Research Methods

3rd Module
 DEVELOPING A RESEARCH MODEL

• Objective of the Study

• Hypothesis of the Study

• Hypothesis Framing

• Population & Sample Size

• Sample Methods
 Objective of the Study
The objective of a research study is its overarching goal or purpose.

• It represents the beacon that guides researchers throughout their research journey.

• These objectives are not mere placeholders but rather the driving force behind the entire research endeavor.

• They provide researchers with a clear sense of direction and help define the path they need to follow to
accomplish their research goals.
 Importance of Clear Objectives
Clear and well-defined research objectives are of paramount importance for several reasons:
• Guidance: Research objectives serve as guiding stars. They ensure that researchers stay on track, avoiding aimless
wandering in the vast landscape of data and information. Researchers are often faced with a plethora of data and choices,
and objectives help them remain focused on their core mission.
• Evaluation: Objectives act as criteria for evaluating the success of the research study. Researchers can assess whether
they have achieved what they set out to accomplish. In essence, objectives become the yardstick against which the
study's outcomes are measured.
• Focus: By clearly stating research objectives, researchers can narrow down their focus. This is particularly important
because research problems can often be multifaceted and complex. Objectives help in specifying which aspects of the
problem need to be addressed and studied.
• Alignment: Objectives also ensure that all aspects of the research process, from data collection to analysis, are aligned
with the ultimate research goals. Researchers can make informed decisions about the research methodology and data
collection techniques based on these objectives.
 Hypothesis of the Study
Hypotheses are integral components of the research process. They are essentially testable statements that predict the
relationships between variables.

• Testability: A fundamental characteristic of hypotheses is that they must be formulated in a way that allows them to be
empirically tested. This means that hypotheses should predict measurable outcomes or relationships that can be observed
and analyzed.

• Predictive: Hypotheses articulate the expected impact or association between variables. For instance, if a researcher is
interested in the relationship between employee training and job performance, a hypothesis might suggest that
"increased training leads to improved job performance." This prediction provides a clear direction for the research study.

• Framework for Analysis: Hypotheses guide the entire research process, from data collection to analysis. They determine
the data that needs to be collected and the statistical tests that will be employed to evaluate the hypotheses. Without
hypotheses, research studies lack structure and a clear sense of purpose.
 Types of Hypotheses
Hypotheses can take two primary forms:

• Null Hypothesis (H0): This hypothesis suggests that there is no statistically significant effect or relationship
between the variables under investigation. It serves as the default assumption to be tested. In other words, the null
hypothesis assumes no impact or difference.

• Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): The alternative hypothesis, on the other hand, suggests that there is a statistically
significant effect or relationship between the variables. It represents the research hypothesis that researchers aim
to support. The alternative hypothesis suggests an impact or difference.

• Properly framing hypotheses, whether they are null or alternative, is essential to ensure clarity and testability in
research studies. These hypotheses provide the framework for analysis and guide researchers in their quest for
empirical evidence.
 Hypothesis Framing
• Framing hypotheses is a critical step in the research process. Properly framed hypotheses are clear, specific, and conducive to testing.
Here's a closer look at this crucial aspect:

• Clarity and Precision: Hypotheses should be formulated with utmost clarity and precision. Ambiguous or vague hypotheses can lead to
confusion and make it challenging to design a focused research study. Researchers should aim for statements that leave no room for
misinterpretation.

• Testability: A key criterion for framing hypotheses is testability. Hypotheses should be formulated in a way that allows them to be tested
empirically. This means that they should predict specific outcomes that can be observed, measured, and analyzed using appropriate
research methods.

• Null vs. Alternative Hypotheses: Researchers must decide whether they are formulating a null hypothesis (which suggests no effect) or
an alternative hypothesis (which predicts an effect). This decision should align with the research objectives and the specific research
question being addressed.

