Bull Eng Geol Environ
DOI 10.1007/s10064-015-0731-z
ORIGINAL PAPER
Investigation of the soil amplification factor in the Adapazari
region
Seyhan Firat • Nihat S. Isik • Hasan Arman •
Mesut Demir • Isa Vural
Received: 15 September 2014 / Accepted: 15 February 2015
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract Turkey is located on the highly active Eurasian
plate. A very active strike slip fault, the North Anatolian
Fault Zone (NAFZ), crosses Turkey from east to west;
earthquakes occurred on this fault on August 17, 1999
(Kocaeli) and November 12, 1999 (Düzce). Regional ge-
ology and subsoil conditions can significantly change the
characteristics of ground motion. For this reason, deter-
mining soil amplification during an earthquake, especially
for soft soils, is a very important topic for researchers. In
this study, one dimensional ground response analyses were
performed for selected Adapazari sites using the August
17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake strong ground motion record
with SHAKE2000 software. Soil characteristics and depth
to engineering bedrock at the selected sites are different
and the observed level of structural damage at these sites
during the Kocaeli earthquake was also different. Calcu-
lated soil surface response spectrums at these sites were
compared with the recommended design spectra of the
Turkish Earthquake Code and the Eurocode 8. According
to one dimensional ground response analyses, the
S. Firat
N. S. Isik (&)
Civil Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Gazi
University, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: nihatsinan@gazi.edu.tr
H. Arman
Department of Geology, College of Science, United Arab
Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
M. Demir
Civil Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Sakarya
University, Sakarya, Turkey
I. Vural
Civil Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Sakarya
University, Sakarya, Turkey
calculated response spectra of the selected sites exceed the
recommended design spectra of the Turkish Earthquake
Code and the Eurocode 8. Calculations show that higher
amplification ratios occur at higher periods due to soil
behaviour. Results of this study indicate that local geolo-
gical conditions may amplify ground motion at some pe-
riods and, due to this amplification, the calculated response
spectra may exceed the recommended design spectra.
Therefore, it is clear that local site conditions must be
considered for earthquake-resistant engineering designs on
soft alluvial soil deposits.
Keywords Adapazari
Soil amplification
Soil
characteristics
Site conditions
Peak ground acceleration
Introduction
Turkey is located in one of the World’s major earthquake
zones (Fig. 1), especially the Marmara region, which is a
heavily industrialized and populated area located in the
northwest of the country. The region is exposed to de-
structive earthquakes. The August 17, 1999 Kocaeli and
November 12, 1999 Düzce earthquakes are examples of
recent devastating earthquakes. In particular, the August
17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake affected a large part of the
Marmara region. Despite Adapazari being quite far from
the centre of the earthquake, it still suffered major damage
due to the geological features of the region. One of the
most significant features of damages was foundation-re-
lated failures of buildings, such as tilting, overturning and
sinking. Adapazari was developed on young flood-plain-
deposits of the Sakarya River. Therefore, soft soil-deposits
were thought to have played a critical role in such damage.
The amplitudes of seismic waves increase as they pass
123

