillion individual
particles, weighing around 269,000 tonnes, are floating on or near the oceans surface” [33].
Only in Europe, the total production of plastic material is over 60.000 tons per year,
~50% of which remains as waste and toxic material [34]. Therefore, the necessity to develop
new polymeric materials derived from renewable sources as the biomass waste previously
reported. These new materials can be used to produce bioplastics, biodegradable, eco-
compatible with a positive end-life and skin-friendly activity, thus replacing the petrol-based
eco-toxic plastics and reducing the actual pollution [35]. For these reasons the European
Council are adopting new rules to restrict many single-use plastic items and introduce
recycling targets for plastic bottle also [36].
At this purpose, our group proposed the use of chitin and chitosan to make biodegradable
and compostable films for food packaging [37]. One of the major problem in the food
industry, in fact, is its contamination by microorganisms. The principal, aims of modern food
processing, therefore, are (a) to make safe food, (b) to provide high-quality product and (c) to
prepare convenient packagings [38]. Thus the necessity to avoid contamination and maintain
the right flavor and texture by the use of the proposed active packaging, made by chitin
nanofibrils and chitosan [17, 18, 37]. The obtained, biodegradable and protective films, in fact
resulted useful for extending the product shelf life, and ensuring its microbial safety, naturally
maintaining the quality of the packed food. In conclusion, the main purpose of food
processing industry in the global economy is to maintain sustainability of the environment
also. Mother Nature still plays a decisive role in the global economy, but its reduced
resources have to be maintained, reusing recycling or reprocessing the waste biomass [38].
Thus, a healthy ecosystem is fundamental to realize a sustainable development because food
production and the consequential waste-generation, affect both resources consumption and
the environment contamination [39]. Further knowledge of the biochemical molecules
available in the various food processing waste would facilitate exploitation of appropriate
biotechnologies for developing new and innovative goods, representing also a solution to the
many pollution problems. The reported studies of our work on biodegradable and
compostable films are going in this direction as reported successively.
CONCLUSION
Circular economy aims not only to eradicate waste but also to find new value by
recycling and reusing the industrials and agro-forestry by-products, as previously reported.
Current trends in global consumption of natural resources, in fact, being unsustainable and
socially unjust have to be changed possibly by public-private partnerships, in line and
according to the last European decisions.
At this purpose, EU Directive 2008/98/CE on waste sets the basic concepts and
definitions to waste management, introducing the “polluter pays principle” and the “extended
producer responsibility.” Moreover, it includes waste prevention programs with new
recycling and recovery targets to be achieved by 2020 regarding certain materials from
households and recovery of construction and demolition waste. Thus, the waste hierarchy has
to be considered a must of our society (Figure 11) so that “Living well, within the limits of
our planet protecting the environment” is the EU long-term vision and strategy UNTIL 2050.
A healthy living environment, therefore, should results from a circulating economy based on
no-waste with maintenance of biodiversity. At this purpose, it has been estimated that using
innovative technologies along all the value chains could reduce material inputs in EU by up to
24% by 2030, conserving materials embodies in high-value products and reducing demand
for primary raw materials [40]. Moreover, measures beyond waste recycling could further
reduce GHG emissions so that, implementing the resource-efficiency by circular economy
could represent an annually benefit from EU to 245 billion to 604 billion [41]. In conclusion,
the transition from a linear economy to the circular economy could be the best way to realize
an healthy living with an environment free of waste and pollution. This is our actual
challenge.
Figure 11. Zero Waste Pyramid according to EU rules.
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Chapter 7
CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN CHINA
Xing-Hua Gao1 and He Cong-Cong2

1
Engineering Research Center for Theranostics of Immunological Skin Diseases, China
2
Dermatological Department, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
ABSTRACT
China has done a lot in the development of circular economy promoting principally
development of resources, improvement of resource output and reduction of waste
generation, all under the control of Chinese government. This paper describes the current
state of China’s circular economy and the outlook for the future, especially for its
application in the field of biomedicine, where a lot of further work has to be done.
Keywords: circular, economy, agricultural, garbage, biomedicine
INTRODUCTION
Since the reform and opening of China in 1978, its economic development has advanced
greatly. The development of light industry and heavy industry has gone hand in hand. At
present, the Gross National Product of China ranks N°2 in the world, also if this rapid
economic development caused unfortunately great sacrifices and deterioration of the natural
environment. Moreover, the large population of the Country and the uneven distribution of
resources, has been the leading cause to encounter bottlenecks in the early stages of
development. Chinese government has been aware of this problem, so that people has
improved both in terms of ideological consciousness and actual action. In 2006, China
officially listed the circular economy in the “Eleventh Five-Year Plan”, launching the
“Circular Economy Promotion Law” in 2008. Moreover, it was fully implemented in 2009
becoming today a fundamental milestone of progress. The comprehensive reutilization rate of
wasted products from 2000-2010 had a general upward trend. Thus, by the year 2010, about
60% of the overall solid waste generation had already been reutilized, representing more than
20% of the total resource requirement [1].
114 Xing-Hua Gao and He Cong-Cong
THE STATUS QUO OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN CHINA