• Contribution to Research Goals: Hypotheses should align with the overall research goals and objectives. They should be directly related
to the research questions and represent the key relationships or effects that the study aims to investigate.
 Population & Sample Size
• Defining the population under study and determining the appropriate sample size are crucial steps in research
design. These decisions have far-reaching implications for the generalizability and reliability of research findings.

Population Definition:

• The population represents the entire group of individuals, items, or entities that researchers intend to study. It
serves as the target group for the research.

• For example, if the research is focused on consumer behavior in the automobile industry, the population might be
"all consumers who have purchased automobiles in the last five years."
 Significance of Defining the Population
• Scope: It defines the boundaries of the study. Researchers need to be clear about which individuals or entities are
included in the study and which are not.

• Generalizability: The population definition determines the extent to which research findings can be generalized.
Findings from a well-defined population can be applied to that specific group.

• Research Focus: The population definition helps researchers focus their efforts on studying a specific group,
ensuring that the research objectives align with the population characteristics.
 Sample Size Determination
• Determining the appropriate sample size is a crucial aspect of research design. Researchers aim to select a sample that is
representative of the population while also being manageable and cost-effective. The sample size is determined based on
various factors:

• Research Objectives: The specific research objectives play a significant role in sample size determination. If the research
aims to make precise estimates about population parameters, a larger sample size may be required.

• Level of Confidence: Researchers must decide on the level of confidence they want to achieve in their findings. A higher
level of confidence often necessitates a larger sample size.

• Variability: The degree of variability within the population also influences sample size. More heterogeneous populations
may require larger samples to capture the diversity of responses.

• Budget and Resources: Practical considerations, such as budget constraints and available resources, play a role in
determining the sample size. Larger samples may require more time and resources for data collection and analysis.
 Sample Methods
• In the realm of research, sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals, items, or elements from a
larger population to represent and draw inferences about that population.

• Sampling methods are fundamental in empirical research across various disciplines, including social sciences,
natural sciences, business, and healthcare.

• The choice of a sampling method depends on the research objectives, available resources, and the level of
precision required for the study.

• In this comprehensive guide, we will explore different sampling methods, their advantages, disadvantages, and
real-world examples of their applications.
 1. Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method where each member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected for
the sample.

Advantages:

• Unbiased and representative.

• Every item in the population has a known, non-zero probability of being selected.

• Suitable for small to large populations.

Disadvantages:

• May not be practical for very large populations.

• Time-consuming and resource-intensive.

• Requires a complete list of the population.

Real-World Example: Conducting a lottery to select households for a survey on consumer preferences for a new product.
 2. Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling involves selecting every nth item from a list or sequence after a random start.

Advantages:

• Relatively simple and efficient.

• Preserves some randomness while ensuring systematic coverage.

• Suitable for large populations.

Disadvantages:

• Vulnerable to periodicity if there's a pattern in the list.

• May not be representative if the list is not randomly ordered.

• Potential bias if the sampling interval is not appropriate.

Real-World Example: Surveying customers in a shopping mall by selecting every 10th shopper entering the mall after a random
starting point.
 3. Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups (strata) based on certain characteristics and then samples from each stratum
independently.

Advantages:

• Ensures representation of subgroups.

• Precision and efficiency when strata are heterogeneous.

• Allows for comparisons between strata.

Disadvantages:

• Requires prior knowledge of population characteristics.

• Complex to implement when there are numerous strata.

• Requires proportionate allocation of samples to strata.

Real-World Example: In a statewide education survey, dividing the population into strata by grade levels (elementary, middle, high
school) and then sampling within each stratum.
 4. Cluster Sampling

Definition: Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters, randomly selecting some clusters, and then sampling all or a random
subset of elements within the selected clusters.

Advantages:

• Suitable for large, geographically dispersed populations.

• More cost-effective than simple random sampling.

• Can capture natural groupings within the population.

Disadvantages:

• Greater potential for sampling error due to within-cluster similarity.

• Complex analysis due to the clustered nature of the data.

• Non-response from selected clusters can be problematic.

