Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Harvesting kinetic energy from roadway pavement through an T

electromagnetic speed bump
⁎
Mohammadreza Gholikhania, , Reza Nasouria, Seyed Amid Tahamia, Sarah Legetteb,
Samer Dessoukya, Arturo Montoyaa
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Uni. of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, United States
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Uni. of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, United States

H I GH L IG H T S

• AThesystem is designed based on electromagnetic energy-harvesting for pavement.

• The system performance is studied by laboratory testing and numerical simulations.
• Steelprototype generated maximum 3 mW electrical power over each axle passage.
• The technology
and Aluminum are the best materials for top plate based on FE analysis.
• can be used for low-powered applications in roadways.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Roadway pavements are repeatedly subjected to two different types of energy sources—solar radiation and
Electromagnetic kinetic energy from passing vehicles. Therefore, they have great potential to be utilized as sustainable energy
Energy harvesting sources. In this study, an electromagnetic speed bump energy harvester (ESE) prototype was developed to
Roadway pavement harvest energy from the kinetic energy of passing vehicles and to simultaneously control vehicles’ speed. The ESE
Renewable energy
absorbs the deflection generated by a passing vehicle and converts it to a rotating shaft that triggers an em-
Kinetic energy
bedded generator. A set of laboratory tests were conducted to simulate traffic conditions and evaluate the
Sustainable transportation
performance of the prototype in generating electrical power. These tests investigated the effect of load magni-
tude, time of loading, time of unloading, and ratio of loading time to unloading time on the power output
generated by the ESE. The experimental results had a maximum average power of 3.21 mW, which shows that
the proposed prototype promises to generate substantial power under actual traffic loading conditions. The effect
of load magnitude was negligible, while a shorter time of loading led to a higher power output, implying that the
optimum vehicle speed for maximizing the power output is the speed limit in the ESE location. Four sets of linear
static analyses were performed in order to evaluate the response of the prototype fabrication. The top component
of the ESE was modeled using material properties of steel, aluminum, or composites of heavy-duty rubber, and
the bottom frames were given steel or aluminum properties.

1. Introduction drawbacks associated with utilizing fossil fuels, such as environmental

Global energy demand has increased significantly due to the in-
creasing world population and the growing need to supply human re-
quirements through sustainable sources [1]. According to the Interna-
tional Energy Agency, non-renewable fossil fuels are the main resources
of energy production [2], but these resources are depleting quickly and
will be exhausted in the next few decades [3]. There are also several
pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and harm to nature and human
health [4]. Because of the aforementioned shortcomings, it is necessary
to change the paradigm of energy production and develop clean and
renewable energy resources [5]. Energy harvesting is one of the most
promising types of renewable energy and consists of capturing unused
ambient energy and converting it to a more useful form of energy [6].
Roadways and transportation infrastructure provide promising sources

