230 Chapter 12.

Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

12.3 Taylor Polynomials at 0

The Taylor polynomial of degree n for differentiable function f at x = 0 is
n
f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3 f (n) (0) n X f (n) (0) i
Pn (x) = f (0) + x+ x + x +···+ x = x.
1! 2! 3! n! i=0 i!

When x = 0, the Taylor polynomial Pn (x) equals the function f exactly, Pn (0) = f (0).
For values of x close to 0, Pn (x) ≈ f (x). If f is analytic, for larger n, Pn (x) ≈ f (x)
for x farther away from 0.

Exercise 12.3 (Taylor Polynomials at 0)

1. Review of factorial notation.

(a) Special mathematical notation, called factorial notation, denoted by an

exclamation mark, “!”, is used in Taylor polynomials. For example,

5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 =

(i) 100 (ii) 110 (iii) 120.

(Use your calculator: type five (5), then MATH PRB 4:! ENTER.)

(b) 7! = (choose one or more)

i. 7 × 6!
ii. 5040
iii. 7 × 6 × 5!
iv. 7×6×5×4×3×2×1
(Use your calculator: type seven (7), then MATH PRB 4:! ENTER.)
7!
(c) 5!
= (choose one or more)
i. 7×6×5×4×3×2×1
5×4×3×2×1
ii. 7 × 6
iii. 42
7!
(d) 5!3!
= (choose one or more)
7×6×5×4×3×2×1
i. (5×4×3×2×1)(3×2×1)
7×6×5×4
ii. 5×4×3×2×1
7×6
iii. 3×2×1
42
iv. 6
Section 3. Taylor Polynomials at 0 (LECTURE NOTES 13) 231

(e) (7 − 3)! = (i) 7! − 3! (ii) 4! (iii) 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 (iv) 24.

7!
(f) (7−3)!
= (choose one or more)
i. 7×6×5×4×3×2×1
4×3×2×1
ii. 7 × 6 × 5
iii. 210
(g) By definition (in other words, accept as true that), 0! = 1, and so
0! = (i) 1! (ii) 2! (iii) 3!.
2. Approximation and exact values for f (x) = ex near x = 0.

5 5 5
y y y

P1 = 1 + x P2 = 1 + x + 21_ x 2 P3 = 1 + x + 1_ x 2 + 1_ x 3
2 6

y = ex (0,1) y = ex (0,1) y = ex (0,1)

x x x
-5 5 -5 5 -5 5

-5 -5 -5

Figure 12.1 (Taylor polynomial approximations to exponential function)

X2 X3
Use WINDOW -5 5 1 -5 5 1 1 define Y1 = 1 + X, Y2 = Y1 + 2
, Y3 = Y2 + 6
, Y4 = e X

since f (0) = e0 = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) x

and f (1) (0) = f ′ (x) = ex , so f (1) (0) = e0 = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) x

then Taylor polynomial of degree 1 for f (x) = ex at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) 1
P1 (x) = f (0) + x=1+ x=
1! 1!
(i) 1 + x (ii) 1 + x + 12 x2 (iii) 1 + x + 21 x2 + 61 x3

and since f (2) (0) = ex , so f (2) (0) = e0 = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) x

and Taylor polynomial of degree 2 for f (x) = ex at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 1 1
P2 (x) = f (0) + x+ x = 1 + x + x2 =
1! 2! 1! 2!
(i) 1 + x (ii) 1 + x + 12 x2 (iii) 1 + x + 21 x2 + 61 x3
232 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

and so since f (3) (0) = ex , so f (3) (0) = e0 = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) x

and Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for f (x) = ex at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3 1 1 1
P3 (x) = f (0) + x+ x + x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 =
1! 2! 3! 1! 2! 3!
(i) 1 + x (ii) 1 + x + 12 x2 (iii) 1 + x + 21 x2 + 61 x3

Functions P1 (x), P2 (x), P3 (x) and f (x) evaluated at various values of x:

P1 (x) Approximation P2 (x) Approximation P3 (x) Approximation Exact

x 1+x 1 + x + 12 x2 1 + x + 21 x2 + 61 x3 f (x) = ex
−1 0 0.5 0.33333 0.36788
−0.1 0.9 0.905 0.90483 0.90484
−0.01 0.99 0.99005 0.99005 0.99005
−0.001 0.999 0.9990005 0.9990005 0.9990005
0 1 1 1 1
0.001 1.001 1.001 1.001001 1.001001
0.01 1.01 1.01005 1.010050 1.010050
0.1 1.1 1.105 1.105167 1.10517
1 2 2.5 2.666667 2.71828
X2 X3
Define Y1 = 1 + X, Y2 = Y1 + 2
, Y3 = Y2 + 6
, Y4 = e X
2nd TBLSET -1 1 Ask Auto 2nd TABLE, type -1 -0.1 -0.01 . . .

From the table, the Taylor polynomial Pn (x) is closer to f (x) = ex

for x (i) closer to (ii) farther from 0
and for (i) smaller (ii) larger n

3. Approximation and exact values for f (x) = e4x near x = 0.

since f (0) = e0 = (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) x

and
f (1) (x) = e4x × 4 · 1x1−1 =
(i) 4e4x (ii) e4x (iii) 4x
by chain rule

then Taylor polynomial of degree 1 for f (x) = e4x at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) 4e4(0)
P1 (x) = f (0) + x= 1+ x=
1! 1!
Section 3. Taylor Polynomials at 0 (LECTURE NOTES 13) 233

32 3
(i) 1 + 4x (ii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 (iii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 + 3
x

and
f (2) (x) = 4e4x × 4 · 1x1−1 =
(i) 4e4x (ii) 16e4x (iii) 4x
by chain rule and product rule

then Taylor polynomial of degree 2 for f (x) = e4x at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 4e4(0) 16e4(0) 2

P2 (x) = f (0) + x+ x =1+ x+ x =
1! 2! 1! 2!
32 3
(i) 1 + 4x (ii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 (iii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 + 3
x

and
f (3) (x) = 16e4x × 4 · 1x1−1 =
(i) 4e4x (ii) 16e4x (iii) 64e4x
by chain rule and product rule

and Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for f (x) = e4x at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3 4e4(0) 16e4(0) 2 64e4(0) 3

P3 (x) = f (0)+ x+ x+ x = 1+ x+ x+ x =
1! 2! 3! 1! 2! 3!
32 3
(i) 1 + 4x (ii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 (iii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 + 3
x

and
f (4) (x) = 64e4x × 4 · 1x1−1 =
(i) 16e4x (ii) 64e4x (iii) 256e4x
by chain rule and product rule

and Taylor polynomial of degree 4 for f (x) = e4x at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4

P4 (x) = f (0) + x+ x + x + x
1! 2! 3! 4!
4e4(0) 16e4(0) 2 64e4(0) 3 256e4(0) 4
= 1+ x+ x + x + x =
1! 2! 3! 4!
32 3 32 4
(i) 1 + 4x (ii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 (iii) 1 + 4x + 8x2 + 3
x + 3
x

Functions P4 (x) and f (x) evaluated at various values of x:

234 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

P4 (x) Approximation Exact

x 1 + 4x + 8x2 + 32
3
x3 + 32 4
3
x f (x) = e4x
−0.1 0.6704 0.67032
−0.01 0.96079 0.96079
0 1 1
0.01 1.04081
0.1 1.49182
32X 3 32X 4
Define Y1 = 1 + 4X, Y2 = Y1 + 8X 2 , Y3 = Y2 + 3
, Y3 = Y3 + 3
, Y4 = e4X
2nd TBLSET -1 1 Ask Auto 2nd TABLE, type -0.1 -0.01 0 0.01 0.1

1
4. Approximation and exact values for f (x) = 1−3x
= (1 − 3x)−1 near x = 0.