At present, the main feature of China’s development by the circular economy is to
promote the development of resources, improve resource output rate and reduce waste
generation through government-led tax incentives, resource integration, and green subsidies
to achieve relatively loose connect between national economic growth and resource
consumption. At moment, energy conservation is the distinctive feature of circular economy
[2]. As early as the 19th century, some fields in China made great efforts in the circular
economy so that nowadays, the circular economy has penetrated various fields including
agriculture, industrial, information technology and even biomedicine. China is a big
agricultural country, which has the main base for maintaining the survival and development
of the nation. Therefore, maintaining the sustainable development of the agricultural economy
is of vital importance, and the agricultural circular economy has become an indispensable part
of it. The agricultural recycling economy is mainly based to minimize the development and
consumption of resources, reduce the production of waste, and recycle the waste of
agricultural resources, to achieve the highest utilization of them. As an ecological economy,
the agricultural circular economy actually achieves high-efficiency with a clean production
obtained through resource reduction and low-level waste production, as well as a sustainable
use of agricultural resources. So doing economic benefits and ecological benefits can be
achieved. These economic models are infiltrating into broad rural areas in China, providing
indemnification for the people. Under the circular economy system, garbage disposal needs to
be taken as an important content, so that garbage separation and recycling is also an important
part of its disposal to replace the traditional waste disposal methods, such as sanitary landfills
and incineration. In 2017, in fact, the main method of harmless domestic garbage disposal
was sanitary landfill, which accounted for 57% of all methods; followed by incineration,
accounting for 40%. This is because the scale of the project is large and the investment is low.
However, it is necessary to consider the transportation distance, the topography of the landfill
site, geological conditions, water pollution, etc. Moreover, the site selection is difficult also
because for landfill is necessary a large area cause of secondary pollution. This the reason
why this method has rarely been used in foreign countries to dispose of garbage. The
incineration method is widely used in developed countries and countries with small land
areas, and is relatively mature. The harmless treatment is more thorough, and the generated
heat energy can also be utilized for heat supply and power generation for non-recyclable
materials, representing no more than 20% of waste. In the field of biomedicine, the
application of natural materials has become the main form of the circular economy. One of
the example is the natural biological dressings that temporarily replace the damaged skin to
act as a temporary barrier, avoiding and reducing wound infection, and providing an
environment conducive to wound healing. Recently, many biomaterial medical dressings have
gradually replaced traditional dressings which can only provide the simplest isolation
protection. The alginate that Winter et al. [3] first studied is a polysaccharide compound that
has good biocompatibility and biosafety with the fastest hemostasis, being able to effectively
reduce the amount of bleeding and heal faster. In addition, other natural materials such as
chitosan, dextran, hydrocolloid dressings are novel dressings that are beneficial for skin
healing. In addition, natural materials are also used in other clinical fields. Collagen and
gelatin, which are widely used in the medical field, have the disadvantages of rapid
Circular Economy in China 115
degradation and low mechanical strength. In order to enhance their mechanical strength and
adjust their degradation rate, they can be cross-linked by heat. Therefore, they are widely
used for hemostasis, wound healing and tissue regeneration guidance or induction as well as
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA and PHB.) PHB can be degraded into D-3-hydroxybutyric acid,
a natural substance found in human blood and therefore, widely used in surgical sutures,
artificial skin, and drug release control carrier, tissue-guided regeneration membrane, etc.
Air Pollution in China
Air pollution represents in China an important problem especially for the largest cities,
caused from the increased gas emissions from industrial production and the circulating
vehicles. Thus, since the Environmental Protection Law in 1979, Chinese government passed
many laws and regulations to protect the environment, recognizing the severity of air
pollution in urban mega cities, as Beijing and Shanghai, during the early stage of economic
development. Air pollution, therefore, has been addressed in a series of policies establishing
that vehicles, vessels, and non- road mobile machineries must not exceed the stipulated
emission standard reported in the State Council Action Plan [4, 5]. Thus, for example, the
construction of new industries facilities and vehicles that may affect the atmospheric
environment must be preceded by environmental impact assessments and standards for the
emission of atmospheric pollutants, which met the key requirements reported in the Act Plan
[4, 5]. As a consequence between the years 2013 and 2017, significant improvements to air
quality were obtained with a drop of 35% of the micro-particles (PM 2.5), for example in
Beijing. Unfortunately, in the end of 2017 only 107 of China’s 338 cities had reached the
World Health Organization’ interim standard of 35 micrograms/m3, also if 70 cities have
reduced significantly the air pollution and the Government campaign for Bluer skies is
continuing [6].
However, the last action plan is focused on ozone too, also if it in China is it not
particularly severe -ranging + 11% between 2017-2018- when compared to other Countries
[7]. Thus, the Plan regards particularly “large reductions in total emissions of greenhouse
gases”, taking detailed measures on the sources of pollution and structural issues, such as
transition to a green energy and transportation (Figure 1) [7, 8].
Plastics Waste and COVID-19 Pandemic
Plastic, infiltrating almost every aspect of human life and becoming a major commodity
on a global scale, has produced a great waste problem also. Among the different uses, plastic
packaging is the most significant sector with a 40 per cent consumption by different items
which, utilized only once, contribute to 61% of beach litters by 6.3 billion metric tons (MT)
worldwide [9]. Regarding plastics, China and Hong Kong imported 72.4% of all plastic waste
produced in 2017, of which only 9% has been recycled. Thus China in 2009 introduced a
temporary restriction on plastic waste imported by its Green Fence policy to increase its
quality, announcing in 2017 a permanent banning to import the non-industrial plastic waste
[10, 11]. However, Chinese authorities rolled out new regulation to control plastic pollution
in the land, to go on versus the circular economy by three major goals during the period 2020-
2025.
By 2020 in some pilot areas and sectors will be prohibited and restricted the production,
sale and use of some plastics, imposing a total ban of importation. By 2022 the substitution of
disposable plastic packaging with other biodegradable one will be promoted.
By 2025 will be established a new system for the management of production, circulation,
consumption, recycling and disposal of all the biodegradable and non-biodegradable plastic
products. Moreover, production and sale of plastic films in agriculture less than 0.01
millimetric thick and plastic bags less then 0.025 millimetric thick will be banned. In China,
in fact, every year about 2 million tons of plastic films are used to cover around 200,000
kilometers square of farmland for protecting against pets and helping maintain moisture. At
this purpose, Chinese government is encouraging farmers to reuse and recycle old films as
possible and/or utilize recyclable ones. In conclusion, it is necessary to eliminate unnecessary
plastics rethinking the way of design, produce and use them for going towards a circular
economy based on recyclable or compostable plastics made by natural polymers obtained
from food waste. At this purpose, the worldwide large use of surgical masks for protecting
people from COVID-19 pandemic is not to be forgotten, being made by petrol-derived non
degradable polymers. Thus, according to the Chinese Premier Li Keqiang, prevention and
control of COVID-19 is at the hearth of the government’s strategy at macro- and micro level
for year ahead [12]. The focus of this strategy will be a continuous socioeconomic vigilance
to maintain the citizens health, protecting, employment, livelihoods, business and supply
chains from collapse. According to Premier Li’s strategy, preventing and controlling COVID-
19 will go hand in hand with planning, decision- making and implementing of government
policy over the coming year by the so called Six Protections: 1. job security; 2. people’s
livelihoods; 3. business; 4. food and energy security; 5. stable industrial and supply chains; 6.
functioning of the lower levels of the Chinese government’s five-level hierarchy. Differently
to Europe-returning the economy and society to normal- China is putting prevention and
control of the epidemic at the Centre for the foreseeable future [12]. All the effort towards
socioeconomic development must be planned coordinating pandemic prevention and control.
PROSPECT OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN CHINA
Evolution of Scientific Production
In the future, China’s circular economy will have a good development prospect, facing
many challenges and difficulties also. So in the face of the new trend of developing circular
economy in the world, what should we do? From the perspective of China’s long-term
economic development prospects, we must establish a basic strategic goal for national
economic and social development. Only in this way, it is possible to effectively overcome the
environmental resource crisis that emerged in the process of modernization. We need to
experience the transition from a traditional industrial linear economy to a circular economy.
This is a great reform against traditional economic development and environmental
governance methods. The process of changing, requires the active advocacy and support of
the government [13]. At the same time, active innovation and development in the industry
requires public participation and endorsement. From the government’s point of view, it is
necessary to formulate corresponding laws, regulations, plans and policies, to change which is
not in line with the circular economy. More attention should be paid to the application of
economic incentives and measures, as well as other incentives for civil voluntariness. In terms
of industry, the necessity of integrating resource recycling and environmental protection into
the overall innovation, by the development of an operative strategy, able to adopt
corresponding technologies and management for guiding a consumption and market behavior,
conducive to the circular economy [14-16]. From the public’s point of view, values and
consumption views have to be in harmony with the environment, voluntarily choosing
environmentally friendly lifestyle and consumption patterns.
Figure 1. Trends in CO2 emissions from 2002-2017 in China (by the courtesy of Zheng et al. [8]).
Many achievements from developed countries in the circular economy are worth learning
from. First of all, transforming design ideas and principles, unifying economic, social and
environmental benefits, fully paying attention to recycling materials. In the product design
process, the necessity to try to be normative, so that the equipment may be easily upgraded
without having to scrap the whole machine. At the end of its life cycle, the product has to be
easily disassembled and comprehensively used. At the same time, in the product design has to
be avoid the use of toxic and hazardous materials, harmful for people’s health and the
environment.
Scientific and rational design is, therefore, the precondition for the implementation of
circular economy. Secondly, for relying on scientific and technological progress, it will be
necessary to actively adopt harmless or low-harm new technologies, vigorously reducing the
consumption of natural raw materials and energy, achieving less input, high output, low
pollution, and eliminating emissions of environmental pollution as much as possible. Thirdly,
the comprehensive utilization of resources will be implemented to make waste resources be
reduced and harmless, and decrease environmentally harmful waste to a minimum. Finally,
the conduction of a scientific and strict management has to be considered a must. Circular
economy is a new and advanced economic form, but it cannot be envisaged as an economic
form promoted by advanced technology. It has to be considered, in fact, a systematic project
that integrates economy, technology and society. Scientific and strict management is an
important condition for doing it well. At the same time, the development of a biomedical-
related circular economy will not only greatly benefit the development of the entire economy,
but will also benefit the whole society. In a word, China will have a lot to do in the
development of circular economy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Part of the writing was supported by the 111 Project [D18011] (to XHG).
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PART III. WASTE IN CIRCULAR ECONOMY
Chapter 8
CIRCULAR ECONOMY IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