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mohammadreza.gholikhani@utsa.edu (M. Gholikhani), reza.nasouri@utsa.edu (R. Nasouri), seyedamid.tahami@utsa.edu (S.A. Tahami),
sarah.legette@utsa.edu (S. Legette), samer.dessouky@utsa.edu (S. Dessouky), arturo.montoya@utsa.edu (A. Montoya).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.05.060
Received 25 December 2018; Received in revised form 3 April 2019; Accepted 5 May 2019
0306-2619/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Gholikhani, et al.
of energy that should be considered for energy harvesting [7].
Roadway pavement covers a considerable part of urban and rural
areas [8], with millions of square kilometers that are continuously
subjected to different types of energy, such as solar radiation, vibration,
and traffic-induced stresses [9]. Roads and airfields require intelligent
transportation systems to guarantee traffic monitoring, health mon-
itoring systems, and infrastructure utilities such as lighting and signage
that are key technologies in improving the transportation sector [10].
These technologies need a significant amount of power to operate,
which can be supplied by implementing harvesting of energy me-
chanisms in roadways. Eventually, these mechanisms can become an
essential source for supplying energy to the transportation infra-
structure network, particularly in remote areas where an energy grid is
not available [11]. The usage of signs and lighting in remote areas can
bring additional benefits, such as notably improving safety. Thus, ac-
cidents associated with a lack of safety facilities could be mitigated and
would result in both saving human lives and reducing expenses. In
addition, the production of energy in places close to the consumption
areas reduces energy loss in the transferring processes [12].
Currently, two main technology groups are being utilized to harvest
energy from the pavement: (a) those based on solar radiation, or heat;
and (b) those based on converting the kinetic energy from the moving
traffic to electric energy. Both of these sources have shown potential to
supply energy to the transportation infrastructure. These two groups
include technologies such as piezoelectric-based modules [13], photo-
voltaic pavements (solar panels installed in the pavement) [14], ther-
moelectric systems [15], electromagnetic systems [16], and asphalt
solar collectors [17]. Piezoelectric materials use applied stress from
traffic loading in pavements to produce electric-powered piezoelectric-
based modules [18]. In electromagnetic technology, relative move-
ments of the coil to a magnetic field generated by passing vehicles are
used to generate electricity and translators [19]. The mechanism of
asphalt solar collector technology is based on exchanging the heat be-
tween the pavement and fluid in an embedded pipe within the pave-
ment followed by storing and utilizing the energy for heating or cooling
purposes in asphalt solar collectors [20]. For thermoelectric tech-
nology, thermal gradients between pavement layers are utilized to
generate electrical energy using a thermoelectric generator (TEG) [21].
In photovoltaic pavement, solar panels are installed on roadways sur-
faces to generate power [22].
Researchers involved in this study have evaluated some of these
technologies and designed several prototypes based on piezoelectric
[23] and thermoelectric [24] technologies. Former studies have de-
monstrated that piezoelectric-based energy harvesting systems are re-
liable energy resources for low-power facilities of roadways [25]; such
studies include research on sensors and LED lighting [26]. Several
prototypes have been developed with the aim of increasing the power
output, lowering pavement deflections, and ensuring the durability of
the prototype through changes in the geometry of the prototype and
piezoelectric configuration [27]. However, thermoelectric energy har-
vesting devices absorb pavement heat generated by solar radiation to
produce a continuous source of power independent from traffic loading.
As a result, this technology can generate electrical power for roadway
infrastructure and solve pavement temperature distress such as rutting
[24]. In addition, it may contribute to reducing the Urban Heat Island
adverse effect by cooling pavements [28].
The focus on the feasibility of energy harvesting from pavements
has also increased interest in using electromagnetic technology as an
alternative source of power. Researchers have initiated numerous stu-
dies from different perspectives to assess the applicability and perfor-
mance of proposed electromagnetic models. It has been shown that this
technology has high potential to scavenge energy from ocean waves
[29], vehicle suspensions [30], backpacks [31], human walking [32],
and railroads [33]. Due to the good performance of the electromagnetic
technology in these fields, its application in roadways has been in-
vestigated. Recently, some studies introduced different mechanisms to
504
Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511
harvest energy from passing vehicles in roadways. The basic principle
for these devices consists of the movement of internal mechanical
components due to the kinetic energy induced by the vehicle’s weight
[34]. These mechanisms include rack-and-pinion systems [35], cam-
arm systems [36], chain and sprocket systems [37], hydraulic power
systems [38], roller and chain systems [39], relative movement of two
parts of permanent-magnet generators [40], and stator and translators
[41]. In some cases, two of these systems have been combined—for
example, rack-and-pinion and hydraulic systems [42]. Another un-
conventional approach consists of compressing air (caused by the pas-
sage of a vehicle) and using the induced pressure to produce electrical
power [43]. However, the effects of different traffic load conditions on
both structural performance and power generation of devices have not
been fully studied. Therefore, there is a strong need to investigate the
response of energy harvesters when accounting for a wide range of
traffic circumstances, including vehicle weights and loading speed.
Electromagnetic technology is known to be efficient in applications
involving large deflections because higher values of deflection lead to
higher energy outputs. As such, electromagnetic technology should be
installed in roadway system locations where large deflections can be
obtained and traffic flow interruption can be avoided. Areas such as
school zones may be ideal locations for installation since drivers must
reduce their vehicle speed, and large deflections of tires can be gener-
ated as vehicles go over speed control bumps. These speed bumps are
also used to reduce the risk of accidents in low speed zones [44].
Currently, the vehicles’ kinetic energy is wasted as vehicles pass over
the speed bumps [45]. Thus, the installation of an electromagnetic
energy harvesting prototype under conventional speed bumps could
solve traffic safety and energy problems simultaneously.
2. Objective
The objective of this study was to develop an electromagnetic speed
bump energy harvester (ESE) prototype powered by the kinetic energy
of a passing vehicle. This paper presents the procedure of designing and
modeling an ESE prototype and the evaluation of its performance in
generating electrical power under simulated traffic conditions in the
laboratory. The effect of the material properties on the mechanical re-
sponse of the ESE was determined by conducting finite element analysis
on an ESE model. The proposed energy harvesting prototype is intended
to work as a speed bump to control speed, promote safety, and supply
power for a roadway’s infrastructure.
3. Materials, components, and design
3.1. Theoretical background
According to Faraday’s law, in which the relative movement of the
conductor to a magnetic field induces an electric current [46], an en-