Real-World Example: Surveying households in the United States by selecting a random sample of counties and then surveying all households
within those selected counties.
 5. Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling, also known as accidental or haphazard sampling, involves selecting subjects based on their easy accessibility or
availability.

Advantages:

• Quick and inexpensive.

• Suitable for preliminary or exploratory research.

• Convenient for small-scale studies.

Disadvantages:

• Highly prone to bias and non-representativeness.

• Cannot generalize findings to the larger population.

• Limited external validity.

Real-World Example: Collecting feedback from shoppers in a mall by approaching those who are readily available and willing to participate.
 6. Purposive Sampling

Definition: Purposive sampling, also known as judgment or selective sampling, involves deliberately selecting specific individuals or
cases that are believed to be most informative for the research objectives.

Advantages:

• Suitable for specialized or unique populations.

• Useful for qualitative research and case studies.

• Efficient for targeted investigations.

Disadvantages:

• Highly susceptible to researcher bias.

• Limited generalizability to broader populations.

• Requires a deep understanding of the research context.

Real-World Example: Conducting in-depth interviews with key industry experts to gain insights into emerging trends and challenges.
 7. Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is often used in situations where the target population is hard to reach, such as hidden or stigmatized groups. It
involves initially selecting a few participants who then refer additional participants, creating a "snowball" effect.

Advantages:

• Useful for studying hidden or marginalized populations.

• Builds trust through referrals from existing participants.

• Allows access to populations that are difficult to reach otherwise.

Disadvantages:

• Non-random and may introduce bias.

• Limited control over the sample composition.

• Challenging to estimate sampling error.

• Real-World Example: Studying the network of injection drug users by initially interviewing a few individuals and having them
refer others in their social circle.
 8. Quota Sampling

Quota sampling involves selecting participants based on pre-defined quotas or characteristics to ensure that the sample reflects certain
population characteristics.

Advantages:

• Useful when you need to ensure certain subgroups are represented.

• Simpler and quicker than stratified sampling.

• Suitable for face-to-face surveys.

Disadvantages:

• Non-probabilistic and prone to bias.

• May not represent the population accurately if quotas are not carefully defined.

• Sample selection may be influenced by the interviewer.

• Real-World Example: Conducting exit polls during elections to ensure that the sample reflects the demographic composition of
voters.
 9. Multi-Stage Sampling

Multi-stage sampling involves a combination of two or more sampling methods. It is often used when the population is complex or when
different sampling methods are needed at different stages of the research.

Advantages:

• Provides flexibility to address complex sampling scenarios.

• Allows for efficient sampling in multi-layered populations.

• Can achieve greater accuracy and representation.

Disadvantages:

• Requires careful planning and coordination.

• Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

• Complex analysis due to the multi-stage nature of the design.

• Real-World Example: In epidemiological research, using a combination of cluster sampling and simple random sampling to select
households and individuals for a health survey.
 Sampling Methods
• The sampling methods are foundational in research, influencing the reliability, validity, and generalizability of
research findings. Researchers must carefully choose the most appropriate sampling method based on their
research objectives, available resources, and the nature of the population being studied.

• Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, convenience sampling,
purposive sampling, snowball sampling, quota sampling, and multi-stage sampling offer researchers a spectrum
of options to tailor their sampling approach to the specific needs of their research.

• Researchers should transparently report their sampling procedures to enable readers to assess the validity and
reliability of the study's findings.

• Sampling is both a science and an art, and mastering this aspect of research is integral to producing robust and
credible research outcomes.
 Choosing the Right Sampling Method
• The choice of sampling method should align with the research objectives and the characteristics of the population.

• Researchers must carefully consider the trade-offs between different methods to ensure that the sample collected
is both representative and practical for their research goals.
 Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)
What is the primary purpose of clear and well-defined research objectives?

• A. To confuse researchers

• B. To evaluate the success of the research study

• C. To make the study lengthy

• D. To distract from the research goals

• Answer: B. To evaluate the success of the research study
What do hypotheses in a research study predict?