1
since f (0) = 1−3(0)
= (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) x

and
f (1) (x) = −(1 − 3x)−2 × −3 · 1x1−1 =
1 3 3
(i) (1−3x)2
(ii) (1−3x)
(iii) (1−3x)2

1
then Taylor polynomial of degree 1 for f (x) = 1−3x
at x = 0 is
3
f (1) (0) (1−3(0))2
P1 (x) = f (0) + x=1+ x=
1! 1!
(i) 1 + 3x (ii) 1 + 3x + 9x2 (iii) 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3

and
f (2) (x) = 3 · −2(1 − 3x)−3 × −3 · 1x1−1 =
3 6 18
(i) (1−3x)2
(ii) (1−3x)
(iii) (1−3x)3

1
then Taylor polynomial of degree 2 for f (x) = 1−3x
at x = 0 is
3 18
f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 (1−3(0))2 (1−3(0))3 2
P2 (x) = f (0) + x+ x =1+ x+ x =
1! 2! 1! 2!
(i) 1 + 3x (ii) 1 + 3x + 9x2 (iii) 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3

and
f (3) (x) = 18 · −3(1 − 3x)−4 × −3 · 1x1−1 =
3 162 162
(i) (1−3x)2
(ii) (1−3x)4
(iii) (1−3x)3

1
and Taylor polynomial of degree 3 for f (x) = 1−3x
at x = 0 is
3 18 162
f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3 (1−3(0))2 (1−3(0))3 2 (1−3x)4 3
P3 (x) = f (0)+ x+ x+ x = 1+ x+ x+ x =
1! 2! 3! 1! 2! 3!
Section 3. Taylor Polynomials at 0 (LECTURE NOTES 13) 235

(i) 1 + 3x (ii) 1 + 3x + 9x2 (iii) 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3

and
f (4) (x) = 162 · −4(1 − 3x)−5 × −3 · 1x1−1 =
1944 648 162
(i) (1−3x)5
(ii) (1−3x)4
(iii) (1−3x)3

1
and Taylor polynomial of degree 4 for f (x) = 1−3x
at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3 f (4) (0) 4

P4 (x) = f (0) + x+ x + x + x
1! 2! 3! 4!
3 18 162 1944
(1−3(0))2 (1−3(0))3 2 (1−3x)4 3 (1−3(0))5
= 1+ x+ x + x + x4 =
1! 2! 3! 4!
(i) 1+3x+9x2 (ii) 1+3x+9x2 +27x3 (iii) 1+3x+9x2 +27x3 +81x4

Functions P4 (x) and f (x) evaluated at various values of x:

P4 (x) Approximation Exact

1
x 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3 + 81x4 f (x) = 1−3x
−0.1 0.76923
−0.01 0.97087
0 1 1
0.01 1.0309
0.1 1.0309

1
Define Y1 = 1 + 3X, Y2 = Y1 + 9X 2 , Y3 = Y2 + 27X 3 , Y3 = Y3 + 81X 4 , Y4 = 1−3x
2nd TBLSET -1 1 Ask Auto 2nd TABLE, type -0.1 -0.01 0 0.01 0.1

5. Application. Electric potential, V , at a distance z from disk R is

√ 
V = k1 z 2 + R2 − z .

R R2
(a) If z is much larger than R, both z
and z2
are small;
2
so x = Rz 2 is close to zero and
v s
√
!
R2 R2 √
u
u
z 2 + R2 = tz 2 1+ 2 = z 1+ = z 1+x
z z2
√
and a Taylor polynomial of degree 1 for f (x) = 1 + x at x = 0 is
1
1
f (1) (0) √ (1 + 0)− 2
P1 (x) = f (0) + x= 1+0+ 2 x=
1! 1!
236 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

(i) 1 + 21 x (ii) 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 (iii) 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 + 61 x3

so √
z 1+x≈
     
(i) z 1 + 21 x (ii) z 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 (iii) 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 + 61 x3

and so
√ 
V = k1 z 2 + R2 − z
 √ 
R2
= k1 z 1 + x − z remember x= z2

1
   
≈ k1 z 1 + x − z
2 
z

= k1 z + x − z =
2

z2 k1 R2
 
k1 R
(i) 2z
(ii) k1 R+ 2R
−z (iii) 2z
2
remember x = Rz2

z z2
(b) If z is much smaller than R, both R
and R2
are small;
2
so x = Rz 2 is close to zero and
v s
√
!
z2 z2 √
u
u
z 2 + R2 = tR 2
2
+ 1 = R 1 + 2
=z 1+x
R R
√
and a Taylor polynomial of degree 1 for f (x) = 1 + x at x = 0 is
1
1
f (1) (0) √ (1 + 0)− 2
P1 (x) = f (0) + x= 1+0+ 2 x=
1! 1!
(i) 1 + 12 x (ii) 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 (iii) 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 + 61 x3