ergy harvesting device based on electromagnetic technology absorbs a
passing vehicle’s energy and converts it to a relative movement be-
tween magnets and coils to generate an electrical energy. Faraday’s law
is generalized by the Maxwell–Faraday equation, which states that a
time-varying magnetic field will always accompany a spatially electric
field, and vice versa [16]. The Maxwell–Faraday equation is:
∂B
∇×E=−
∂t (1)
where ∇ × is the curl operator, E is the electric field, and B is the
magnetic field [47].
3.2. Mechanism and design
In this study, the rack-and-pinion mechanism was chosen for the
design of the ESE prototype. The combination of rack and pinion con-
verts vertical movement—normally wasted in roadways—to rotate
M. Gholikhani, et al.
shafts inside a generator to produce electrical power. The rack needs to
be connected to the moving mechanical elements in order to absorb
lateral (vertical) movements. This system provides several advantages,
such as simplicity and endurance.
3.3. Prototype components
The ESE designed in this study included a top plate, racks, pinions,
one-way clutches, a shaft, compression springs, supports, and a gen-
erator. The top plate is the first part of the prototype that experiences
the load. The material of the top plate must be structurally sound to
tolerate the impact from passing vehicles. The top plate is meant to
replace the speed bump; thus, the design profile had to be similar to a
traditional speed bump. Though no current standard for the geometric
shape of speed bumps exists, there are common surface profiles, such as
flat-topped (trapezoidal), triangular, and convex (circular), in service
[48]. The prototype installed on the roadways had a convex surface
profile. Parkhill et al. stated that speed bump heights are generally
limited to 90 mm (3.54 in.) [49]. The width of the top plate was chosen
to be approximately 300 mm (12 in.) [49]. The length of the top plate
should be equal to a typical roadway lane width (3.75 m) in order to
capture the load of the passing vehicles. However, in order to test the
prototype using standard laboratory equipment, a top flat plate was
used as the surface profile, and the length was reduced to 440 mm to fit
the prototype inside the testing equipment. Conversely, numerical
analyses were conducted using standard dimensions for a bump.
Fig. 1 shows the prototype components. As previously mentioned,
the rack (Fig. 1, No. 2) is connected to the top plate (Fig. 1, No. 1), and
they move simultaneously. Pinions (Fig. 1, No. 3) are held by a strong
support (Fig. 1, No. 7) to tolerate heavy vehicle loads. The rack engages
with pinion gears during the top plate vertical movement. Induced
movements are transferred to rotate the pinions. These rack and pinion
components are made from stainless steel to endure a long service life
under repetitive wheel loading. Note that the racks are directly attached
to the top plate to minimize friction and slippage effects.
Two one-way clutches are installed inside the pinions. One-way
clutches are mainly utilized to transmit rotation in a single direction. In
this case, the rack and pinion move in two directions, but only one of
the clutches engages with the input shaft and conveys just one direction
rotation to the shaft (Fig. 1, No. 4). Therefore, these unidirectional
rotations of the shaft are combined. The shaft inside the one-way
clutches transfers unidirectional rotations to an embedded generator
(Fig. 1, No. 5). Finally, the generator uses rotations of the shaft to
generate electrical power with a DC current. This power can be either
saved in a battery or directly used to supply energy power needed for
Fig. 1. The electromagnetic prototype includes (1) top plate, (2) rack, (3) pi-
nion and clutch, (4) shaft, (5) generator, (6) support and spring for top plate,
and (7) support.
505
Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511
roadway facilities.
Moreover, to uphold the prototype structures under vehicle loads,
four steel cylindrical supports (Fig. 1, No. 6) are installed at each corner
of the prototype. Each support includes one rod that moves inside a
hole in the support to guide the top plate to move vertically and limit
the top plate to a fixed moving position. Compression springs are placed
inside the supports and connected to the top plate. They restore the top
plate to its original position after a vehicle passes. Their stiffness must
be optimized to endure heavy repetitive wheel loads and to allow the
top plate to move quickly and smoothly downward to maximize the
captured energy.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Finite element analysis
The performances of four models including a top plate with three
different material combinations were evaluated using the finite element
analysis software ABAQUS.
4.1.1. Model description and results
The finite element (FE) models were categorized into two groups:
(A) one-part structures, and (B) two-part structures. Group A represents
prototypes with a homogeneous material property, either steel or alu-
minum, while in Group B, a heavy-duty rubber bump was modeled with
either steel or aluminum flat plates in the bottom as supports. The
bump of Group A was hollow in order to reduce the weight and cost
associated with metals, while the bump of Group B was completely
solid since the density of rubber is lighter. Fig. 2 presents details of both
groups. Static analysis was conducted to observe the effects of the
maximum load of the vehicle on the top plate. In the simulation, the
Young’s moduli of steel, aluminum, and heavy-duty rubber were set to
200, 68.6, and 2.89 GPa, with Poisson’s ratios of 0.3, 0.33, and 0.40,
respectively.
To simulate the axial loading of an E-class vehicle (e.g., Toyota
Camry), two concentrated forces of 3773 N replicating wheel loads
spaced at 1.77 m off center were symmetrically applied on the top
surface of the bump. In both groups, the prototypes were supported by
four identical springs with stiffness of 4070 m/N placed on the corners,
as designed in the prototype (see Fig. 3(a)). The maximum stress de-
mand occurs when the wheels are completely on the top surface of the
plate. Thus, stresses and deflections were studied to compare the per-
formance of prototypes (Groups A and B) made of different materials.
Fig. 3(b)–(e) shows the Von Mises stress distributions obtained in the
four models. The stress magnitudes at the center of the bump were
found to be higher in Group A (Fig. 3(b) and (c)), while Group B,
constructed with a rubber bump, experienced very negligible stresses.
The stress magnitude at the interface between the springs and the
top plate were high since the model assumed direct transfer of the load
from the plate to the springs at these contact points. The model with the
steel frame in Group B experienced the highest magnitude, 306 MPa, at
these contact points, while this magnitude was approximately three
times less, 99.5 MPa (Fig. 3(d) and (e)), in the aluminum bottom plate
due to the stiffness difference. This magnitude dropped by 82% in
Group A. However, note that the maximum Von Mises stresses in both
groups always occurred at the regions where the top plate and springs
were connected. Still, in Group A, the hollow cross section of the top
plate lowered the second moment of area (I) and resulted in higher
stress demands at the mid-section of the prototype.
Even though it was determined that in all four groups the highest
stress magnitude did not exceed the material yield strength, the model
suggests that contact areas must be given proper consideration in the
design.
The maximum deflections at mid-bump obtained from FE analyses
are presented in Table 1. The deflections in all four models were de-
termined to be low and do not impose any significant impact on the
M. Gholikhani, et al. Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511