Fig. 1 Main tectonic features of Turkey and the location of the Kocaeli earthquake (Gulen et al. 2002)
through soft soil layers near the earth’s surface. This phe-
nomenon is referred to as site amplification.
Some researchers have investigated the effect of local
site conditions on building failures (e.g., Cetin et al. 2002;
Tezcan et al. 2002; Sancio et al. 2002; Ozel and Sasatani
2004; Firat et al. 2009). These studies have shown that
local site conditions should be known to determine the
behaviour of structures under the influence of earthquake
loading.
In the frame of the Istanbul Earthquake Master Plan, the
micro-zoning study in the Zeytinburnu area was conducted
by Kilic et al. (2006) to determine the effects of local site
conditions on earthquake forces. In this study, detailed
geological and geotechnical studies were conducted. Geo-
logical maps of the site showing the local geology were
prepared and classification associated with dynamic be-
haviour was performed based on soil borehole data. To
study the effects of local conditions on dynamic ground
behaviour, ground response analyses were performed with
the computer program EERA (Bardet et al. 2000) using
field and laboratory data. A micro zonation map was cre-
ated based on the dynamic response analyses.
Local variations in the characteristics of alluvial sedi-
ments in Adapazari appeared to play an integral role in the
occurrence and non-occurrence of ground failure and
123
S. Firat et al.
associated building damage. Preliminary interpretation of
field data suggests that the type and width of structures do
not significantly influence the degree of ground failure.
However, localization of observed settlements around
buildings, the relatively infrequent observations of lique-
faction in open fields, and the higher rate of severe ground
failure for taller buildings suggests that ground strains as-
sociated with soil–structure interaction may have con-
tributed to the triggering and severity of ground failure
(Sancio et al. 2002).
Akyol et al. (2002) estimated the site response of specific
geologic units in the city of Bursa by recording nearby mi-
cro-earthquakes. They found that the maximum amplifica-
tion on a sedimentary basin site is four to five times higher
than on a hard-rock site. These results show that seismic
wave amplification and attenuation are consequences of
travelling through poorly consolidated sediments, and this
phenomenon must be the primary focus of research in
seismically active regions. Also, the near-surface charac-
teristics should be taken into account for future spectral and
hazard related studies in the Marmara region.
Ozel and Sasatani (2004) conclude that heavy damage in
downtown Adapazari during the 1999 Kocaeli earthquake
was caused not only by strongly amplified S-waves but also
by long-period basin surface waves of long duration.
Investigation of the soil amplification factor in the Adapazari region
Bakir et al. (2005) investigated the role of ground con-
ditions in building damage patterns in the city of Adapazari
during the August 17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake
(Mw = 7.4). They reported that the damage was concen-
trated in the central districts of the city over the alluvial basin
where four- to seven-story reinforced concrete buildings
were most adversely affected. Two distinct and mutually
exclusive modes of building damage were observed on the
alluvium: structural system failures due to strong ground
shaking, and foundation bearing failures apparently associ-
ated with soft or liquefiable surface deposits. The outcome is
consistent not only with the general trends pertaining to the
distribution of building damage in terms of collapse data and
post-earthquake observations, but it also successfully pre-
dicts the respective locations of the two distinct damage
modes. They, accordingly, concluded that the buildings over
soft sites benefited from significant reductions in seismic
demand owing to the strong nonlinear soil response, and
escaped pancake-type collapse.
Shear modulus and damping ratio curves are selected for
soil layers in an equivalent linear approach for ground re-