so √
z 1+x≈
     
(i) z 1 + 21 x (ii) z 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 (iii) 1 + 21 x − 18 x2 + 61 x3

and so
√ 
V = k1 z 2 + R2 − z
 √ 
R2
= k1 R 1 + x − z remember x = z2
Section 3. Infinite Series (LECTURE NOTES 13) 237

1
   
≈ k1 R 1 + x − z
2
R
 
= k1 R + x − z =
2

z2 k1 R2
 
k1 R
(i) 2z
(ii) k1 R+ 2R
−z (iii) 2z
z2
remember x = R 2

12.4 Infinite Series

An infinite series is
∞
X
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an · · · = ai
i=1
and let Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an be the nth partial sum and suppose
lim Sn = L
n→∞

for some real number L. Then L is the sum of the infinite series and the infinite
series converges. If L does not exist, the series diverges. In particular, the sum of the
geometric series is
∞
ar i−1 = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · ·
X

i=1

which converges if r is in (−1, 1) and has sum

a
1−r
and diverges if r is outside of (−1, 1).

Exercise 12.4 (Infinite Series)

1. Identify if geometric series converges or not; give sum of convergent series.
(a) geometric sequence
16, 8, 4, 2, . . .
1 1 1
has common ratio r = (i) 2
(ii) 3
(iii) 4
which is inside (−1, 1)
8 4 2
notice r = 16
= 8
= 4
= 0.5

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

and so
a 16
lim Sn = = =
n→∞ 1−r 1 − 12
238 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

(i) 30 (ii) 31 (iii) 32 (iv) does not exist

(b) geometric sequence

2, 6, 18, 54, . . .
1
has common ratio r = (i) 3
(ii) 2 (iii) 3 which is outside (−1, 1)
6 18 54
notice r = 2
= 6
= 18

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

and so
a 2
= = lim Sn =
1−r 1−3 n→∞

(i) −16 (ii) −32 (iii) 0 (iv) does not exist

(c) geometric sequence

1 1
−3, −1, − , − , . . .
3 9
has common ratio r = (i) 31 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 which is inside (−1, 1)
1
notice r = −1
−3
= 3

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

where
a −3
lim Sn = = =
n→∞ 1−r 1 − 13
(i) − 72 (ii) −4 (iii) − 92 (iv) does not exist

(d) geometric sequence

1 1 1
, , 1,
...
2.02 2.02 2.023
2

1 1 1
has common ratio r = (i) 2.01 (ii) 2.02 (iii) 2.03 which is inside (−1, 1)
1
2.02 1
notice r = 1
= 2.02

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

and so
a 1
lim Sn = = 1 =
n→∞ 1−r 1 − 2.02
101 202 303
(i) 51
(ii) 51
(iii) 51
(iv) does not exist
Section 3. Infinite Series (LECTURE NOTES 13) 239

(e) geometric sequence

1 1
π, 1, , 2 , . . .
π π
1
has common ratio r = (i) π
(ii) π2 (iii) π13 which is inside (−1, 1)
1

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

and so
a π
lim Sn = = 1 ≈
n→∞ 1−r 1− π

(i) 4.609 (ii) 4.709 (iii) 4.809 (iv) does not exist

(f) geometric sequence

2 3
1 1 1
   
0.197, 0.197 , 0.197 , 0.197 ,...
1000 1000 1000
1 1 1
has common ratio r = (i) 10
(ii) 100
(iii) 1000
which is inside (−1, 1)

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

and so
a 0.197
lim Sn = = 1 ≈
n→∞ 1−r 1 − 1000
(i) 0.197199201... = 197
199
(ii) 0.197197197... = 197
199
(iii) 0.197198199... = 197
199
(iv) does not exist