Fig. 2. Top plate material structure groups.

prototype service life. If the deflection is small, then the misaligned
loads induced by misalignments between components such as rack and
pinion lead to a reduction in efficiency. These misalignments can also
exert extra pressure on prototype components and decrease their ser-
vice life.
Based upon obtained stress and deflection evaluation criteria, the
performance of all tested materials was in an acceptable range and
could be used as the top plate component. However, to optimize the top
plate design, the configuration of the top plate can still be adjusted to
achieve a lighter top plate at a lower price.

Fig. 3. (a) Top plate model with spring supports. Stress distribution on the top plate made of (b) aluminum, (c) steel, (d) heavy-duty rubber with aluminum frame,
and (e) heavy-duty rubber with steel frame.

506
M. Gholikhani, et al. Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511

Table 1
Deflection in top plate for different materials.
Material design Maximum deflection from edge (mm)

Aluminum 10.1
Steel 3.5
Heavy-duty rubber—aluminum 61.9
Heavy-duty rubber—steel 17.1

4.1.2. Verification
The mechanism of the prototype can be simplified to a simply
supported beam for verification purposes. Thus, FE model results used
the following analytical beam deflection formula for a simply supported
beam with two concentrated forces:
P. a
Δmax = (3l 2 − 4a2)
24E . I (2)

By implementing the parameters into the beam formula in Eq. (2), a

maximum deflection of 2.95 mm (2.95 × 10−3 m) was measured. Fig. 4
illustrates an aluminum, heavy-duty rubber top plate displacement and
deflection due to two concentrated forces. The deflection of simply
supported beams obtained from the numerical simulation (i.e.,
3.52 × 10−3 m) had overall consistency and showed great agreement
with the analytical result obtained by the beam equation. Fig. 5. Laboratory test setup and power measuring device includes (1) UTM
system, (2) resistance substitution box, (3) NI DAQ board, and (4) DAQ system
to record and analyze outputs.
4.2. Experimental tests

4.2.1. Experimental setup and testing
The energy harvesting prototype was subjected to laboratory testing
to evaluate its potential to generate electrical power in roadway con-
ditions. The Servo-Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine (UTM 25) was
used to apply loads to the prototype. The UTM is a programmable
system capable of applying loads with different magnitudes and fre-
quencies to simulate roadway traffic conditions. A data acquisition card
and external resistance substitution box were used in a circuit to
measure the output voltage and power of the prototype. A multi-
function National Instruments (NI) USB data acquisition (DAQ) board
was used to record voltage and current outputs of the generator. The
RS-200 W resistance substitution box was used due to its wide
resistance range, from 0.1 Ω to 100 M Ω, with an accuracy of 1%. Fig. 5
presents the laboratory test setup and power measuring device.
4.2.2. Test procedure
The experimental tests were executed to study the power outputs of
the ESE and the effects of the load magnitude corresponding to the
weight of the passing vehicle, time of loading, and interval of loading.
When a vehicle passes over the ESE, the top plate is pushed down by the
wheel to its bottom limit, and after the wheel passes over the top plate,
it returns to its original top limit. To simulate this loading process, the
UTM applied different loads (2, 3, and 4 kN, to approximate small
passing vehicle weights) in sinusoidal form. Another variable of the

Fig. 4. Deflection of the top plate with simply supported beams: (a) deflection of beam with its constraints in supports and applied loads; (b) deflected beam with
10× magnification in the deflection; (c) cross section of beam; and (d) schematic of beam deflection.

