FAQ Mau

Ngọc Hướng, Tuấn Anh, Thu Hường – Basics of Translation, 2013
I. WHAT IS THE THEORY OF TRANSLATION?
It is assumed that before the 1970s the term ‘translation’ used to be thought of
particularly as a discipline in the process of foreign language learning; it was rarely
studied for its own sake. What is generally understood as translation involves the
rendering of a source language text into the target text, ensuring that (1) the surface
meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structures of the
source language will be preserved as closely as possible but not so closely that the
target language structure will be seriously distorted. The instructor can then hope to
measure the students’ linguistic competence by means of the target language
products. But there the matter stops (Susan Bassnett, 2002). In the light of this
direction, the theory of translation involves normative approaches, putting a strong
emphasis on prescribing to translators how to and how not to translate.
Together with the term ‘translation theory’ or ‘theory of translation’, since the mid-
1970s the name ‘Translation Studies’ has been adopted to indicate that the study of
translation is not just a minor branch of comparative literary study, nor yet a
specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching
fields: stylistics, literary history, linguistics, semiotics, aesthetics, and practical
applications in translation. Translation Studies, indeed a discipline in its own right,
aims to produce a comprehensive theory which can be used as a guideline for the
production of translations, and during the actual translation process the problems
encountered by those working in the field will enrich their practical experience for
theoretical discussions, and then increased theoretical perceptiveness will be put to
use in the translation of texts.
Practically, whether the study of translation is termed as ‘Translation Theory’ or

‘Translation Studies’ it culminates with the theory on proper principles of
translation. This theory, based on a solid foundation on understanding of how
languages work, translation theory recognizes that different languages encode
meaning in differing forms, yet guides translators to find appropriate ways of
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preserving meaning, while using the most appropriate forms of each language.
Translation theory includes principles for translating figurative language, dealing
with lexical mismatches, rhetorical questions, inclusion of cohesion markers, and
many other topics crucial to good translation.
Basically there are two competing theories of translation. In one, the predominant
purpose is to express as exactly as possible the full force and meaning of every
word and phrase in the original, and in the other the predominant purpose is to
produce a result that does not read like a translation at all, but rather moves in its
new dress with the same ease as in its native rendering. In the hands of a good
translator neither of these two approaches can ever be entirely ignored.
II. WHAT ARE THE COMMON DEFINITIONS OF TRANSLATION ?
Since antiquity (3000BC-Newmark 1986), translation has become popular in

language learning and daily life. So far, there have been many definitions of
translation, and the following are some of them:
1. Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form

to another, to turn into one’s own or another’s language. (The Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, 1974). Translation is basically a change of form. When we speak of the
form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences,
paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It
is the structural part of language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech.
In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the
receptor/target language. But how is this change accomplished? What determines
the choices of form in the translation?
2. Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has

been expressed in one language (source language), preserving semantic and
stylistic equivalencies.
3. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a

representation of an equivalent text in a second language.
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4. Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the
author intended the text.
5. Translators are concerned with written texts. They render written texts from one
language into another language. Translators are required to translate texts which
arrange from simple items including birth certificates or driving licenses to more
complex written materials such as articles in journals of various kinds, business
contracts and legal documents.”
6. Translating may be defined as the process of transforming signs or

representations into other signs or representations. If the originals have some
significance, we generally require that their images also have the same significance,
or, more realistically, as nearly the same significance as we can get. Keeping
significance invariant is the central problem in translating between natural
languages.
7. Translation may be defined as follows: the replacement of textual material in one

language (SI.) by equivalent material in another language (TL).
8. One of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is the
addressee, who is the intended receiver or audience of the target text with their
culture-specific world-knowledge, their expectations and their communicative
needs. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate
means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target
addressees in target circumstances".
9. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural

equivalent of the source-language message.
10. Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text which is

