RADIATION DETECTORS

Radiation from a radioactive material passes through matter, they interact with atoms
and molecules and transfer energy.

RADIATION Professor Anderson This transfer of energy has two effects : Ionization & Excitation

DETECTORS
Ionization occurs when the energy transferred is sufficient to cause an orbital electron
to be stripped away from its parent atom or molecule, in turn creating an ion pair (an
electron and a positively charged atom or molecule (-/+))
Excitation occurs when electrons are perturbed from their normal arrangement in an
atom or molecule, thus creating an atom or molecule in an excited state.

RADIATION DETECTORS CONT. GAS-FILLED DETECTORS

Both ionization & However as far as

This is why most of
excitation are nuclear medicine is
the isotopes are
involved in the concern, ionization
referred to with their MOST GAS-FILLED IONIZATION DETECTORS FOR THIS PROCESS TO THE ELECTRODES ARE UNDER NORMAL
detection of is the primary event DETECTORS BELONG TO A RESPOND TO RADIATION HAPPEN, A VOLUME OF SHOWN AS PARALLEL CIRCUMSTANCES, THE GAS
ionizing radiation. CLASS OF DETECTORS BY MEANS OF GAS IS CONTAINED PLATES, BUT THEY MAY BE IS AN INSULATOR AND NO
radiation events. that we focus on. CALLED IONIZATION
DETECTORS
IONIZATION-INDUCED
ELECTRICAL CURRENTS
BETWEEN TWO
ELECTRODES HAVING A
A PAIR OF WIRES,
CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS,
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
FLOWS BETWEEN THE TWO
VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE AND SO FORTH. ELECTRODES.
(ANODE/CATHODE).
 • In most ionization chambers, the gas between
GAS-FILLED DETECTORS CONT. the electrodes is air.
• Typically, the design consists of a wire inside of a
cylinder or a pair of concentric cylinders.
Once radiation passes through the gas causing ionization, both direct ionization from the incident • To ensure maximum efficiency of the detectors,
radiation and secondary ionization. The electrons produced flock to the positive electrode and the the voltage must be high enough to allow for
positively charged molecules migrate to the negatively charged anode.
IONIZATION the ions and electrons to reach the electrodes
before they recombine.
CHAMBERS • Saturation Voltage occurs when, the detector
enters the saturation region of its ionization
When this occurs, there is a flow of electrical current proportional to the amount of radiation the gas efficiency
is experiencing.
• Recombination is the process where ionization
of the electrons and molecules that were
ionized reform

Gas-filled detectors include ionization chambers, proportional counters, and Geiger-Muller (GM)
counters*

GAS FILLED DETECTOR & VOLTAGE PROPERTIES OF IONIZATION

RESPONSE CURVE DETECTORS
Silicon Cadmium
Germanium Lithium
Lithium Telluride (CdTe)
Ge (Li) or Germanium
Crystal *is a variation of Air
Crystal (Ge)
Si(Li) CZT
Density 2.33 5.32 6.06 0.001297
(g/cm3)

Atomic # 14 32 48 & 52 ~7.6

Electron volt 3.6 2.9 4.43 33.7

power
W (eV)
 IONIZATION CHAMBERS CONT. IONIZATION DETECTORS CONT.
Dose calibrators are used to assay activity levels in syringes, vials and other containers
Due to the small amount of
containing radioactive materials.
electrical activity that is
These small changes in Survey meters are used to Units for exposure can be
generated from ionization,
electrical current are monitor radiation levels for seen as roentgens per hour Dose calibrators differ from other ionization chambers due to their containment of argon gas instead
the total amount of current
measured using devices radiation protection (R/hr) or air kerma in grays
passing through the beam is
measured instead of
called electrometers. purposes per hour (Gy/hr) of atmospheric gas. They also give readings as a direct measurement of radioactivity (Ci/Bq)
individual events.

Two devices consisting of

ionization chambers and
electrometers in nuclear
Pocket dosimeters - record the total charge collected over time. Its a useful method
medicine are survey meters to allow individuals entering a radioactive area to immediately monitor and assess
and dose calibrators
their exposure as they visit.