507
M. Gholikhani, et al.
Table 2
Variables of experimental tests.
Load (kN) Loading time (ms) Unloading time (ms)
2 500 500
3 700 800
4 1000 1000
1300
1500
experiment was loading time. Drivers significantly decrease their speed
before a speed bump to minimize the vertical acceleration, which takes
between 0.5 and 1 s. Therefore, three loading cycles of 500, 700, and
1000 ms were selected. Five unloading times—500, 800, 1000, 1300,
and 1500 ms—were chosen to account for spacing between passing
vehicles in the range of 0.5–1.5 s, according to their speeds. The gen-
erator was connected to an external resistor, and the output values were
recorded by the data acquisition board. Table 2 shows the variables of
experimental tests and the shape of loading.
4.2.3. Experimental results and discussion
The ESE prototype was tested by the UTM machine under various
conditions. The output voltage across the 5 Ω resistor was acquired. The
output voltages were measured by the DAQ board, and the corre-
sponding currents and powers were calculated using Ohm’s law and
power law equations.
Ohm’s law is:
V = I × R,
and power law is:
P=I×V
where V is voltage (electric potential difference), I is current, R is re-
sistance, and P is power.
The prototype was subjected to the various conditions mentioned
earlier, and results show that the pattern of the outputs are very close.
As a sample, the output voltage within 12 s, which includes 6 cycles of
2 s of loading/unloading, is presented in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 focuses in on a
single-cycle loading and unloading of 2 s. It can be observed that the
electrical voltage is generated in both the downward and upward
movement of the top plate. The voltage increases immediately after the
load is applied (A) and before the top plate reaches its lowest point (B).
Immediately as the top plate movement reverses upwards, the voltage
drops to zero. As the top plate bounces up on the springs, the voltage
spikes (C). When the top plate reaches its original position, it generates
Fig. 6. Output voltage in 12 s.
Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511
Shape of loading cycle (a: load magnitude; 0–x: loading time; and x–y: unloading time)
Fig. 7. Output voltage for 500 ms loading and 1500 ms unloading showing the
voltage with respect to top plate position.
another peak in voltage (D).
(3)
It is assumed that there is no slippage between the mechanical
components during the loading and unloading. Therefore, the top plate
(4) movement and the shaft rotation are synchronized by the rack and
pinion. The peak points in Fig. 7 occur when the plate increases its rate
of movement, which results in an increase in shaft rotation speed. When
the shaft rate of rotation increases suddenly from the stationary posi-
tion, it excites the magnetic field in the generator, resulting in higher
voltage output. The generated voltages in downward movements are
higher than the voltages when the top plate recovers. This pattern is
similar to other study findings [34] in which the peak power was higher
when the top part was pushed down in comparison to the power gen-
erated at the upward movement. Fig. 8 shows average voltage readings
under various loads, loading time, and cycle of loading/unloading time.
The results show that output voltages of ESE with different loads are
similar in various conditions of loading, which means that the effect of
the load magnitude on the voltage output is not significant because all
of the loadings yielded similar displacements, and as a result, the
amount of rotations in the system were approximately equal. Due to the
small values of loads and the short time of loading, the rate of loading
was very close; therefore, the effect of the rate of loading on the output
was negligible. The maximum load output was less than the two other
load magnitudes because, in this condition, the top plate reached its
maximum possible deflection, which forced the shaft to stop, and as a
result, no energy was generated until the top plate started to recover.
The limitation of the UTM could be the reason for the higher output for
2 kN loading because the UTM might not simulate the exact loading
process of a vehicle passing over a bump.
Fig. 9 represents the average outputs of ESE in regard to loading
time and unloading time for 2 kN. According to the results in Fig. 9(a),
the output voltage of the prototype is higher when the time of loading is
lower. Higher voltage can be expected because the rate of rotation in
the shaft is higher, and consequently the magnetic field in the generator
508
M. Gholikhani, et al. Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511

Fig. 8. Average output voltage of the prototype: (a) 500 ms loading time, 1500 ms cycle time; (b) 700 ms loading time, 1500 ms cycle time; (c) 1000 ms loading time,
1500 ms cycle time; (d) 500 ms loading time, 2000 ms cycle time; (e) 700 ms loading time, 2000 ms cycle time; and (f) 1000 ms loading time, 2000 ms cycle time.

varies over a shorter period of time. Fig. 9(b) illustrates that when the
unloading time increases, the output voltage decreases. The unloading
time controls the recovering speed; a lower unloading time leads to
higher recovering speed. Higher recovering speeds lead to a higher
speed of rotation in the shaft and higher output values.
Fig. 10 presents the average output voltages of the prototype under
2 kN load based on the ratio of loading time to unloading time. The
prototype’s response during the loading and unloading time indicates
that by increasing this ratio, the voltage output increases. When the
ratio of loading time to unloading time increases, the top plate will
recover in a shorter time; thus, as mentioned before, the speed of re-
covery increases and the output increases correspondingly.
Table 3 provides the average output power (mW) of the ESE for
various conditions. Other studies reported a large range of peak powers,
from 1 mW [50] to 200 W [34]. Conversely, these values are con-
siderably smaller, but it is expected that this output will increase sig-
nificantly as this new technology undergoes optimization through Fig. 10. Average output voltage of the prototype under 2 kN load due to the
modifications in its design and the usage of new components, such as a ratio of loading time to unloading time.
gearbox. All energy harvesting technologies available in the market
have improved their performance after several development iterations should be submerged beneath the pavement layer. First, the pavement
and further research. should be cut to make a trench and provide a foundation to support the
device and hold it in position. Barrier walls will be required to protect
the device from soil pressure, harsh environment conditions, and
5. Recommendation for implementation in pavement structure
moisture. The foundation and walls should be made of concrete to
tolerate the loads. The foundation and walls will also prevent any
To install ESE in the field, all parts of it, excluding its top plate,

Fig. 9. Average voltage for 2 kN under different (a) loading times and (b) unloading times.