as close an equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of the content
and style of the original.
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11. When the translation is an end in itself, in the sense of simply seeking to extend
an originally monolingual communicative process to include receivers in another
language, then it must be conceived as an integral communicative performance,
which without any extratextual additions (notes, explanations etc.) provides an
insight into the cognitive meaning, linguistic form and communicative function of
the SL text.
12. The linguistic approaches basically saw translating as a code-switching

operation. With the more pragmatic reorientation at the beginning of the 1970s, the
focus shifted from the word or phrase to the text as a unit of translation, but the
fundamental linguistic trend was not broken. Equivalence as a basic concept or
even constituent of translation was never really questioned.
13. The ideal translation would be one "in which the aim in the TL [target
language] is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and
communicative function of a SL [source-language] text". The requirement of
equivalence thus has the following form: quality (or qualities) X in the SL text
must be preserved. This means that the source-language content, form, style,
function, etc. must be preserved, or at least that the translation must seek to
preserve them as far as possible.
III. HOW DO TRANSLATORS REPRODUCE THE MESSAGE ?

Translating must aim primarily at “reproducing the message.” To do
anything else is essentially false to one’s task as a translator. But to reproduce the
message one must make a good many grammatical and lexical adjustments.
Translation equivalence is defined as a measure of semantic and structural
similarity between correlated units in the two texts (ST and TT). Some of the SL
units have permanent equivalents in TL, that is to say, there is a one-to-one
correspondence between such units and their equivalents. Thus book or machine-
gun is always rendered as sách and súng máy. As a rule this type of
correspondence is found with words of specific character, such as scientific and
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technical terms, proper or geographical names and similar words whose meaning
is more or less independent of the particular contextual situation. However, if we
compare a number of TTs with their STs we shall discover that the degree of
semantic similarity between the two texts involved in the translating process may
vary. In other words the equivalence between ST and TT may be based on the
reproduction of different parts of the ST contents. For example, the Hebrew idiom
“bowels of mercies” cannot be literally
rendered into English if one really wants to communicate the message of the
source language, for though we have the words “bowels” and mercy” in English,
we simply do not employ this combination. A meaningful equivalent is "tender
compassion,” and it is precisely in this manner that many translations attempt to
reproduce the significance of this source-language expression.
IV. WHY DO TRANSLATORS PAY MORE ATTENTION TO

EQUIVALENCE THAN IDENTITY ?
The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense this
is just another way of emphasizing the reproduction of the message rather than
the conservation of the form of the utterance, but it reinforces the need for radical
alteration of a phrase such as I think or in my opinion which may be quite
meaningless. In other instances, one may use some more natural transitions, e.g.,
you know, and then, now, later...; words or phrases of this kind are sometimes
best not reproduced. Take the following as another example: the sentence Nam là
sinh viên can be translated as Nam is a student, but in English the word student
can mean a school, a university, or a Master or even a Ph.D, student whereas in
Vietnamese it just means a university student. In addition, in Vietnamese there is
no article indicating whether a noun is count or noncount, and definite or
indefinite as in English.
What is important here, therefore, is that equivalence is looked upon as a relation

not only between two actual texts but also between two languages and to
distinguish between the two types of relation Catford (1965) uses the term textual
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equivalence (between two texts) and formal correspondent (between two

languages). Formal correspondent is any target language category “which can be
said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the same ‘place’ in the ‘economy’ of the
target language category occupies in the SL” (Catford 1965:27)
V. WHAT IS DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE ?