2. Given nth term of (non-geometric) sequence, find four terms and partial sums.
1
(a) an = 2n−1

sequence is
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 =
(i) 1, 14 , 15 , 71 (ii) 1, 13 , 51 , 17 (iii) 1, 21 , 13 , 41
1


2nd LIST OPS seq 2X−1
, X, 1, 4 , then MATH ENTER for fractions;
1 1
notice non-geometric sequence because 3
1
6= 5
1
3

and series is
S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 =
240 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

(i) 1, 43 , 24 , 176
15 105
(ii) 1, 34 , 23 , 176
15 105
(iii) 1, 43 , 23 , 177
15 105
1 4
S1 = a1 = 1, S2 = S1 + a2 = 1 + 3
= 3
,...

1
(b) an = (n+1)2

sequence is
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 =
(i) 12 , 19 , 16
1 1
, 23
(ii) 13 , 19 , 16
1 1
, 24 (iii) 41 , 19 , 16
1 1
, 25
1
2nd LIST OPS seq (X+1)2
, X, 1, 4 , then MATH ENTER for fractions;
1 1
notice non-geometric sequence because 9
1 6= 16
1
4 9

and series is
S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 =
(i) 14 , 13 , 97 , 2567
36 144 3600
(ii) 41 , 13 , 97 , 2568
36 144 3600
(iii) 41 , 13 , 61 , 1669
36 144 3600
1 1 1 13
S1 = a1 = 4
, S2 = S1 + a2 = 4
+ 9
= 36
,...

3. Application: Bouncing ball. A ball dropped from a height of 20 meters bounces

to 38 ths of its previous height. How far does the ball travel before coming to a
rest?

This geometric sequence has common ratio

r = (i) 28 (ii) 83 (iii) 48 which is inside (−1, 1)

and so (i) is (ii) is not a convergent geometric series

and so
a 20
lim Sn = = =
n→∞ 1−r 1 − 83
(i) 30 (ii) 31 (iii) 32 (iv) does not exist meters

12.5 Taylor Series

The Taylor series for differentiable function f at x = 0 is

f (1) (0) f (2) (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3

f (0) + x+ x + x + ···.
1! 2! 3!
Some analytic functions f (x), Taylor series and interval of convergences are:
Section 3. Taylor Series (LECTURE NOTES 13) 241

• f (x) = ex , 1 + x + 2!1 x2 + 3!1 x3 + · · · + 1 n

n!
x + ···, (−∞, ∞)
x2 x3 x4 (−1)n xn+1
• f (x) = ln(1 + x), x− 2
+ 3
− 4
+···+ n+1
+ ···, (−1, 1]
1
• f (x) = 1−x
, 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · · , (−1, 1)

Let f and g be functions with Taylor series

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · + an xn + · · ·
g(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + · · · + bn xn + · · ·

and so Taylor series of

• f + g is

(a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + (a3 + b3 )x3 + · · · + (an + bn )xn + · · ·

• c · f (x) is

c · a0 + c · a1 x + c · a2 x2 + c · a3 x3 + · · · + c · an xn + · · ·

• xk · f (x) is

a0 xk + a1 xk · x + a2 xk · x2 + a3 xk · x3 + · · · + an xk · xn + · · ·
= a0 xk + a1 xk+1 + a2 xk+2 + a3 xk+3 + · · · + an xk+n + · · ·

• composition f [g(x)], where g(x) = cxk , is

a0 + a1 [g(x)] + a2 [g(x)]2 + a3 [g(x)]3 + · · · + an [g(x)]n + · · ·

Taylor series of function is limit of Taylor polynomials of function; Taylor polynomial is an finite number of initial
terms of Taylor series.