sponse analyses. Generally, shear modulus and damping
ratio curves are only dependent on soil type, plasticity in-
dex, etc. However, the effect of confining pressure on dy-
namic properties has been recognized by various
researchers (e.g., Hardin and Drnevich 1972; Iwasaki et al.
1978; Kokusho 1980; Ishibashi and Zhang 1993; Darendeli
2001). An increase of confining pressure results in a de-
crease of the shear modulus reduction (higher secant shear
modulus vs. maximum shear modulus ratios for a given
strain) and the small strain damping.
Isik (2010) performed ground response analyses based
on seismic refraction, borehole information and cone
penetration tests at 22 locations for the Saruhanlı region of
Manisa, Turkey in order to assess the safety requirements
for future construction. In this study, various modulus re-
duction and damping curves, including effective confining
stress and the plasticity index-dependent models, were
used. This study indicated that the confining stress-depen-
dent soil models and shear-wave velocity profile resulted in
higher amplification ratios and lower predominant periods
than when the average modulus reduction and damping
curves from the literature were used.
In this study, recorded strong earthquake motion data
was used to determine the soil amplification ratio in the
Adapazari basin. Simulations were performed using the
SHAKE2000 computer program that is capable of per-
forming one-dimensional response analysis. In these
simulations, the confining pressure dependent model (Ish-
ibashi and Zhang 1993) was used for ground response
calculation. The spectral behaviour obtained for the profiles
were compared with the original design spectrums
recommended in the Turkish Earthquake Code (2007) and
the Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004).
Geology of the Adapazari region
Adapazari Valley, down to the valley of Sakarya, is located
between Sapanca Lake and east of Adapazari (Fig. 2).
Akova, extending up to the foothills of the east Keremali
Mountains, is one of the great plains in the Marmara re-
gion. The valley is 620 km2 and its length along the east–
west and its extension in north–south direction reach about
27 and 23 km, respectively. Ridges from the surrounding
mountains are trafficked to the valley of about a 30-m
altitude and formed of mounds in some areas. The main
ones are the Erenler hill (75 m) in the south of the city
centre of Adapazari, the Alibey hill (112 m) and the Ter-
siye hill (85 m) in the southeast of the city centre of
Adapazari (Bol 2003).
A large part of the Adapazari Valley was formed with
quaternary alluvial deposits containing gravelly and silty
sand carried by the Sakarya River and Cark Creek (Fig. 2).
These deposits contain low-plasticity clay and silt series of
a lenticular appearance or tape shape. Sometimes alone or
sometimes in their various combinations, clay, sand, gravel
and silt are seen as repeated forms at certain levels.
Quaternary formations are made of holocene alluvial
sediments within different layer thicknesses, smooth gravel
gradations, sand and silts, and approximately 200–250 m/s
of shear wave velocities (Kutanis and Bal 2006).
Today, the surface of alluvium forming the Adapazari
Valley is almost horizontal. A borehole drilled by the
general directorate state hydraulic works with a depth of
200 m could not reach bedrock.
A brief review of the effects of local site conditions
on ground motion
Local site conditions may strongly impact all of the sig-
nificant characteristics, such as amplitude, frequency con-
tent, and duration of strong ground motion. Their degree of
influence depends on the geometry and properties of sub-
surface materials, on topography of the site, and on the
characteristics of the input motion (Kramer 1996).
Characteristics of an earthquake are a function of fault
mechanism, distance to the earthquake epicentre, geologi-
cal structures and local soil conditions. The most effective
parameters of soil conditions are the elevation of a soil
layer on the bedrock, variation of the soil profile and its
characteristics with depth, lateral geologic heterogeneity
and the surface topography (Biringen 2000).
123
 S. Firat et al.