POCKET DOSIMETER SECONDARY IONIZATION EVENTS

In an ionization chamber, the voltage between the electrodes is

sufficient only to collect those charges liberated by direct action of the
ionizing radiation.

However, in cases where the voltage is increased in the electrodes additional ionizing occurs as the charged
particles move towards the electrodes. This is called the Townsend avalanche or the gas amplification of charge

There is a gas amplification factor, which increases rapidly with applied

voltage.
 PROPORTIONAL COUNTER PROPORTIONAL COUNTER CONT.
• Detectors that operate in the ascending
portion of the curve are called proportional Proportional counters are typically filled with noble gases like Argon &
counters. Xenon
• In this region, the ionization caused by an
incident radiation event is multiplied
(amplified) by the gas amplification factor The major advantage of proportional counters vs. ionization chambers is
that the size of the electrical signal produced is larger allowing for the
• The total charged produced is linked to the detection and counting of individual events rather than exposure alone.
number of ionization events caused by the
primary radiation event in air (at 34
eV/ionization) These detectors are primarily limited to research applications for
measuring non-penetrating radiation emissions like Alpha and Beta
particles.

• Geiger-Muller (GM) counter is a gas-filled

detector designed for maximum gas
amplification effect. Due to the secondary
The propagation of the ionization from nuclear
• The process of a GM is as follows; the center signal in GM counters is medicines isotopes, an
due to gas electron avalanche can
wire (anode) is maintained at a high positive amplification, which is occur which is called an
voltage relative to the outer cylindrical similar in proportional avalanche ionization, as

GEIGER-MÜLL
counters. it is propagated through
electrode (cathode). The probe is outfitted with the gas.
a entrance window to allow radiation to enter GM
ER the probe.
COUNTERS
• The gas is typically argon, along with another
COUNTERS quenching gas.
CONT.
Regrettably due to the
avalanching ionization
event occurring for all
energy levels, we can So, we would be unable
• When ionization occurs in a GM, electrons are use the GM probe to to differentiate between
read individual events, radiation events of
accelerated towards the center wire. but not detect the different energies
independent energy
• This can cause a secondary avalanche levels for any specific
ion.
ionization event, where the ionization is
propagated through the GM counter.
 GM CONTINUED Commonly used quenching gases include some
heavy organic vapors like alcohol, halogen
gases (Cl2).

The organic quenchers are

A quenching gas is used to
The avalanche ionization is more effective quenching
stopped in the probe using a
quenching gas.
deliver electrons into the gas
and to stop the propagation
of ionization in the counter.
Here are the three properties
of quenching gases:
QUENCHING agents but have the
disadvantage, that their
Eventually, the
quenching gas will
be all used up.
molecular fragments do not
GASES recombine after dissociation.

Once the electrons are

The quenching gases are Halogen gas molecules (Cl2) on the other hand
given up, instead of
strong absorbers of UV
Quenching gases give up decomposing and causing
radiation, which stops the
will recombine after dissociation and have an
electrons easily more ionization, they break unlimited lifetime in a GM counter.
propagation of the
down into smaller molecules
avalanche
and do not release radiation

SURVEY METERS
• Typically survey meters are used for
METHOD OF radiation protection purposes.
ACTION FOR • A GM counter would be attached with
various configurations depending on the
GM model and year
• The most recognizable GM tube is a
COUNTERS pancake probe
• The emission window is protected by a wire
screen to cover then sensitive electrodes.
• Alpha & Beta emitters are the isotopes that
these meters are calibrated for
 Semiconductor detectors are essentially solid-state
analogs of gas filled ionization chambers. WHY DON’T WE USE SOLID BLOCKS
OF METAL OR GLASS ???
Because of the solid detector materials used in
semiconductor detectors are 2,000 to 5,000 more dense
than gases.
So even when no radiation events
In the event of no ionization occur
are occurring the system would be
at all, metals have the unique
detecting a signal, thus
propertied of sharing all their
dramatically increasing the
SEMICONDUCTOR They contain much better stopping power as well as,
electrons in a pseudo electron
cloud manner.
background counting rate high
being much more efficient detectors for gamma rays. above where it should be.
DETECTORS