Exercise 12.5 (Taylor Series)

1. Determine Taylor series for f (x) and interval of convergence.

3
(a) f (x) = 1−x

1
Since Taylor series of 1−x
is

1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · ·
1−x
242 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

then Taylor series of

1
f (x) = 3 ·

1−x 
= 3 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · · =

(i) 3 + 3x + 3x2 + 3x3 + · · · + 3xn + · · ·

(ii) 1 + 3x + 3x2 + 3x3 + · · · + 3xn + · · ·
(iii) 1 + x + 2x2 + 3x3 + · · · + nxn + · · ·

where since
−1 < x < 1,
the interval of convergence for x is
(i) (−∞, ∞) (ii) (−1, 1) (iii) (−3, 3)

3
(b) f (x) = 1−x2

1
Since Taylor series of 1−x
is

1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn + · · ·
1−x
then Taylor series of
1
f (x) = 3 ·

1 − x2 
 2  3  n
= 3 1 + x2 + x2 + x2 + · · · + x2 +··· =

(i) 3 + 3x + 3x2 + 3x3 + · · · + 3xn + · · ·

(ii) 3 + 3x2 + 3x4 + 3x6 + · · · + 3x2n + · · ·
(iii) 1 + x3 + 2x4 + 3x6 + · · · + nx2n + · · ·

where since
−1 < x2 < 1 ≡ 0 < x2 ≤ 1,
x2 ) is√
the interval of convergence for x (not √
(i) (−∞, ∞) (ii) (−1, 1) (iii) (− 2, 2)

2
(c) f (x) = e3x

Since Taylor series of ex is

1 2 1 3 1
ex = 1 + x + x + x + · · · + xn + · · ·
2! 3! n!
Section 3. Taylor Series (LECTURE NOTES 13) 243

then Taylor series of

2
f (x) = e3x
1  2 2 1  2 3 1  2 n
= 1 + 3x2 + 3x + 3x +···+ 3x +··· =
2! 3! n!
2 3 4
(i) 32! x4 + 33! x6 + 34! x6 + · · · + 3n! x2n + · · ·
n

2 3 4
(ii) 1 + 32! x2 + 33! x6 + 34! x6 + · · · + 3n! x2n + · · ·
n

2 3 4
(iii) 1 + 3x2 + 32! x4 + 33! x6 + 34! x6 + · · · + 3n! x2n + · · ·
n

where since
−∞ < 3x2 < ∞,
the interval of convergence for x is √ √
(i) (−∞, ∞) (ii) (−1, 1) (iii) (− 2, 2)

e2x +e−2x
(d) f (x) = 2
= 21 e2x + 21 e−2x

Since Taylor series of ex is

1 2 1 3 1
ex = 1 + x + x + x + · · · + xn + · · ·
2! 3! n!
then Taylor series of
1 2x 1 −2x
f (x) = e + e
2 2
1 1 1 1

2 3 n
= 1 + 2x + (2x) + (2x) + · · · + (2x) + · · ·
2 2! 3! n!
1 1 1 1
 
2 3 n
+ 1 − 2x + (−2x) + (−2x) + · · · + (−2x) + · · ·
2 2! 3! n!
1 1 1 1  2 2
  
= + + (2x − 2x) + 2 x + (−2)2 x2
2 2 2 2 · 2!
1  3 3  1  4 4 
+ 2 x + (−2)3 x3 + 2 x + (−2)4 x4 + · · ·
2 · 3! 2 · 4!
2 4
(i) 1 + 22! x2 + 24! x4 + · · · + 2n! x2n + · · ·
n

2 3 4
(ii) 1 + x + 22! x2 + 23! x3 + 24! x4 + · · · + 2n! xn + · · ·
n

2 3 4
(iii) 1 + 32! x4 + 33! x6 + 34! x6 + · · · + 3n! x2n + · · ·
n

where since
−∞ < 2x < ∞, −∞ < −2x < ∞,
the interval of convergence for x is √ √
(i) (−∞, ∞) (ii) (−1, 1) (iii) (− 2, 2)
244 Chapter 12. Sequences and Series (LECTURE NOTES 13)

(e) f (x) = ln(1 + 3x2 )

Since Taylor series of ln(1 + x) is

x2 x3 x4 (−1)n xn+1
ln(1 + x) = x − + − +···+ +···
2 3 4 n+1
then Taylor series of

f (x) = ln(1 + 3x2 )