509
M. Gholikhani, et al.
Table 3
Average output power (mW) under various conditions.
Load (kN)
2 3
Loading—cycle of loading and unloading 0.5–1.5 s 1.35 1.18
specification 0.7–1.5 s 2.11 1.98
1–1.5 s 3.21 3.19
0.5–2 s 0.77 0.70
0.7–2.0 s 1.15 1.20
1–2 s 1.71 1.96
Fig. 11. Comparison between (a) conventional speed bump and prototype in-
stalled in pavement structure versus (b) unloaded and (c) under wheel loading.
adverse effect on the pavement’s integrity, performance, and durability,
especially for low-speed roadways that need speed bumps. The walls
can control the stress that is induced by vehicles on the pavement im-
mediately after speed bumps. The bottom of the top plate should be
positioned at road level, and its shape should be similar to traditional
speed bumps. Fig. 11 presents the proposed implementation of the
prototype in a roadway under two conditions, loaded and unloaded,
and is compared against the traditional speed bump configuration.
The top plate shape should be designed similar to the traditional
speed bump in order to control traffic speed and impact safety. The top
plate should also control the impact of the prototype on vehicles.
Potential locations for prototype installations include parking garages
or parking lots, before toll stations, at driveway entrances to buildings,
before ramps, in school zones, and any other places where the speed of
vehicles is controlled. The use of this technology in remote areas
without a power grid can serve to provide power to equipment such as
traffic monitoring and pavement management devices and to promote
transportation service quality. In addition, it can reduce accidents by
providing the power to operate safety devices such as lighting. The
proposed mechanism, wherein the top part moves downward when
vehicles pass over it, could increase the ride comfort of passengers of
vehicles because the vertical displacement in speed bumps will be re-
duced. Furthermore, the use of sustainable energy decreases fossil fuel
consumption and reduces greenhouse gas emissions and other negative
impacts on the environment related to the burning of fossil fuels.
6. Cost analysis
The cost of ESE components excluding installation is $450. The
prototype can generate an average 3 mW of electrical power from each
passing axle. On a road with 4000 ADT and an estimated passing axle
over the ESE every 1.5 s, the daily energy accumulation is approxi-
mately 10 W h. Moreover, the expense for generating electricity with
Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511
this technology is very high compared to conventional fossil fuel
technology, which is approximately $0.15 to $0.30 per kWh in the
United States, particularly at this stage of early development. By opti-
mizing the design and adding amplifying components (such as a
4 gearbox), the efficiency will increase, and the cost of generated elec-
tricity will decrease. Furthermore, the technology can be cost compe-
1.05
1.68 titive. The technology can supplement the energy resources for pave-
1.57 ment facilities in remote areas with no access to a utility grid. In this
0.58 case, the cost of generated power is reasonable, even if the price is
0.84 higher than the price of conventional electricity.
1.13
7. Application and future work
Although the proposed ESE is in its preliminary stages, it is expected
that output power will increase by adding a gearbox and flywheel and
substituting the current generator with a stronger generator. Energy
collected by this device can be easily utilized to supply sufficient
electricity for a wide range of safety devices, such as lighting and
warning lights. In addition, due to the speed bump shape of the top
plate, the ESE will also contribute to speed control in areas of high
traffic density. Another beneficial outcome of using such a device is that
it enables transportation agencies to monitor and categorize passing
vehicles based on their weight, size, and length.
This technology not only provides the required power for traffic
monitoring and pavement management devices but also benefits safety
in remote areas where power girds are not available. Because of the
ESE’s safety features, it is feasible technology for roadways even though
its power-generating cost is at present high in comparison to conven-
tional power-generating technologies.
Furthermore, all other current energy harvesting technologies must
be implemented into the pavement body as a part of the layer itself,
which can compromise the pavement integrity. However, the ESE is not
intrusive and affects only a very small portion of the pavement when
installed. In addition, to implement other technologies, the existing
pavement must be removed or a new pavement layer must be overlaid,
neither of which is needed for the ESE implementation.
The performance of the ESE should be studied under different traffic
conditions and loads to optimize the design before its installation in
pavements. According to the location of the installation, the load va-
lues, traffic volume, and environmental conditions will change; thus,
the ESE component features, such as size of the components, need to be
changed to maximize efficiency. Another design challenge is ensuring
that the design can endure long term under harsh conditions in order to
minimize the time and expense of maintenance operations. The tar-
geted ESE’s service life should be longer than the pavement’s main-
tenance cycle (7–10 years).
It should be noted that each prototype will include multiple sets of