Normally, semiconductors are bad for electrical signal Glass on the other hand (which is
transmission. an insulator) are not suitable either
Because of these restrictions, only
because under no conditions
semiconductors are suitable to be
would any signal be transmitted
used as solid ionization chambers!
through the detectors an
However, when ionized by an ionizing radiation event, the incorporated into the camera.
charge produced can be collected by an externally
supplied voltage. (as we follow the same principals for
gas filled detectors)

THE MOST COMMON

SEMICONDUCTORS
The signal is large enough to permit
More recently cadmium detection and counting of
The most used telluride (CdTe) or cadmium individual radiation events
semiconductors in nuclear zinc telluride (CZT) have One ionization can be
medicine gamma cameras been used as detector recorded per 3-5 eV of
are Silicon (Si) and materials in small nuclear radiation energy absorbed.
germanium (Ge). counting and imaging SEMICONDUCTORS
devices. CONT. The size of the electrical signal is
proportional to the amount of
radiation energy absorbed. As well
Not only is it more sensitive as we can use energy specific
The ionization value for air is (Photo peaks) radiation counting.
to ionization events, but
34 eV for a single ionization
semiconductors also
event, to even be
produced 10x the electrical
registered
signal of gas filled detectors.
 Despite their obvious advantages, they do have a few issues that need to be
solved before they completely take over the nuclear medicine market. NUCLEAR MEDICINE’S CRYSTALS

Both Si and Ge (especially Ge) conduct a significant amount of thermally induced

electrical current at room temperature.
DRAWBACKS OF
Both detectors need to be operated at temperatures
SEMICONDUCTORS below room temperature to fix this issue

Impurities are present in even relatively pure crystals of Si and Ge. These impurities
enter and disturb the regular arrangement of Si and Ge crystal matrix.

These create electron traps, that prevent the electrical

signal from propagating in certain segments.

TWO APPROACHES TO THESE

PROBLEMS Lithium being an
If the temperature of
the detectors (more
Ge than Si) rise, the
extremely reactive
Lithium ions will
element. Is incredibly
The first solution is to prepare even
purer samples of the detector
IS LITHIUM unstable at higher
temperatures.
condense in the
material, rendering
them useless in the
material. This has only been
accomplished with Ge (High
• Crystals are also limited to 5 cm diameter and 1
cm thick
THE crystal

purity germanium) (HPGe) and is

very expensive to produce. SOLUTION?
OR MORE Because of this both
detectors, must be
operated at low
For reference, room
temperature is too
The second solution is to
purposefully introduce impurities • Detectors that use this method are “lithium PROBLEMS? temperature and
stored at low
“hot” for the lithium,
and it will condense.
into the crystal at will donate doped” or lithium-drifted detectors Si(Li) or Ge(Li) temperature.
electrons into the crystal. Lithium • Crystals doped with Lithium are limited to approx.
(Li) is commonly used in Si & Ge
detectors.
1 cm thick for Si(Li) and 5 cm x 5 cm for Ge(Li)
HOW TO FIX THE
• CdTe & CZT have been more recently developed
LITHIUM semiconductor materials that over come both
disadvantages of Si & Ge
PROBLEM? • They can be operated at room temperature, without
• Engineers have created a system excessive electronic noise
where liquid nitrogen can be fed SEMICONDUCTORS
to the detectors allowing for CONT. • Due to their high atomic number, even thin detectors
them to be cooled consistently in have good stopping efficiency for gamma rays.
a closed system.
• Ge(Li) detectors would be ruined • They are slowly being implemented into the nuclear
within an Hour medicine field, currently the biggest drawback is the
• Si(Li) detectors lose out on their price tag associated with the equipment.
most optimum performance at
room temperature
• The cooling duct has been
named “Coldfinger”

Radiation from radioactive materials interacts with

matter by causing ionization or excitation of atoms
and molecules. SCINTILLATION DETECTORS CONT.
Radiation detectors are made from them and are
called scintillation detectors The scintillation material used for detectors in nuclear medicine are in two distinct types:

Inorganic substances - in the form of solid crystals Organic substances – a liquid form

SCINTILLATION When the ionized or excited products undergo

recombination or de-excitation, energy is released.
DETECTORS Each scintillator follows an important rule, that the energy produced from any interaction
from ionizing radiation is proportional to the energy deposited in the material
The materials that emit light are called scintillators

However, in some materials a portion of the energy is Photomultiplier (PM) tubes have been attached to scintillator materials to help boost the
released as visible light. light output of the material before its converted into an electrical current.
 PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBES • The photo electron is finally collected at the
anode
• The dynodes, have a multiplication factor of x3
or x6 per dynode.
• A 1% increase in voltage to the tube, creates a
PM TUBES 10% current increase for the anode.
• PM tubes are sealed in glass and evacuated.
PM tubes are
electronic tubes that
The inside front
surface is known as
The PM tube is coated
with photo emissive
The photo emissive
surface is called the
Metal plates are
present in the PM
CONT. • PM tubes are susceptible to magnetic fields so
produce a pulse of the entrance window substance, that ejects photocathode, and tube called dynodes, to combat this, the PM tubes are wrapped up in
electrical current of the PM tube. electrons when struck the electrons that are which help
by photons of visible ejected from it are propagate the
a material called Mu-metal
when stimulated by
very weak light light. photoelectrons. electron down the • Mu-Metal is an allow composed of iron,
signals tube and multiply its nickel and small amounts of copper and
intensity
chromium.
Cesium antimony (CsSb)
and other compounds can
be used as this material

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE
PHOTODIODES
• In some applications, the PM
tube may be replaced by a
light sensitive semiconductor
detector, such as a Si
photodiode.
• In this case the
semiconductor isn’t being
used to detector gamma
rays, but instead is used to
detect the visible light from a
scintillator material.
 There is a related device called the Si avalanche
photodiode (APD) which uses a very high internal electric
field such that each electron produced within the device INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS
contains enough energy to create further ionizations.

Some inorganic crystals Most are “impurity

Inorganic scintillators are scintillators in their activated” the
are crystalline solids pure state. impurities are
This version is a solid-state light detectors, which is primarily that scintillate because
• NaI crystals are scintillators embedded to cause
PHOTODIODES used in tiny research scanners, or PET-MRI imaging systems of characteristics of the
crystal structure.
at liquid nitrogen disturbances in its
due to it not being affected by the magnetic field. temperatures.
CONT. normal structure.

These disturbances are

what allow for the
There is a function of APD’s where they may function in a Can anyone guess any
scintillation effect, the
secondary acquisition mode called it “Geiger mode” impurities we use for
impurities can also be
these???
The output signal increases, and it becomes independent of the energy of called activator
the incident radiation. (It picks up any radiation emission and counts it) centers

INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS CONT. INORGANIC SCINTILLATORS CONT.