2 3 4 n+1
2(3x2 ) (3x2 ) (3x2 ) (−1)n (3x2 )
= 3x − + − +···+ +··· =
2 3 4 n+1
3 4 n+1
3x2 (3x2 ) (3x2 ) (−1)n (3x2 )
(i) 3x2 − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ ··· + n+1
+ ···
4 6 81x8 (−1)n 3n+1 x2n+2
(ii) 3x2 − 9x2 + 27x
··· +
3
− 4
n+1
+ + ···
2 4 3 n+1
( ) ( ) (3x2 )
3x2 (−1)n (3x2 )
3x2
(iii) 3x − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · + n+1
+···

where since
1 1 1
−1 < 3x2 ≤ 1 ≡ − < x2 ≤ ≡ 0 < x2 ≤ ,
3 3 3
thehinterval
i of convergence
hq q for
i x is h q q i
1 1
(i) − 3 , 3 (ii) − 3 , 3 (iii) − 13 , 13
1 1

2. Application: normal density. Density of IQ scores for 16 year olds, x:

1 2
f (x) = √ e−(1/2)[(x−100)/16] .
16 2π
Use four terms of Taylor series to determine P (84 < X < 100)

(a) Taylor series.

Since Taylor series of ex is

1 2 1 3 1
ex = 1 + x + x + x + · · · + xn + · · ·
2! 3! n!
then Taylor series of
1 2
f (x) = √ e−(1/2)[(x−100)/16]
16 2π
!
2  2 2  2 3
1 1 x − 100 1 1 x − 100 1 1 x − 100
  
= √ 1− + − + − + ··· =
16 2π 2 16 2! 2 16 3! 2 16
Section 3. Taylor Series (LECTURE NOTES 13) 245

   2    3
x−100 2 x−100 2 x−100 2
 
1 1 1 1
(i) 1 − 2 16
+ 2 16
+ 3! 2 16
+···
!
  2 2    3
x−100 2 x−100 2
 
1 1 1 x−100 1 1
(ii) √
16 2π
1− 2 16
+ 2 16
+ 3! 2 16
+ ···
 
x−100 2 x−100 4 x−100 6
     
1 1 1 1
(iii) √
16 2π
1− 2 16
+ 8 16
− 48 16
+···

(b) P (84 < X < 100) using Taylor series

Z 100
1 2
P (84 < X < 100) = √ e−(1/2)[(x−100)/16] dx
16 2π 84
100
Z  2 4 6 
1 1 x − 100 1 x − 100 1 x − 100
  
≈ √ 1− + − dx
16 2π 84
2 16 8 16 48 16
Z 100
1 1 1 1
 
= √ 1− (x − 100)2 + (x − 100)4 − (x − 100)6 dx
16 2π 84
2 · 162 8 · 164 48 · 166
x=100
1 1 1 1
 
= √ x− 2
(x − 100)3 + 4
(x − 100)5 − 6
(x − 100)7
16 2π 2 · 16 · 3 8 · 16 · 5 48 · 16 · 7 x=84
1 1 1 1
 
3 5 7
= √ 100 − (100 − 100) + (100 − 100) − (100 − 100)
16 2π 2 · 162 · 3 8 · 164 · 5 48 · 166 · 7
1 1 1 1
 
− √ 84 − 2
(84 − 100)3 + 4
(84 − 100)5 − 6
(84 − 100)7
16 2π 2 · 16 · 3 8 · 16 · 5 48 · 16 · 7
1 1 1 1
 
3 5
= √ 16 + 2
(84 − 100) − 4
(84 − 100) + 6
(84 − 100)7
16 2π 2 · 16 · 3 8 · 16 · 5 48 · 16 · 7
 
1 163 165 167
= √ 16 − + −
16 2π 2 · 162 · 3 8 · 164 · 5 48 · 166 · 7
1 1 1 1
 
= √ 1− + −
2π 2·3 8·5 48 · 7

(i) 0.3411 (ii) 0.3412 (iii) 0.3413 (iv) 0.5413.

(c) P (84 < X < 100) using calculator

P (84 < X < 100) =

(i) 0.3411 (ii) 0.3412 (iii) 0.3413 (iv) 0.5413.

(2nd DISTR 2:normalcdf(84, 100, 200, 16).