Fig. 2 Simplified geological map of the Adapazarı region (Bakir et al. 2005)

Fig. 3 Peak ground accelerations, Kocaeli earthquake of August 17, 1999 (Celebi et al. 2000)

If the thickness of the soft–loose soil layers above
bedrock increases, dominant periods of ground shift to-
wards higher periods. Furthermore, if a soil layer’s shear
wave velocity decreases, dominants period of the soil shifts
towards higher periods with higher magnifications. Since a
soil profile consists of different layers, each having dif-
ferent non linear stress–strain behaviour, the soil’s
response becomes more complicated, i.e., there may be
more than one predominant period. For this reason, many
researchers have investigated the soil amplification phe-
nomenon using real earthquake records, such as Ozgirgin
(1997), Biringen (2000), Tezcan et al. (2002), Hasal and
Iyisan (2004), Yalcinkaya (2004), Hasancebi and Ulusay
(2006) and Kutanis and Bal (2006).

123
Investigation of the soil amplification factor in the Adapazari region
Fig. 4 Borehole locations for
soil parameters used in the
analysis (modified from Sancio
2003)
The arrival angle of earthquake waves has no significant
effect on the dominant ground frequency. However when
only the arrival angle increases, a small reduction in
magnification values is observed. From an engineering
point of view, it is usual to accept that vertical S-waves do
not cause an important error (Yalcinkaya 2004).
As a result, soil behaviour under earthquake loading
depends on soil layer thickness, the soil’s nonlinear stress
strain behaviour, and the loading pattern of the earthquake
itself. For this reason, ground response analyses in which
non linear behaviour of soils is taken into account are very
important for a safe earthquake-resistant design. Recorded
maximum ground accelerations during the August 17, 1999
Kocaeli earthquake are shown in Fig. 3. Although the
distance to ther epicentre at Adapazari was longer, max-
imum peak ground acceleration was observed at this site.
This is probably due to subsoil conditions.
Site amplification factor in the Adapazari region
Four different locations, namely the Teverler Building,
Atatürk Stadium, the Yeni Cami and Sakarya High School
(Fig. 4), were selected sites at which depth to ‘‘engineering
rock’’ is different. At these sites, structures suffered heavy
damage during the August 17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake.
Shear wave velocity of 700 ± 60 m/s is considered to be
the signature of engineering rock (Anbazhagan and
Sitharam 2009). Among these sites, the Teverler Building
site has the greatest depth to engineering bedrock at 200 m.
Depths to engineering bedrock are 60 m for the Atatürk
Stadium, 45 m for the Yeni Cami and 50 m for Sakarya
High School. Simplified borehole logs and shear wave
profiles of these sites are given in Figs. 5 and 6. These soil
profiles are compiled from previously drilled boreholes.
Detailed borehole logs are given in Demir (2007). Shear
123
 S. Firat et al.

Fig. 5 Simplified borehole logs

and shear wave profiles of a the
Teverler site b Ataturk Stadium
(Demir 2007)

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Investigation of the soil amplification factor in the Adapazari region
Fig. 6 Simplified borehole logs
and shear wave profiles of a the
Yeni Cami site b Sakarya High
School (Demir 2007)
waves of soil layers were compiled from standard
penetration test (SPT) values using empirical relations and
previously performed surface geophysical studies.
For the selected sites, equivalent ground response ana-
lyses were performed using SHAKE2000 (Ordonez 2011).
The software is a graphical user interface for SHAKE 91. It
calculates ground response in a visco-elastic, homogeneous
and horizontally extending infinite system that is affected
by shear waves advancing vertically. This program is based
on the repeated solution of the wave equations that are
adapted for use in short-term movements, by means of a
Fourier transformation algorithm. Non-linear shear mod-
ulus and damping can be explained by effective deforma-
tion in each layer with a compatible shear modulus, and a
repeated method is used with equivalent linear soil prop-
erties in order to achieve damping values. Calculated
spectral behaviours of selected sites are compared with the
design spectrums given in the Turkish Earthquake Code
(2007) and the Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004).
There are a number of different shear modulus reduction
and damping curves to use in equivalent linear ground
response analyses. Early models are used separately for
fine-grained and coarse-grained soils. However, more re-
cent studies have shown a gradual transition between non-
plastic coarse and plastic-fine soils (Kramer 1996).
Sun et al. (1988) and Vucetic and Dobry (1991) stated
that the shape of the modulus reduction curve is mainly
influenced by the plasticity index while Iwasaki et al.
(1978) and Kokusho (1980) suggest that it is also influ-
enced by effective confining stress, with G/Gmax increas-
ing with increasing effective confining stress and plasticity
index, whereas damping ratio decreases with increasing
confining stress and plasticity index. The effects of con-
fining stress and plasticity index on modulus reduction and
damping behavior were combined by Ishibashi and Zhang
(1993), Darendeli (2001) and Zhang et al. (2005). For
comparison, Darendeli (2001) used a 120-m thick silty-
sand deposit with a stress-dependent shear wave velocity
123
 S. Firat et al.