• A. The weather conditions

• B. The relationships between variables

• C. The colors of objects

• D. The historical events

• Answer: B. The relationships between variables
What is the purpose of a null hypothesis in a research study?

• A. To suggest a statistically significant effect

• B. To state that there is no effect or relationship

• C. To predict a random outcome

• D. To confuse readers
• Answer: B. To state that there is no effect or relationship
What does systematic sampling involve?

• A. Selecting random items from the population

• B. Selecting every nth item from a list after a random start

• C. Choosing samples conveniently

• D. Studying hidden populations

• Answer: B. Selecting every nth item from a list after a random start
Which sampling method is suitable for studying hidden or marginalized populations?

• A. Simple random sampling

• B. Systematic sampling

• C. Convenience sampling

• D. Snowball sampling
• Answer: D. Snowball sampling
What is the significance of defining the population in research design?

• A. It limits the scope of the study

• B. It determines the extent of generalizability

• C. It hampers research focus

• D. It increases research costs

• Answer: B. It determines the extent of generalizability
Which sampling method involves dividing the population into clusters and then sampling from selected clusters?

• A. Simple random sampling

• B. Stratified sampling

• C. Cluster sampling

• D. Purposive sampling
• Answer: C. Cluster sampling
What is the primary characteristic of hypotheses?

• A. They should be confusing

• B. They should be untestable

• C. They should be formulated in a way that allows empirical testing

• D. They should be vague

• Answer: C. They should be formulated in a way that allows empirical
testing
Which sampling method involves selecting participants based on pre-defined quotas?

• A. Simple random sampling

• B. Stratified sampling

• C. Quota sampling

• D. Convenience sampling
• Answer: C. Quota sampling
What is the fundamental characteristic of null hypotheses?

• A. They assume a statistically significant effect

• B. They state that there is no effect or relationship

• C. They predict a random outcome

• D. They are always true

• Answer: B. They state that there is no effect or relationship
 Glossary Terms
• Objective: The overarching goal or purpose of a research study, guiding researchers throughout their research
journey.

• Hypothesis: A testable statement predicting the relationships between variables in a research study.

• Null Hypothesis (H0): A hypothesis suggesting no statistically significant effect or relationship between variables.

• Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): A hypothesis suggesting a statistically significant effect or relationship between
variables, opposite to the null hypothesis.

• Simple Random Sampling: A method where each member of the population has an equal and independent chance
of being selected for the sample.
 Glossary Terms
• Systematic Sampling: Selecting every nth item from a list or sequence after a random start.

• Stratified Sampling: Dividing the population into subgroups and sampling from each subgroup independently.

• Cluster Sampling: Dividing the population into clusters, randomly selecting some clusters, and sampling elements
within the selected clusters.

• Convenience Sampling: Selecting participants based on easy accessibility or availability.

• Purposive Sampling: Deliberately selecting specific individuals or cases believed to be informative for the
research objectives.
 Glossary Terms
• Snowball Sampling: Selecting participants through referrals from existing participants, often used for hard-to-
reach populations.

• Quota Sampling: Selecting participants based on pre-defined quotas to ensure sample representation.

• Multi-Stage Sampling: A combination of two or more sampling methods, addressing complex sampling scenarios.

• Population: The entire group of individuals, items, or entities researchers intend to study.

• Sample: A subset of individuals, items, or elements selected from a larger population for research purposes.
 Glossary Terms
• Testability: The characteristic of hypotheses allowing them to be empirically tested, predicting measurable
outcomes.

• Generalizability: The extent to which research findings can be applied to a larger population beyond the sample
studied.

• Bias: Systematic error introduced into sampling or testing processes, leading to inaccurate or misleading results.

• Representativeness: The degree to which a sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population.

• Precision: The level of detail and accuracy in research measurements, indicating how closely the values agree
with each other.
Thank you