AS AN EXAMPLE OF WASTELESS PROCESSING
OF CRUSTACEAN’S WASTE
Galina Tishchenko1,* and Pierfrancesco Morganti2,3

1
Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences,
Prague, Czech Republic
2
Academy of History of Health Care Art, Rome, Italy
3
ABSTRACT
In the European Union, the industrial production of chitin, chitosan and products on
their base are produced by five commercial companies: France Chitine, Primex (Iceland),
BioLog Heppe® Gmb and Heppe Medical Chitosan GmbH (Germany) [1] and Mavi Sud
Srl (Italy) [2]. According to the European Chitin Society (1], scientists from all EU
countries take part in an ever-expanding study and practical application of these natural
polysaccharides due to their biocompatibility with the human body, high chemical
reactivity, easy biodegradability, and excellent film-forming ability.
In this chapter, we tried to analyze current trends in the study of new materials based
on chitin and chitosan, developed in the form of films for packaging food products and in
the form of dressings for the treatment of wounds, due to the great social significance of
their practical use. Here, there is a review of the publications of the EU scientists working
in these directions during the last 10 years.
Keywords: chitosan, chitin nanofibrils, food packaging, active food packaging films, wound
dressings, disposable CHITOPACK packaging films
INTRODUCTION
Since ancient times, people, “earning their daily bread, working in the sweat of their
faces”, used the Environment not caring much about its restoration. Today, the understanding
124 Galina Tishchenko and Pierfrancesco Morganti
comes that the Environment is a Subject that gives the Mankind everything necessary for its
survival for many thousands of years. Uncontrolled human activity has led to pollution of the
Environment due to the accumulation in it of an enormous number of toxic substances that
had never existed in Nature before.
The time has come when all the inhabitants of the Earth must unite and invest their
knowledge and experience to restore the lost biological balance on the planet and create new
“green” technologies that will not pollute the Environment with municipal and industrial
waste.
Recycling of waste from the fish industry is one of the successful examples for the
implementation of the circular economy in the EU. The processing of crustacean’s shells
being the by-product of the fish industry for extraction of chitin and chitosan solves
simultaneously two important problems: ensures the materials science, biology and medicine
with raw materials and stopes the pollution of Environment with industrial waste.
CHITOSAN AND CHITIN NANOFIBRILS IN FOOD PACKAGING