Fig. 7 a Modulus reduction

and b damping ratio curves
employed for the Teverler site

profile and they determined that stress-dependent modulus Table 1 Strong ground motion data used in analyses
reduction and damping ratio curves produced almost twice Earthquake Station Compound Maximum Moment
the peak ground acceleration that was predicted by the ground magnitude
generic curves, and larger spectral accelerations were cal- acceleration
(g)
culated. For these reasons, it is believed that the use of both
stress- and plasticity index-dependent models yields more August 17, SKR 090 0.407 7.4
realistic ground response for the selected sites than tradi- 1999 Kocaeli
tional shear modulus and damping models. Therefore, the earthquake
Ishibashi and Zhang (1993) model is selected for ground
response calculation for this study. Figure 7 presents shear
modulus reduction and damping ratio curves used for the
Teverler site. where engineering bedrock was present as acceleration
In this study, strong-motion data in Table 1 was used as time history. Calculated response spectra for selected sites
bedrock earthquake motion (Peer 2007). This strong were compared with the original design spectra of the
ground motion was applied to the base of the soil layers Turkish Earthquake Code (2007) (Fig. 8) and the Eurocode

123
Investigation of the soil amplification factor in the Adapazari region
Fig. 8 Turkish Earthquake
Code (2007) and Eurocode 8
(CEN 2004) design spectra
Fig. 9 Comparison of the ground surface acceleration spectrums
calculated using the August 17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake strong
ground motion record
8 (CEN 2004) for a damping value of 5 % (Fig. 8). Cal-
culated response spectra for all sites are compared with the
recommended design spectra of the Turkish Earthquake
Code (2007) in Fig. 9. Figure 10 presents a comparison of
the acceleration spectra of the Teverler Building site, the
Turkish Seismic Code (2007) and the Eurocode 8 (CEN
2004) under the August 17, 1999 Kocaeli Earthquake
strong ground motion loading. Bakir et al. (2005) estimated
natural period of typical masonry buildings in Adapazarı
between 0.1 and 0.3 s and, for typical reinforced concrete
buildings, 0.45–0.7 s.
As it is clear from Fig. 9, the calculated surface response
spectrum for 5 % damping exceeds the recommended de-
sign spectrum given in the Turkish Earthquake Code
(2007) for the Z4 soil group between 0.2 and 0.5 s periods,
which corresponds to the predominant period of most of
the typical residential buildings at Adapazari. D soil type is
assigned to soils that are soft–loose, thick alluvium layers
with a shear wave velocity lower than 200 m/sec; when
thickness of D type soil exceeds 10 m, it is classified as a
Z4 group soil according to Turkish Earthquake Code
(2007). However, it is well below the design spectrum
recommended by the Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004) for soil class
D. This is due to the fact that Turkish Earthquake Code
(2007) does not consider the soil amplification
phenomenon.
For the Ataturk Stadium, Yeni Cami and Sakarya High
School sites where the depths to engineering bedrock are
considerably lower than that at Teverler sites, maximum
spectral acceleration values are calculated within
0.05–0.2 s periods and these spectral acceleration values
exceed the recommended values in both the Turkish
Earthquake Code (2007) and the Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004)
(Fig. 9). However, a 0.05–0.2 s period range is lower than
of most of the typical reinforced concrete residential
buildings in Adapazari.
In addition to spectral acceleration values, calculated
peak ground accelerations are also increased. Figure 11
presents an acceleration–time graph obtained at the surface
of the Yeni Cami soil profile under August 17, 1999 Ko-
caeli earthquake loading. As is clear from this figure, the
peak ground acceleration at the Yeni Cami site is about
0.69 g, whereas the SKR record used during ground re-
sponse analyses has a peak of 0.41 g. Peak ground accel-
erations and maximum amplification values obtained from
one-dimensional ground response analyses are tabulated in
Table 2.
Changes in the strong ground motion parameters are
observed through the soil layers where seismic waves
move. Values of peak acceleration of ground motion vary
with depth. For soil profiles considered in the analysis, the
peak ground accelerations is decreased from the applied
point to the surface, such as up to 150 m in the 200-m
Teverler profile, and up to 40 m in other profiles due to soil
123
 S. Firat et al.