Some impurity-activated
scintillators that have been
used in radiation detectors Pure NaI crystals are Property NaI(Tl) BGO LSO(Ce) GSO(Ce) CSI(Tl) LuAP(Ce) LaBr2(Ce) Plastic
include sodium iodide The most used scintillator for
scintillators at liquid nitrogen
NaI(Tl), and CsI(Tl) detectors is NaI(Tl) Density (g/cm3) 3.67 7.13 7.4 6.71 4.51 8.34 5.3 1.03
temperatures only.
• The impurity material that has been Effective Z# 50 73 66 59 54 65 46 12
doped in both is Thallium
Decay time (nsec) 230 300 40 60 1000 18 35 2
Photon Yield (keV) 38 8 20-30 12-15 52 12 61 10
Index of Refact. 1.85 2.15 1.82 1.85 1.8 1.97 1.9 1.58
They become useful at NaI(Tl) crystals are grown
These crystals are fully Hygroscopic Y N N N Y/N N Y N
room temperatures with the from molten sodium iodide,
grown in an industrial sized
addition of small amounts of with a small amount of Peak emission 415 480 420 430 540 365 358 Various
oven.
thallium. thallium added.
 ARRANGEMENT OF NAI(TL)
CRYSTALS
1.
2.
REASONS 3.
WHY NAI(TL) 4.
IS USED
5.
DISADVANTAGES OF NAI(TL)
The NaI(Tl) crystal is quite fragile and easily fractured by mechanical or thermal stress.
This is why when the collimators are off, techs are very wary of damaging the machine
Sodium iodide is hygroscopic. Any exposure to moisture or humidity causes a yellowish surface Gas filled detectors, are
discoloration that impairs the PM tube. cheaper but maintain a
much lower detector
efficiency
At higher gamma ray emissions, the predominant mechanism of interaction is by Compton
interactions, which require larger volumes of NaI(Tl) to be used to retain a high detection efficiency
It is relatively dense, and it is a good absorber of
penetrating radiations (gamma/Beta emitters)
It is a relatively efficient scintillator, yielding one
visible light photon per 30 eV of radiation absorbed.
It is transparent to its own scintillation emission, so it
does not self absorb light
It can be grown relatively “inexpensively” in large
plates, which is advantageous for imaging
detectors
The scintillation light is well matched in wavelength
to the peak response of the PM tube
photocathode.
OTHER DETECTORS
Semiconductors
Because of these
detectors have a better
reasons, NaI(Tl) is the
imaging resolution, but
most used nuclear
come with a much
medicine detector on
higher overhead cost for
the market today.
implementation
 INORGANIC PET DETECTORS
At higher energies like in PET (511 KeV), denser scintillator materials are preferred
Bismuth germinate (Bi4Ge3O12) or BGO is commonly used in PET imaging due to its excellent
detection efficiency
Lutetium oxyorthosilicate (Lu2SiO5(Ce) or LSO is slightly less efficient at 511 keV, but it is brighter and
faster than BGO.
Lutetium yttrium orthosilicate (LYSO) in which a small fraction of Lu is replaced with Y has scintillation
properties similar to LSO. (It is more efficient)
BaF2 & CsF also have historically been used in positron cameras due to their fast decay time.
However, BGO & LSO are more efficient now.
New scintillator materials are LuAP (LuALO3(Ce)), lanthanum bromide (LaBr3(Ce)) and Lanthanum
chloride (LACL3(Ce))
• There are four components in a LS solution
1. An organic solvent comprises the majority of the
solution, they usually contains di-iso-propylnapthalene
(DIN) and phenylxylylethane (PXE)
2. The primary solute absorbed energy from the solvent
and emits light. Some common primary scintillators
include p-bis-omethylstyryl benzene (bis-MSB) and
2,5-diphenyloxazole (AKA PPO)
LIQUID
SCINTILLATORS
3. The emission of the primary solute isn’t always matched
to PM tubes, so a secondary solute or “wave shifter” is
added to absorb the initial light emitted and emit a
secondary light emission on the PM tubes spectrum.
1,4-di-2-5-phenyloxazole benzene or POPOP is used
4. LS solutions contain additives to improve the
performance of the scintillation, such as the efficiency
of energy transfer from solvent to the primary solute
ORGANIC SCINTILLATORS
In contrast with inorganic scintillators, the scintillation process in organic
scintillators is an inherent molecular property
The scintillation mechanism is one of molecular excitation (By absorbing the
energy) followed by a de-excitation process in which visible light is emitted.
These scintillators can be solid, liquid or gaseous forms
Certain plastics are organic scintillators and have been used for direct
detection of B+ particles emitted from radionuclides
Usually, organic scintillators are used in a liquid form called liquid scintillation
(LS) counting
• These detectors also suffer from drawbacks of use,
from over exposure of the scintillation source.
• The Liquid scintillation system, has issues
quenching.
• Currently there are three methods for quenching
LS 1. Chemical –dissolved oxygen will stop the
scintillation process
SCINTILLATORS 2. Color – Blood or other opaque material can be
used
CONT. 3. Dilution – adding in a different fluid into the
camera, to reduce the concentration of the
other solutes.
In all three of these cases, quench correction must
be done to restore the camera to the initial state
before the scan.