One of the important requirements of the world market is to increase the shelf-life of food
products to reduce both losses due to their rot and the labor and financial costs invested in
their production. The uninterrupted supply of food to people is related to the duration of their
storage, which can be increased by improving the quality and preservation of food products
together with development of new active packaging films ensuring their longer storage.
One of the recent initiatives of the European Commission has been the financing of the n-
Chitopack project as a part of the European program aimed at creating a “blue and green”
economy based on environmentally friendly technologies and materials [3]. The idea of using
the biodegradable natural polymer such as chitosan having an excellent ability to form films
is not new in the industry of food packaging. Nevertheless, chitosan is still the subject of
research for new generations of scientists that expands our knowledge about its
transformations and new application areas.
A general conclusion for all recent publications discussed in this chapter consists in the
confirmation of antimicrobial, antioxidative, and barrier properties to water vapor, oxygen,
and ultraviolet rays for the developed chitosan-based packaging films. These findings support
once more the widely known intrinsic antimicrobial activity of chitosan, which is comparable
with that of chemically synthesized antimicrobial polymers. At the same time, modern
research methods used by the authors allowed them to obtain more detailed information about
the structure and properties of chitosan that is so important for perfecting the production of
biodegradable food packaging films.
Lecheta I et al. [4] have proved that the set of properties mentioned above does not
depend on the molecular weight of chitosan and the content of glycerol in plasticized chitosan
films. Fernandez-Sise P et al. [5] have investigated the relationship between the antimicrobial
activity of chitosan and the structural features of its film, which was formed in situ by casting
chitosan dissolved in acetic acid directly onto an ATR crystal. In ATR-FTIR spectrum of
chitosan film, the normalized band centered at 1405 cm‒1 is attributed to the carboxylate
groupings (-NH3 -OOCH), which, according to the authors, handle the biocidal activity of
chitosan, since a correlation between the level of antimicrobial activity of chitosan and the
Circular Economy in the European Union as an Example of Wasteless Processing … 125
size of this band has been proven. High antibacterial activity has been seen only in the
presence of a sufficient amount of carboxylate groupings in chitosan films. It has been also
proven that carboxylate groupings are not stable and their number decreases with time. The
temperature influenced also on the antimicrobial properties of chitosan films [6]. If films were
obtained at 37, 80°C, they had a significant inhibitory effect on both Staphylococcus aureus
and Salmonella spp, while the film obtained at 120°C ceased to show antimicrobial
properties. The authors have concluded that the proper temperature and humidity control is
needed under preparation and storage of chitosan films for their best biocidal activity. The
importance of this conclusion is supported by the results of Velásquez-Cock J et al. [7], who
compared the antibacterial effect of chitosan films containing bacterial cellulose as a filler
and acetic or lactic acid as a solvent for chitosan. The antibacterial activity of the films
obtained by using an acetate solution of chitosan was absent, perhaps, because of the
inappropriate conditions under their preparation. The nature of acid affected the interactions
between chitosan and cellulose that manifested in various mechanical stabilities of the films,
which turned out to be significantly higher for the films prepared from the acetate solution of
chitosan. The influence of the nature and concentration of plasticizers on properties of
chitosan films was studied by several researchers [8-10]. Fundo JF et al. [8] have found that
the amount of glycerol in the slurry handles the composition of film, while the chitosan and
glycerol ratio in the slurry decides its thickness. The authors have also found that water
molecules move freely in the matrix of films, while molecules of glycerol are associated with
chitosan chains. Kellnar I et al. [9] have studied the effect of the content and molecular length
of polyglycerols on mechanical characteristics of chitosan (85 wt.%) films reinforced with
chitin nanofibrils (15 wt.%). At the same content of glycerol, diglycerol or triglycerol in
chitosan films, both their strain at break and the tensile strength increased with increase of the
length of plasticizer molecule. For the films with the fixed plasticizer type, when its content
increased, the strain at break tended to increase but the tensile strength to decrease. Suyatma
NE et al. [10] have determined the effect of conditions and duration of storage of chitosan
films plasticized with glycerol, ethylene glycol, poly(ethylene glycol), or propylene glycol on
the mechanical and surface properties of the films. The increase of storage of the plasticized
films from 3 weeks to 20 weeks at the fixed temperature and relative humidity resulted in a
decrease of their stretching. Plasticization increased the hydrophilicity of the films. Glycerol
and poly(ethylene glycol) turned out to be more suitable as chitosan plasticizers due to their
better plasticizing effect and higher stability of the films at storage. Authors have concluded
that 20 wt%-concentration of these plasticizers is sufficient to keep the flexibility and good
stability of chitosan films for 5 months of storage.
Several research priorities have been found at reviewing the recent publications devoted
to the development of new chitosan-based films for food packaging and study of their
properties. The first priority consists in the use of chitosan together with one or more natural
polymers preferably having antibacterial activity also. A distinctive feature of these
researches was, first of all, the detection of the antimicrobial properties of new films,
although some attention was paid for evaluation of their antioxidative activity, permeability
for water vapors and oxygen, and mechanical properties.
Films developed by Alzagameem A et al. [11] were based on hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose with addition of chitosan and lignin. The properties of these films depended
both on the source of origin and the content of lignin, the polyphenolic structure of which and
the presence of O-containing functional groups are potentially responsible for not only its
antimicrobial activity but also free radical scavenging ability. It is especially important that
these films suppress the growth of both gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms
both at 35°C and at low temperatures (0-7°C) including the bacteria Brochothrix
thermosphacta and Pseudomonas fluorescens, which can grow at low temperatures and spoil
food. Increase of the content of lignin and addition of chitosan to the films has enhanced their
antimicrobial activity. Crouvisier-Urion K et al. [12] have also studied the chitosan films
containing lignin in the form of microparticles, which were obtained by treatment of lignin
under the applied high pressure or by high shear homogenization, resulting in preparation of
the lignin microparticles with the sizes of 0.6 and 2.5-5 microns, respectively. The surface
hydrophobicity of the composite films increased without a significant difference in their
antioxidative activity. However, migration of lignin microparticles from the films into the
extraction medium was noted, especially, when homogenizing of lignin happened under high
pressure. The films prepared by Benbettaïeb N et al. [13] from mixtures of chitosan and
gelatin by casting technique showed the improved mechanical stability and barrier properties
due to chemical interactions between the components. Belalia R et al. [14] have shown that
the developed films and especially coatings from hydroxypropyl cellulose associated with
chitosan or N, N, N-trimethylchitosan as biocides inhibited completely the growth of Listeria
monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimuriumevaluate. A potentially biologically active food
packaging based on paper coated with chitosan was developed by Bordenave N et al. [15].
Chitosan was deeply absorbed into the paper and enveloped the cellulose fibers, instead of
forming a layer as expected. Chitosan-modified paper had improved barrier properties to
water. This finding supports the assumption by Van den Broek LA et al. [16], who claimed
that antimicrobial agents such as chitosan in packaging films will enhance their barrier
properties, thus increasing the shelf-life of a packed food product.
The films developed by Gomes LP et al. [17] had chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles
obtained by the ultrasound treatment of chitosan for 5, 15 and 30 minutes. The mechanical
strength and stiffness of these composite films increased but their water permeability
decreased. All these films showed the antimicrobial activity against both some gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria.
The second priority direction for the researchers in the development of new packaging
films consisted in the use of mixtures of natural and synthetic polymers containing various
fillers for improving the mechanical stability of films. The flexible and transparent films of
hydrophilic nature have been made by Cazón P et al. [18, 19] from bacterial cellulose,
chitosan, and poly(vinyl alcohol). The films have shown good barrier properties against UV
irradiation, the improved mechanical properties and high ability to adsorb water. Velickova E
et al. [20] used chitosan as the basis for the development of films crosslinked with sodium
tripolyphosphate, the both surfaces of which were further coated with beeswax. For
comparison, the films consisting of an emulsion of chitosan and beeswax only have been also
prepared. Crosslinking of chitosan matrix with tripolyphosphate halved both water absorption
and the permeability to water vapor of the films but their rigidity increased. The less stiff
films from chitosan and beeswax have passed water vapors in almost twofold slower. The
composite films based on hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and chitosan have been developed
by Möller H et al. [21]. The hydrophobicity of these films increased at their crosslinking by
citric acid or association with stearic acid. The films with and without stearic acid have shown
antilisterial activity, but the films crosslinked with citric acid lost their antimicrobial activity.
Swagan AJ et al. [22] have purposed to prepare the films based on polylactide, the oxygen
permeability of which would be comparable to that of poly(ethylene terephthalate). After