Fig. 10 Comparison of the

acceleration spectra of the
Teverler Building site
calculated using the August 17,
1999 Kocaeli earthquake strong
ground motion record, Turkish
Seismic Code (2007) and
Eurocode 8 (CEN 2004)

Table 2 Calculated peak ground accelerations and amplification

ratios for selected sites
Soil profiles Amplification Peak ground
ratio acceleration (g)

Teverler 10.29 0.478

Atatürk Stadium 12.63 0.491
Yeni Cami 20.16 0.691
Sakarya High School 11.00 0.621

accelerations may be as large as 4–5 times those of base

Fig. 11 Acceleration–time history obtained at the surface of the Yeni
Cami site using the August 17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake record
damping. Above these depths, peak acceleration values
increase up to the surface until its largest value is reached
(Fig. 12).
The decrease of the peak ground acceleration values at
these certain depths is due to damping; continuously in-
creasing values above a certain depth indicates influence of
the surface waves (Fig. 12).
The transfer function determines how each frequency in
the bedrock (input) motion is amplified or deamplified by
the soil layers. Figure 13 presents an example transfer
function, with larger site amplification obtained at a small
frequency—high period due to soft soil behaviour.
As stated by Celebi et al. (2000), during the main shock
of the August 17, 1999 earthquake, the largest recorded
peak accelerations (SKR, 0.41 g horizontal and Düzce,
0.48 g vertical) were most likely not the largest that actu-
ally occurred. In particular, the record from Tepetarla
shows peak acceleration of *0.6 g, larger than any peak
recorded during the main shock. Furthermore, during the
November 12, 1999 (Ms = 7.2) Duzce event, one of the
stations (Bolu) recorded 0.8 g (EW) (Celebi et al. 2000).
Tezcan et al. (2002) also stated that the surface
rock accelerations. In Table 2, peak ground accelerations
are obtained as 17–70 % higher than the SKR station
recorded as 0.407 g.
This study also agrees with the references, such as Safak
(2001), who stated that the amplitudes of seismic waves
increase significantly as they pass through soft soil layers
near the earth’s surface. This phenomenon, commonly
known as site amplification, is a major factor influencing
the extent of damage on structures. It is crucial that site
amplification is accounted for when designing structures,
especially on soft soils.
Conclusions
For the Adapazari region, located on a very thick alluvial
sequence, one-dimensional ground response analyses were
performed with the computer program SHAKE2000 using
soil profiles from a previously drilled deep borehole in
order to define soil amplification in the region. In the
analysis, the August 17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake record
was used to apply strong ground motion to soil profiles and
changes in soil surface due to ground motion applied on the
sub layer of the considered soil profile. Spectral behaviour
was compared with the design spectra of the Turkish

123
Investigation of the soil amplification factor in the Adapazari region

Peak Acceleration (g) ground acceleration is obtained at the Yeni Cami site. This
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 region was heavily affected by the Kocaeli earthquake and
0
most of the buildings around the Yeni Cami were destroyed
20
or extensively damaged.
It has been known for many years that local site and soil
40 conditions can influence the amplitudes, frequency content
and duration of seismic waves as they propagate through
60 soil layers near the ground surface. The August 17, 1999
Kocaeli (Turkey) earthquake with a magnitude
80
Depth (m)

(Mw = 7.4) struck the Marmara and Sakarya provinces in

100 the north-western part of Turkey. The earthquake caused
substantial casualties and severe damage to structures.
120 Among several cities affected, Adapazari in Marmara
province clearly suffered the worst damage due to the
140
geotechnical effects and site response.
160 Teverler Site
Acknowledgments This study was completed with support pro-
Atatürk Stadium Site
Yeni Cami Site vided by the Sakarya University Scientific Researches Unit (BAP)
180
Sakarya High School Site Project numbered 2007-50-01-005. The authors would like to extend
their gratitude to Sakarya University. The authors also would like to
200 acknowledge the anonymous reviewers and editors for their valuable
comments that lead to significant improvements in the article.
Fig. 12 Variation of peak accelerations with depth for different soil
profiles determined from ground response analyses using the August
17, 1999 Kocaeli earthquake record
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