energy harvesters under one top plate (speed bump), which will lead to
multiple power outputs.
8. Conclusions
An electromagnetic-based prototype for harvesting energy gener-
ated by passing vehicles from large deflections in speed bumps has been
proposed in this paper. The performance of the ESE in the experimental
lab test shows strong potential for the technology to become a source of
sustainable energy for the operation of roadway infrastructure.
Numerical analysis using FE was used to determine the optimum ma-
terial for the top plate of the prototype. The results showed that lower
deflections are obtained by metals—among which steel showed the
least deformation. It was also determined that making the upper plate
out of plastic rubber does not contribute to stress reduction and will
impose higher concentrated stress demands at the connections.
However, all four prototype models have an acceptable performance
rate based on values of stress and deflection. It is also recommended
that in order to maximize the service life of the prototype, the
510
M. Gholikhani, et al.
connection between the bump and the springs must be properly con-
sidered in the design.
Lab tests on the ESE were conducted to evaluate its power-gen-
erating performance under different conditions of loading. According to
the results, the average output of the prototype is 3 mW over each axle
passage. The output values of the ESE are low at this stage of the de-
velopment. However, by adding some additional components, such as a
gearbox and amplifying rotations, the output is expected to increase
significantly. The results also indicated that the output magnitude is
related to the speed of top plate displacement, which is directly pro-
portional to the speed of the passing vehicle.
Further studies are needed to examine the prototype performance
under real traffic loads and account for other potential factors con-
tributing to output power including effect of bump size, stiffness of
compressions springs, and size of generator. Also, the design and im-
plementation of the ESE should be studied to analyze and mitigate its
negative effect on the pavement around it because implementation
could impact the pavement structure and cause distress.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from
CPS Energy and the Tran-SET Regional University Transportation
Center to conduct this research study.
References
[1] Buhaug H, Urdal H. An urbanization bomb? Population growth and social disorder
in cities. Global Environ Change 2013;23(1):1–10.
[2] Outlook WE. International energy agency. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development; 2009.
[3] Chen F, Taylor N, Kringos N. Electrification of roads: opportunities and challenges.
Appl Energy 2015;150:109–19.
[4] Ahmad S, Abdul Mujeebu M, Farooqi MA. Energy harvesting from pavements and
roadways: a comprehensive review of technologies, materials, and challenges. Int J
Energy Res 2019.
[5] Jung I, Shin Y-H, Kim S, J-y Choi, Kang C-Y. Flexible piezoelectric polymer-based
energy harvesting system for roadway applications. Appl Energy 2017;197:222–9.
[6] Morbiato T, Borri C, Vitaliani R. Wind energy harvesting from transport systems: a
resource estimation assessment. Appl Energy 2014;133:152–68.
[7] Walubita LF, Sohoulande Djebou DC, Faruk AN, Lee SI, Dessouky S, Hu X.
Prospective of societal and environmental benefits of piezoelectric technology in
road energy harvesting. Sustainability 2018;10(2):383.
[8] Pei J, Zhou B, Lyu L. e-Road: the largest energy supply of the future? Appl Energy
2019;241:174–83.
[9] Dawson A, Mallick R, Hernandez AG, Dehdezi PK. Energy harvesting from pave-
ments. Climate change, energy, sustainability and pavements. Springer; 2014. p.
481–517.
[10] Lee K, Correia A. Investigation of novel methods to harvest solar energy from as-
phalt pavements. A research report to Korean Institute of Construction Technology.
Kingston, RI: University of Rhode Island; 2010.
[11] Wardlaw JL, Karaman I, Karsilayan A. Low-power circuits and energy harvesting for
structural health monitoring of bridges. IEEE Sens J 2013;13(2):709–22.
[12] Duarte F, Ferreira A. Energy harvesting on road pavements: state of the art. Proc
Inst Civil Eng Energy 2016;169(2):1–12.
[13] Guo L, Lu Q. Numerical analysis of a new piezoelectric-based energy harvesting
pavement system: lessons from laboratory-based and field-based simulations. Appl
Energy 2019;235:963–77.
[14] Efthymiou C, Santamouris M, Kolokotsa D, Koras A. Development and testing of
photovoltaic pavement for heat island mitigation. Sol Energy 2016;130:148–60.
[15] Jiang W, Yuan D, Xu S, Hu H, Xiao J, Sha A, et al. Energy harvesting from asphalt
pavement using thermoelectric technology. Appl Energy 2017;205:941–50.
[16] Wang L, Park J, Zhou W, Zuo L, editors. A large-scale on-road energy harvester from
highway vibration. ASME 2016 international design engineering technical con-
ferences and computers and information in engineering conference. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers; 2016.
[17] Venugopal P, Shekhar A, Visser E, Scheele N, Mouli GRC, Bauer P, et al. Roadway to
self-healing highways with integrated wireless electric vehicle charging and sus-
tainable energy harvesting technologies. Appl Energy 2018;212:1226–39.
[18] Jasim A, Yesner G, Wang H, Safari A, Maher A, Basily B. Laboratory testing and
numerical simulation of piezoelectric energy harvester for roadway applications.
Appl Energy 2018;224:438–47.
[19] Partodezfoli M, Rezaey A, Baniasad Z, Rezaey H. A novel speed-breaker for