applying 70 alternating two-layer coatings consisting of chitosan and montmorillonite clay to
the surface of the extruded polylactide film, its oxygen permeability decreased by 99% and
96%, respectively, at 20°C and 50% relative humidity. Giannakas A et al. [23] used low
molecular weight poly(vinyl alcohol), chitosan, and montmorillonite to prepare packaging
films with low permeability for water vapor and oxygen and increased antimicrobial activity.
Youssef AM et al. [24] have prepared bionanocomposite packaging films from chitosan,
carboxymethyl cellulose, and zinc oxide nanoparticles by casting technique. The films
showed better mechanical and thermal properties than those without embedded mineral
nanoparticles. Analysis of a sample of the soft white cheese packed in this film and stored at
7°C for 30 days have shown that the packaging film helped in increasing the shelf-life of the
cheese and displayed good antibacterial activity against gram positive (Staphylococcus
aureus), gram negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli) bacteria and fungi
(Candida albicans). Other films prepared by the authors [25] for packaging of the soft white
cheese had nanoparticles of titanium oxide embedded in matric from chitosan and
carboxymethyl cellulose, instead of zinc oxide. The total number of bacteria including
Escherichia coli, mold, and yeast gradually decreased and disappeared on the 30th day of
storage. Frindy S et al. [26] have compared the effect of various fillers (layered
montmorillonite, nanotubular halloysite or microfibrillar sepiolite) embedded in chitosan on
properties of the thin films prepared by casting technique. At 5%-content of microfibrillar
sepiolite in chitosan matrix, the mechanical properties of films reached their best values.
These findings prove that the addition of clays into chitosan phase is one of the ways to resist
the shrinkage which is typical for the films from native chitosan. Mura S et al. [27] have
developed films composed of chitosan, methylcellulose, and nanoparticles of silica oxide. An
excellent improvement of the mechanical properties was obtained for the films with the mass
ratio of chitosan and methylcellulose equal to 50:50 and 1%-content (w/v) of the mineral
nanoparticles.
Nowadays, the packaging films based on biodegradable polymers with addition of
various biologically active compounds such as preservatives, chemical fungicides, and
various plant extracts with antimicrobial activity are intensively created and studied. This is
the third and the most popular priority direction for many researchers [28-57] developing the
films for food packaging. These packaging films based on chitosan and other natural
polymers are usually named as active ones because of their enhanced antimicrobial
properties.
Chitosan active films containing the tea of kombucha (1-3%) have been prepared by
Ashrafi A et al. [30] using the casting technique. The shelf-life of minced beef samples
packed in these active films has extended up to 4 days owing to the retardation of lipid
oxidation and microbial growth under the action of polyphenol components of the kombucha.
The active chitosan films prepared by Balti R et al. [31] had the Spirulina extract, which
improved not only the antioxidative and antimicrobial activity of the films but also their
mechanical and barrier properties. Talón E et al. [32] recommend using the active films based
on chitosan and thyme extract, which have shown high antioxidative activity in food
packaging due to the presence of thyme polyphenols. The active films developed by Otero-
Pazos P et al. [33] based on chitosan and polycaprolactone had α-tocopherol, due to which the
antioxidative activity of the films was kept for more than 20 days. Higueras L et al. [34] have
developed active films by casting of chitosan-cyclodextrin mixtures, followed by their
saturation with carvacrol. These active films were used to inhibit the growth of microbes such
as mesophiles, psychrophiles, Pseudomonas species, enterobacteria, lactic acid bacteria,
yeast, and fungi on the packaged chicken breast fillets. General inhibition of microbes has
been shown, but a large amount of carvacrol, which absorbed on the fillets, caused an
unacceptable deterioration in taste. Composite films developed by Pereda M et al. [35], as a
potential food packaging, consisted of glycerol-plasticized chitosan and dispersions of
cellulose nanocrystals with addition of olive oil. The joint use of cellulose nanoparticles and
olive oil has improved elastic properties of chitosan films plasticized with glycerol and, at the
same time, proved to be an efficient method to reduce their initially high permeability for
water vapors. Higueras L et al. [36] have developed glycerol-plasticized chitosan films
containing up to 10% of the antimicrobial compound ethyl N (α) dodecanoyl-1-arginate.
Upon contact with an aqueous food simulator, this agent was completely released from the
films for several hours at 4 and 2°C. The antimicrobial activity of the films against
mesophiles, psychrophiles, Pseudomonas spp., Colif, lactic acid bacteria, hydrogen sulfide-
containing bacteria, yeast and fungi has been evaluated after 2, 6 and 8 days on chicken breast
fillet packed in both active and chitosan films. The active films prepared by Brink I et al. [37]
from a mixture of whey proteins and chitosan with the addition of cranberry or quince juice,
as biocides, have stopped the microbiological destruction of turkey meat and the development
of pathogenic microorganisms Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli and Campylobacter
jejuni in pieces of turkey at their storage for at least 6 days. The level of antimicrobial activity
was higher for the films containing the cranberry juice. Akyuz L et al. [38] have developed
the chitosan packaging films containing various commercially available oils and fats such as
olive, corn and sunflower oils, butter, and animal fats. Chitosan films with olive oil had
improved mechanical properties, higher thermal stability, and better surface morphology,
along with the highest antimicrobial activity, which was almost equal to the activity of the
commercial antibiotic gentamicin. The films based on a mixture of chitosan and zein with the
addition of essential oils such as anise, orange and cinnamon developed by Escamilla-García
M et al. [39] were transparent and could inhibit the growth of Penicillium spp. and Rhizopus
spp. The physical properties of the films improved owing to the multiple chemical
interactions between the functional groups of the components in the films. The water
permeability of the film containing anise oil was significantly lower, but its mechanical
strength was higher than that of a chitosan film. Benbettaïeb N et al. [40] have developed the
films from mixtures of chitosan and fish gelatin with addition of natural antioxidants, such as
ferulic acid, caffeic acid, and tyrosol. The permeability of these films decreased by more than
30%, and the tensile strength increased to 50% because of molecular interactions between
polymer chains and antioxidants. Films containing caffeic acid or a mixture of caffeic and
ferulic acids have shown their highest antioxidative activity. Vasile C et al. [41] have
investigated the antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidative activity of commercial essential
oils such as thyme, clove, rosemary, and tea tree to assess their biocidal activity in food
packaging. They have realized that the essential oil of thyme, clove, and tea tree can be used
as antimicrobial agents against the food decay fungi (Fusarium graminearum, Penicillium
corylophilum, and Aspergillus brasiliensis) and pathogenic food bacteria (Staphylococcus
aureus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes). The thyme and clove oils exhibited
the highest inhibitory effect due to the high content of phenols. These essential oils could be
suitable alternatives to chemical additives, thus satisfying the consumer demand for naturally
preserved food products ensuring their safety. Promising results were obtained by
incorporation of essential oils both in chitosan emulsions and films, which have shown
potential for food packaging. The study performed by Rubilar JF et al. [42] was aimed at
optimization of the active packaging films to improve food preservation and shelf-life
extension. They used the mathematical modeling to study the release of gallic acid into an
aqueous medium from chitosan films containing a grape seed extract and carvacrol. The
results on the controlled release of antimicrobial and antioxidative compounds from
packaging films during 30 days at temperatures 5, 25 and 45°C are of utmost importance for
extending the shelf-life of perishable foods. For extension of the shelf-life of ready to eat
meat products, the active packaging systems have been developed by Quesada J et al. [43].
They had an inner surface coated with a chitosan film containing the thyme essential oil (0%,
0.5%, 1%, and 2%) without the direct contact with the meat during 4 weeks of refrigerated
storage. For reducing the impact of thyme essential oil on meat sensory properties, its
chemotype with low odor intensity was used. The essential oil in films reduced yeast
populations, while aerobic mesophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and enterobacteria were
not affected. The packaged meat had better appearance during storage. Thyme odor was
perceived as desirable in cooked meat, and the intensity of typical meat odor decreased by
increasing the essential oil concentration. A polyelectrolyte material suitable for active
coatings of beef steaks has been developed by Kulig D et al. [44], by complexation of
chitosan and sodium alginate in a broad range of the component ratios. Application of
obtained hydrosols enriched with sodium erythorbate enhanced the color stability of beef
steaks during 2-week storage compared with the uncovered beef. The favorable wetting
properties of polyelectrolyte films along with their limited solubility were seen. Elchinger PH
et al. [45] have shown that the intrinsic antioxidative activity of chitosan film increased by
90% after immobilization of the short-chain peptide with the radical scavenging activity on
the surfaces of the film.
Albertos I et al. [46] have examined the inhibitory effect of the active chitosan films
containing clove oil for ten representative pathogenic bacteria causing food spoilage. The
most sensitive bacteria to the films and the most resistant ones were Shewanella putrefaciens
and Aeromonas hydrophila, respectively. The microbial load (total aerobic mesophilic, lactic
acid bacteria and total coliform) on the trout fillets covered with chitosan films and stored at
4°C during 22 days was lower than that of samples processed under high pressure, and like
that of cooked samples, except for coliform counts. Higueras L et al. [47] have prepared the
active films from chitosan and cyclodextrin by casting technique and then saturated them with
carvacrol for achieving equilibrium. These films were used to inhibit the microbial growth on
the packaged chicken breast fillets stored for 9 days at 4°C. The fillets were the main
absorbing phase of carvacrol loaded in the active films with average concentrations of 200-
5000 mg/kg. During the period of storage, a general microbial inhibition against lactic acid
bacteria, yeasts and fungi has been observed. However, the large amount of carvacrol
absorbed or reacted with the fillet caused unacceptable taste deterioration. Simonaitiene D et
al. [48] have investigated the inhibition effect of both chitosan films and composite ones
prepared from whey proteins and chitosan containing different amounts of quince or
cranberry juice as natural antifungal agents against Penicillium expansum on the simulation
medium and on apples. The presence of cranberry and quince juice in the tested films caused
a significant increase in elasticity and decrease in tensile strength of the films. Significant
inhibition effect of the films against Penicillium expansum growth on a simulated medium
and apples has been shown. A longer lag phase and a lower growth rate of Penicillium
expansum were observed in the films with cranberry juice than with quince one. The active
chitosan films containing citrus extract have been prepared and tested by Iturriaga L et al.
[49]. The antimicrobial activity of the films against Listeria innocuous was kept after UV
irradiation. In comparison with chitosan films, the active chitosan films containing naringin or
citrus extract had an increased absorbance in the UV region showing their ability to reduce
the lipid oxidation induced by UV light in food. Regardless of the solvent used for dissolution
of naringin at preparation of the active films, UV treatment caused modifications of the
flavanone depending on its concentration in the film: the higher the concentration, the lower
the modification due to crosslinking and the interactions between naringin and chitosan.
Vodnar DC et al. [50] have developed active antimicrobial chitosan films containing extracts
of green or black tea for controlling Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19115 on vacuum-
packaged ham steak, which was stored at 20°C for 10 days and at 4°C for 8 weeks. The
growth of Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 19115 was inhibited with both tea extracts.
Chitosan-coated plastic films without addition of tea extracts did not inhibit the growth of
Listeria monocytogenes. When tea extracts were incorporated into these films, they gained the
antimicrobial properties which were the dose dependent. The highest antimicrobial efficiency
had the films containing 4% of green tea extract reducing the initial counts from 3.2 to 2.65
log CFU/cm2 and from 3.2 to 1-1.5 log CFU/cm2 during storage at room temperature and at
4°C, respectively. The obtained knowledge about the antilisterial activity of the extracts of
natural tea are useful for developing antimicrobial packaging films saving the quality of ham
steak during room and refrigerated storage. Cerqueira MA et al. [51] have studied the
application of films from chitosan, galactomannan, or agar, plasticized with glycerol and corn
oil for coating on cheese. The solutions consisting of 1.5% of galactomannan, 2.0% of
glycerol, and 0.5% of oil showed the best properties for coating the cheese. In contrast to
uncoated cheese, the developed composite solution not only prevented the mold growth on
the surface of coated cheese but also decreased its respiration rate (oxygen consumption and
carbon dioxide production). The results have shown that these coatings can be applied as an
alternative to synthetic coatings. Zimet P et al. [52] have investigated the effect of
carboxymethyl chitosan added to chitosan containing bacteriocin nisin on the structural
properties and antilisterial activity the films. Carboxymethyl chitosan had a plasticizing effect
and enhanced the distribution of the bacteriocin within the biopolymer matrix. Nisin led to
changes in the macro- and microstructure, as well as in physicochemical properties of the
films. Films from chitosan and carboxymethyl chitosan were more effective against Listeria
monocytogenes than chitosan ones. The active films based on chitosan and containing a hop
extract have been developed by Bajić M et al. [53]. The incorporation of hop extract into
chitosan films has caused a reduction in their hydrophilic character and the complete blocking
of UV light at wavelengths below 350 nm. A declining trend of the tensile strength by twice
and Young’s modulus by an order, as well as a rising trend of strain at break by triple had
been also observed. The films showed antibacterial activity against foodborne pathogen
Bacillus subtilis. Akyuz L et al. [54] have developed the active chitosan films containing
capsaicin, a plant alkaloid with high antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anticancer
and analgesic properties. The increase in concentration of capsaicin in chitosan films
improved continuously their antimicrobial, antioxidative properties and hydrophobicity. The
authors believe that the food packaging and wound healing could be the most promising
applications of these films. The oil of Camelina sativa seed at different concentrations was
incorporated by Gursoy M et al. [55] into chitosan films that resulted in a notable
enhancement of their thermal stability, antioxidative, anti-quorum sensing and antimicrobial