511
Applied Energy 250 (2019) 503–511
electrical energy generation suitable for elimination of remote parts of power sys-
tems where is near to roads. J Basic Appl Sci Res 2012;2(6):6285–92.
[20] Pascual-Muñoz P, Castro-Fresno D, Serrano-Bravo P, Alonso-Estébanez A. Thermal
and hydraulic analysis of multilayered asphalt pavements as active solar collectors.
Appl Energy 2013;111:324–32.
[21] Tahami SA, Gholikhani M, Nasouri R, Dessouky S, Papagiannakis A. Developing a
new thermoelectric approach for energy harvesting from asphalt pavements. Appl
Energy 2019;238:786–95.
[22] Ma T, Yang H, Gu W, Li Z, Yan S. Development of walkable photovoltaic floor tiles
used for pavement. Energy Convers Manage 2019;183:764–71.
[23] Roshani H, Dessouky S, Montoya A, Papagiannakis A. Energy harvesting from as-
phalt pavement roadways vehicle-induced stresses: a feasibility study. Appl Energy
2016;182:210–8.
[24] Datta U, Dessouky S, Papagiannakis A. Harvesting thermoelectric energy from as-
phalt pavements. Transport Res Rec: J Transport Res Board 2017;2628:12–22.
[25] Roshani H, Jagtap P, Dessouky S, Montoya A, Papagiannakis A. Theoretical and
experimental evaluation of two roadway piezoelectric-based energy harvesting
prototypes. J Mater Civ Eng 2017;30(2):04017264.
[26] Roshani H, Dessouky S. Feasibility study to harvest electric power from highway
pavements using laboratory investigation. Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering University of Texas at San Antonio; 2015.
[27] Papagiannakis A, Montoya A, Dessouky S, Helffrich J. Development and evaluation
of piezoelectric prototypes for roadway energy harvesting. J Energy Eng
2017;143(5):04017034.
[28] Datta U. Harvesting of thermoelectric energy from asphalt pavements. University of
Texas at San Antonio; 2016.
[29] Leijon M, Danielsson O, Eriksson M, Thorburn K, Bernhoff H, Isberg J, et al. An
electrical approach to wave energy conversion. Renew Energy 2006;31(9):1309–19.
[30] Li Z, Zuo L, Kuang J, Luhrs G. Energy-harvesting shock absorber with a mechanical
motion rectifier. Smart Mater Struct 2012;22(2):025008.
[31] Rome LC, Flynn L, Goldman EM, Yoo TD. Generating electricity while walking with
loads. Science 2005;309(5741):1725–8.
[32] Liu M, Lin R, Zhou S, Yu Y, Ishida A, McGrath M, et al. Design, simulation and
experiment of a novel high efficiency energy harvesting paver. Appl Energy
2018;212:966–75.
[33] Zhang X, Pan H, Qi L, Zhang Z, Yuan Y, Liu Y. A renewable energy harvesting
system using a mechanical vibration rectifier (MVR) for railroads. Appl Energy
2017;204:1535–43.
[34] Wang L, Todaria P, Pandey A, O'Connor J, Chernow B, Zuo L. An electromagnetic
speed bump energy harvester and its interactions with vehicles. IEEE/ASME Trans
Mechatron 2016;21(4):1985–94.
[35] Todaria P, Wang L, Pandey A, O'Connor J, McAvoy D, Harrigan T, et al., editors.
Design, modeling and test of a novel speed bump energy harvester. SPIE smart
structures and materials+ nondestructive evaluation and health monitoring.
International Society for Optics and Photonics; 2015.
[36] Wang L, Park J, Zhou W, Ban J, Zuo L. On-road energy harvesting for traffic
monitoring; 2014.
[37] Aswathaman V, Priyadharshini M, editors. Every speed breaker is now a source of
power. In: Proc of 2010 international conference on biology, environment and
chemistry IPCBEE; 2011.
[38] Obeid HH, Jaleel AK, Hassan NA. Design and motion modeling of an electro-
magnetic hydraulic power hump harvester. Adv Mech Eng 2014;6:150293.
[39] Sarma BS, Jyothi V, Sudhir D. Design of power generation unit using roller me-
chanism. IOSR J Electr Electron Engn (IOSR-JEEE) 2014;9(3):55–60.
[40] Zhang Z, Zhang X, Rasim Y, Wang C, Du B, Yuan Y. Design, modelling and practical
tests on a high-voltage kinetic energy harvesting (EH) system for a renewable road
tunnel based on linear alternators. Appl Energy 2016;164:152–61.
[41] Pirisi A, Mussetta M, Grimaccia F, Zich RE. Novel speed-bump design and optimi-
zation for energy harvesting from traffic. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst
2013;14(4):1983–91.
[42] Ullah KM, Ahsan-uz-Zaman K, Hosen S, Khan RH, Parvin S, editors. Electrical power
generation through speed breaker. In: 2016 9th international conference on elec-
trical and computer engineering (ICECE). IEEE; 2016.
[43] Sharma AK, Trivedi O, Amberiya U, Sharma V. Development of speed breaker de-
vice for generation of compressed air on highways in remote areas. Int J Recent Res
Rev 2012;1:11–5.
[44] Garcia-Pozuelo D, Gauchia A, Olmeda E, Diaz V. Bump modeling and vehicle ver-
tical dynamics prediction. Adv Mech Eng 2014;6:736576.
[45] Ting C-C, Tsai D-Y, Hsiao C-C. Developing a mechanical roadway system for waste
energy capture of vehicles and electric generation. Appl Energy 2012;92:1–8.
[46] Beeby SP, Tudor MJ, White N. Energy harvesting vibration sources for micro-
systems applications. Meas Sci Technol 2006;17(12):R175.
[47] Eom HJ. Faraday’s law of induction. Primary theory of electromagnetics. Springer;
2013. p. 95–111.
[48] Johnson L, Nedzesky A, editors. A comparative study of speed humps, speed slots
and speed cushions. ITE annual meeting. Citeseer; 2004.
[49] Parkhill M, Sooklall R, Bahar G, editors. Updated guidelines for the design and
application of speed humps. ITE 2007 annual meeting and exhibit pittsburgh:
Institute of Transportation Engineers; 2007.
[50] Bhagdikar P, Gupta S, Rana N, Jegadeeshwaran R. Generation of Electricity with the
use of speed breakers. Int J Adv Eng Technol 2014;7(2):589.