activity. However, the hydrophilicity of these active films increased noticeably that the
authors explain by the formation of micelles between molecules of used plasticizers (glycerol
and Tween 40]. An active packaging film developed by Giannakas A et al. [56] consisted of
nanostructured low-density polyethylene, chitosan, and extract of the essential oils such as
rosemary and Melissa, added to improve the antioxidative properties of the films and disguise
the food odor. These films had enhanced barrier properties to oxygen and permeability to
water vapors owing to the presence of chitosan. The introduction of oils in the films enhanced
their antioxidative efficiency. Kurek M et al. [57] have studied the effect of water vapors on
barrier and transport properties of chitosan films containing carvacrol. The plasticizing effect
of water and carvacrol depended on moisture. At high humidity, it was more pronounced for
water, but at low humidity it was higher for carvacrol. The deposition of a thin layer of
chitosan on polyethylene reduced its permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide in both dry
and wet conditions. The release of carvacrol from the chitosan matrix had increased with
humidity and, to a lesser extent, with increasing temperature from 4 to 37°C.
DISPOSABLE PACKAGING FILMS FROM CHITOSAN

AND CHITIN NANOFIBRILS
In our study, the disposable packaging films named as CHITOPACK have been
developed based on chitosan and chitin nanofibrils produced by the Italian company Mavi
Sud Srl [2]. The main results of our study have been summarized and published in the book
Bionanotechnology to Save the Environment [58].
Since a one-off film is needed to protect a food product from external contamination for a
brief time, the mechanical and surface properties, and their dependence on various variables
of the producing process was discussed here. Based on our experience, some
recommendations for preparing the CHITOPACK films are given so that their producing
process was reproducible and sustainable.
First, it should be noted that both chitosan and chitin nanofibrils consist of N-acetyl-D-
glucosamine linked to D-glucosamine by a β-(1-4) glycosidic linkage into linear molecules.
The difference between them consists in that chitin nanofibrils have about 4-5 times more N-
acetyl-D-glucosamine molecules compared to chitosan. CHITOPACK films were obtained
from chitosan and chitin nanofibrils with an acetylation degree of 21% and 95%, respectively.
Due to the similarity of the chemical structure of chitosan and chitin nanofibrils, it is possible
to obtain their composites with a high content of chitin nanofibrils (up to 80%) in the chitosan
matrix without any signs of phase separation. This feature distinguishes chitin nanofibrils
used as cross-linkers of chitosan molecules from mineral fillers, the amount of which in
chitosan films does not usually exceed 3-5%. Moreover, chitin nanofibrils have such a strong
stabilizing effect on mobile chitosan molecules that the resulting dry films do not change their
size when immersed in water. The efficiency of crosslinking the chitosan, increasing with
increasing the content of chitin nanofibrils and resulting in formation of the reversible
thixotropic gels, was confirmed by Mikesova et al. [59] in the rheological experiments.
Addition of a plasticizer (glycerol, diglycerol, triglycerol or poly(ethylene glycol) delayed the
onset of gelation of the slurries significantly due to disruption of the bonds between chitosan
and chitin nanofibrils. The viscoelastic characteristics of the gels have steadily getting worse.
After their storage at 6°C for 19 weeks, the microstructure of a thixotropic gel destroyed
because of the degradation of chitosan molecules into short fragments. Therefore, it is
recommended to cast the freshly prepared slurry on a support for obtaining the reproducible
results.
The tensile strength, Young modulus, and the strain at break of the CHITOPACK films
depend on the molecular weight of chitosan, the content of the chitin nanofibrils, the type and
content of plasticizers, the temperature of drying, the type of a modifier of film surfaces and
the conditions of their modification. The surface modification of the films by sorption
immobilization of poly(lactic acid) or polyglycerol polyricinoleate exhibited significant effect
on improvement of both mechanical stability and hydrophobicity of the films. The surface
properties of the films depended additionally on the nature of a support used for casting of the
slurries.
The mechanical stability of CHITOPACK films were better when high-molecular-weight
chitosan of about 1000 kDa was used and its deacetylation degree varied within 75-80%. The
deacetylation degree of chitin nanofibrils was always considerably low of about 2-5%. The
content of chitin nanofibrils varied within of 20-30 wt% decreasing with increasing the
molecular weight of chitosan. It was mentioned above [9] that the mechanical stability of the
films deteriorated with increasing content of a plasticizer regardless of its type, i.e.,
elongation increased and the tensile strength of the film decreased.
The CHITOPACK films turned out to be comparable in their mechanical stability with
commercial wrapping paper that is used nowadays for one-off packaging of some food
products in the fast-food restaurants.
One more practical recommendation by Gonçalves I et al. [60] could be useful for the
researches who are interested in preparation of the colorless chitosan films crosslinked with
genipin. A two-stage strategy has been developed by them for decolorization of the blueish-
colored genipin-crosslinked chitosan films using recombinant CotA lacaxa from Bacillus
subtilis mediated by 2,2’-azinobis- (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), followed by
oxidation with 5% hydrogen peroxide at pH 11 and 40°C for 30 minutes. The applied method
did not change both the acid stability and the antioxidant ability of the starting films.
CHITOSAN IN WOUND DRESSING

Chronic non-healing ulcers are a severe problem in clinical practice because they are not
often the root causes, but only secondary signs of another chronic disease. The current trend
in the application of wound dressings for the treatment of complex wounds that often go with
cancer or diabetes is the use of multifunctional dressings [61]. Multifunctional or active
dressings not only isolate the wound from injuries and microbial infections during the healing
process as traditional inactive dressings do, but also take part in the restoration of skin and
epidermal tissues, delivering absorbed medicinal substances, growth stimulants and
antiseptics that gradually diffuse into the affected tissues, accelerating the restoration of the
skin and inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms [62]. Wound healing is a
complex and regulated physiological process, including activation of distinct types of cells at
each next stage (homeostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and tissue remodeling) and any
violation in the correct sequence of healing events can lead to chronic wounds [63]. Since the
human body can recognize the biocompatibility of the material in contact with it, some
natural polymers, such as polysaccharides and proteins, which have chemical and structural
similarities with tissue macromolecules, are widely used in the treatment of wounds and burns
[64].
The development of a proper extracellular matrix that can support tissue regeneration
and, at the same time, prevent the occurrence of adverse events, is a challenging task.
Researchers working in this field believe that a more thorough study of the mechanisms of
regeneration processes and development of a new generation of dressings based on natural
polymers biocompatible with human skin and having a suitable porous structure will help to
solve this problem.
Chitosan is widely known as an active participant in skin regeneration, which is an
effective accelerator of wound healing. It has been proved that the linear structure of chitosan
molecules gives optimal structural properties to the matrix, contributing to the stimulation of
cell proliferation and the acceleration of complete skin repair [63]. More effective wound
healing began to be observed when chitosan nanoparticles with a large contact surface were
introduced into wound dressings [63]. It was noted that noteworthy progress in the treatment
of burns and chronic wounds was achieved precisely due to the active participation of
chitosan in tissue repair, which was manifested by the absence of scars on the skin after
wound healing. The active dressings developed by Sandri G et al. [63] based on chitosan and
pullulan associated with chondroitin sulfate or hyaluronic acid have shown high efficiency in
wound healing. The chitosan membranes developed by Nordback PH et al. [65] accelerated
wound healing, reduced inflammation, and affected the level of serum interleukin IL-4,
however, they were destroyed at the wound site after day 7 due to the activity of proteases
and other extracellular enzymes.
This problem is solved in two ways: by creating composite materials based on the blends
of synthetic and natural polymers and by modifying the surface of commercial polymer
matrices having a suitable structure and porosity with biopolymers. 3D matrices that mimic
the skin and are necessary for the full restoration of its functionality must be insoluble in
aqueous fluids. Synthetic polymers are traditionally used as inactive matrices for wound
dressings. For example, Aubert-Viard F et al. [66] used a nonwoven textile fabric made of
polyethylene terephthalate fibers as a base matrix, biocompatibility of which with the skin
was ensured by modifying the surface of the fibers with chitosan cross-linked with genipin,
followed by layering the alternating layers of anionic and cationic polymers, methyl β-
cyclodextrin and chitosan, respectively. The long-term antibacterial effect during wound
healing was supported by diffusion of the antiseptic chlorhexidine previously absorbed into
the dressing. In another case, Mogrovejo-Valdivia A et al. [67] used a non-woven
poly(ethylene terephthalate) textile fabric for the manufacture of an antiseptic dressing by
absorbing silver ions within the matrix and then coating it with alternating layers of cationic
chitosan and anionic cyclodextrin. Due to the multilayer polyelectrolyte polymer coating, the
release of silver slowed down and the antibacterial effect of the dressing persisted for a long
time. Casimiro MH et al. [68] used a porous matrix from poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (5%) and
chitosan obtained by freeze-drying and gamma irradiation. This dressing successfully
supported the adhesion of cells in vitro, viability, and proliferation of the HFFF2 fibroblast
cell line. The introduction of chitosan into synthetic polymer composites makes the
degradation of the composite material easier and faster. Dorati R et al. [69] have shown that
the decomposition of nanofibers obtained by electrospinning from a poly(lactide)-co-

poly(caprolactone) copolymer containing up to 27% suspension of chitosan hydrochloride salt
was accelerated in in vitro tests, although only 6% of the amount of chitosan introduced was
available on the surface of the fibers.
In the treatment of burns, the structure of dressings becomes especially important. A
matrix should be microporous to ensure the absorption of exudate, which is formed in
increased amounts during burn skin lesions. Stephen-Haynes J et al. [70] have reported that
the absorbent wound dressing KytoCel is effective in outpatient and emergency care. The
microporous structure supplies more opportunities for adhesion of fibroblasts' proliferation
and the process of angiogenesis. Iacob AT еt al. [71] have shown that microporous
membranes based on chitosan or on the blends of chitosan and hyaluronic acid, and
containing biologically active derivatives of arginine with thiazolidin-4-one, had a high
degree of swelling that contributed to the rapid healing process of burn wounds with the
complete reepithelization after 15 days.
Currently, the techniques such as electrospinning and 3D printing are becoming
increasingly popular in the development of porous wound dressings. The undeniable
advantage of 3D printing is the creation of porous matrices with a well-defined architecture
and molecular orientation at the micro level. Hafezi F et al. [72] used 3D printing to make a
matrix of chitosan, a cross-linker (genipin) and plasticizers (glycerol and poly(ethylene
glycol). PEG600 plasticized chitosan-genipin films had an acceptable elasticity, excellent
adhesive ability to the surface of the epithelium, high water absorption and low cytotoxicity.
More than 48% of human skin fibroblast cell lines were viable after 48 hours of contact with
these films.
An original example of multifunctional wound dressings is the asymmetric membrane
developed by Alves P et al. [73]. The idea was to simulate both skin layers in one dressing
using electrospinning technology. The protective layer consisted of polycaprolactone and
poly(lactic acid), and the underlying layer consisted of methacrylated gelatin and chitosan,
which is more compatible with skin tissues and contributes to less painful wound healing.
Good adhesion and hemocompatibility of dressings with skin and a noticeable growth and
spread of fibroblasts have been shown in in vitro experiments.
Recently, there has been an additional steady trend in the development of active wound
dressings. Tanha S et al. [74] used a growth factor (recombinant human granulocyte colony
stimulating factor) incorporated into chitosan nanoparticles, which, in their turn, were
introduced into matrix from nanofibers of poly(ε-caprolactone), the surface of which was then
coated with collagen, the type 1. The authors noted that the created dressing contributed to the
active growth of fibroblasts, enhanced collagen deposition and the minimal presence of
inflammatory cells. A synergistic effect of a nano-fibrous porous membrane imitating the
extracellular matrix of the skin was also observed. As an accelerator for the growth and repair
of damaged tissues, Vigani B et al. [75] used a biodegradable alginate, which was introduced
into the porous matrix during the formation of fibers from solutions of dextran or
poly(ethylene oxide) by electrospinning. Then, the surface of the fibers was coated with
poly(lactide-co-glycolide) or chitosan to reduce the rate of biodegradation of dressings in
contact with wounds. Such a modification of the surface of the fibers increased the adhesion
of fibroblasts, their growth and spread, without hindering the diffusion of alginate from the
fibers. As have been shown by Patrulea V et al. [76], the migration of human dermal
fibroblasts can also be significantly accelerated by a peptide (arginine-glycine-asparagine)
fixed on chitosan and hyauronic acid, introduced as polyelectrolyte nanocomplexes into

foams or gels from functionalized chitosan and chondrotin sulfate. In in vitro tests, the
formulations developed stimulated the proliferation of dermal fibroblasts and their migration
for 7 days without signs of toxicity. It has been shown by Ghalayani Esfahani A et al. [77]
that an active chitosan patch containing clobetasol propionate, a corticosteroid, which is used
to treat various skin diseases, is highly effective in treating inflammatory chronic diseases of
the oral mucosa.
At the same time, many studies have shown that the use of active dressings is often
accompanied by allergic and toxic reactions that are provoked by certain substances released
from the dressing. Unexpected results were reported by Zelga PJ et al. [78], who tested six
active dressings from distinct categories for of acute irritation in rabbits and for sensitization
in guinea pigs. Histological analysis has shown that only a dry linen dressing did not have an
irritating and sensitizing effect. The rest of the dressings (hydrogel dressing, chitosan sponge,
silver nanoparticles, linen dressing, impregnated with linseed or oil fixative) received a
cumulative irritation index of 0.00-0.35 and caused a sensitization reaction in up to 20% of
animals. The authors note that although, according to the category of skin reaction, these
dressings belong to the group of products that do not cause slight irritation and sensitization, a
certain risk of an allergic reaction in people still exists with their use.
The main obstacle to the widespread use of chitosan is the almost complete absence of its
solubility in water and alkaline solutions. To overcome this obstacle, the structure of chitosan
is modified, facilitating the preparation of composites or hydrogels. Chitosan derivatives
belong to the class of biomaterials useful for various purposes due to the absence of toxicity,
low allergic reaction, biocompatibility, and biodegradability [79].
CONCLUSION
In the modern world, studies on the creation of composite materials from mixtures of
synthetic and natural polymers are becoming increasingly popular. However, it should be
borne in mind that during the destruction of the natural polymer in such composites in the
Environment, it is contaminated with microparticles of synthetic polymers. They are
accumulated in water, fish, and plants due to the long decomposition time of the synthetic
micropolymers.
The impressive results have been achieved using the designed active packaging films
extending the shelf-life of food products. However, a more detailed analysis of the behavior
of microorganisms in products packaged in active films would be desirable to assess their
sporulation in the presence of inhibitors of their growth and secretion of toxins. It would be
necessary to check the safety of the food products themselves when they absorb biologically
active ingredients, and especially those that mask the smell of food. Some problems
associated with the storage of food will be minimized by perfecting both the production
processes for avoiding the overproduction of perishable food products and the organization of
their sales.
In today’s McDonaldizated world [80], the need for disposable packaging for food
products such as various sandwiches, baguettes, rolls, muffins, hot dogs and other ready-to-
eat (RTE) confectionery products is growing rapidly since these wrappings are needed for
hygiene purposes. Soon, the public catering in the fast-food restaurants with an ever-
increasing quality of prepared meals will become one of the traditional elements of a new
lifestyle.
Currently, in fast-food restaurants and countless cafes, the paper wrappers are
traditionally used. Production of the cellulose-based wrappers requires both significant
financial costs and huge volumes of wood. Trees grow for 50-100 years to reach their
industrial age, and wrapping paper for RTE products is used and discarded within a few
minutes to an hour. Obviously, replacing cellulose with renewable natural polymers for the
manufacture of food packaging will reduce deforestation, which has been growing at an
alarming rate in the recent years. Such a strategy will have a positive effect on the climate of
the planet, as trees are involved in restoring the biological balance by purifying air from
industrial emissions, absorbing carbon dioxide and enriching the atmosphere with oxygen. An
equally important problem that destroys the BioBalance of the planet is environmental
pollution by industrial waste. The only way to solve this problem consists in the
implementation of the Circular Economy as well as in the designing new “green”
technological processes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the European Union (Grant
315233).
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ECONOMIC ISSUES, PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES

NOTICE TO THE READER

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Moreover, we thank all the professional contributors who helped us to

Part II. Building Blocks of Circular Economy 41

Part III. Waste in Circular Economy 121

Part IV. Reuse, Reduce, Recycle in Circular Economy 241

Chapter 18 Natural Metabolites as Functional Additive of Biopolymers:

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Responsible for relationships with Scientific Community, MAPEI Group;

Maria Beatrice Coltelli

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Competing interests: There are no competing interests.

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Eco-Industrial Parks and the Role of IS

Main Challenges with IS

Close distance between enterprises is very important to improve symbiotic connections

confidential) and problems of interdependence between companies may distort identification.

PRESENT OF INDUSTRIAL SYMBIOSIS

Projects and Implementations of IS and EIPs in the World

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Keywords: circular economy, indicator, water management, bibliometric analysis,

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