So far to the point equivalence in translation is considered mainly in terms of
form and meaning (semantic and grammatical). However, over the past years,
translation scholars have focused more on the communicative function than on the
notion of equivalence of the target text. The view of translation as a communicative
event entails that the translator is seen as a bilingual communicator in an
intercultural situation, who, according to Hymes (1972) can competently produce
utterances which, apart from being grammatical, are also appropriate in the given
socio-cultural circumstances. Translation scholars of this school try to characterise
equivalence in terms of function of some sort. Nida (1964), for example, considers
the linguistic sign not as a carrier of linguistic meaning in the first place but as an
entity fulfilling a certain function in a given society. He puts the emphasis on there
being a dynamic equivalence between the translation and the original, by which he
means that the manner in which the target reader responds to the target text must be
the same as that in which the source reader responded to the source text.
(equivalent effect). Equivalence is thus treated here as a functional rather than a
formal category. In this view, linguistic items need to be considered in actual
contexts, not in isolation, carrying communicative rather than abstract value only.
As a result of the shift of attention from the source text as the standard of
comparison to the role of the target text in the target-culture situation functional
adequacy can replace formal equivalence. For this reason, if we look at translations
in terms of the receptors, rather than in terms of their respective forms, then we
introduce another point of view; the intelligibility of the translation. Such
intelligibility is not, however, to be measured merely in terms of whether the words
are understandable and the sentences grammatically constructed, but in terms of the
total impact the message has on the one who receives it.
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Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the

receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the
same manner as the receptors in the source language. This response can never be
identical, for the cultural and historical settings are too different, but there should
be a high degree of equivalence of response, or the translation will have failed to
accomplish its purpose.
VI. WHAT IS THE NATURAL EQUIVALENT ?

Natural refers to three areas of the communication process: a natural rendering
should fit the whole receptor language and culture, the context of the specific
message, and the receptor-language audience. Therefore the translation should bear
no obvious trace of a foreign origin. A natural translation would have to deal with
two main areas of adaptation, that is grammar and lexicon. The grammatical
adaptation takes place more readily since one is obliged to make adjustments such
as shifting word order or using nouns instead of verbs in the receptor language. The
lexical structure of the source message is less easily adjusted to the semantic
requirements of the receptor language because there are no strict grammatical rules
but a variety of options.
The best translation does not sound like a translation. Quite naturally one cannot
and should not make a story that happened in the last century sound as if it
happened just some days ago. In other words, a good translation of the story must
not be a “cultural translation.” Rather, it is a “linguistic translation.” Nevertheless,
this does not mean that it should exhibit in its grammatical and stylistic forms any
trace of awkwardness or strangeness. That is to say, it should studiously avoid
“translationese” - formal fidelity, with resulting unfaithfulness to the content and
the impact of the message.
VII. WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEANING IN TRANSLATION ?
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As has already been indicated in the definitions of translating, meaning

must be given priority, for it is the content of the message which is of prime
importance in translating. Working in this way one may have formal consistency
of word, phrase, and clause order (word order is, however, more difficult to retain
than phrase or clause order), length of sentences, and classes of
words, e.g., translating nouns by nouns and verbs by verbs. All of these formal
features combine to produce what is called “formal correspondence.” However,
when we speak of verbal consistency in translating, we focus primary attention
upon the way in which specific words are translated, but words are not the only
formal features involved in formal consistency. Since words cover areas of
meaning and are not mere points of meaning, and since in different languages the
semantic areas of corresponding words are not identical, it is inevitable that the
choice of the right word in the receptor language to translate a word in the source-
language text depends more on the context than upon a fixed system of verbal
consistency, i.e., always translating one word in the source language by a
corresponding word in the receptor language. It is one thing to demonstrate in a
practical way that strict verbal consistency may result in serious distortion of the
meaning, but quite another thing to understand precisely why this is true.
Basically, contextual consistency should be prioritized to result in natural
translation. The linguistic reasons are that (1) each language covers all of
experience with a set of verbal symbols, i.e., words to designate various features
of experience, and (2) each language is different from all other languages in the
ways in which the sets of verbal symbols classify the various elements of
experience.
VIII. WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF STYLE ?

Though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. One should
not translate poetry as though it were prose, nor expository material as though it
were straight narrative. In trying to reproduce the style of the original one must
beware, however, of producing something which is not functionally equivalent.
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As for different scales in reading texts the translator should realize, Peter
Newmark (1988) points out that the average text for translation tends to be for an
educated, middle-class readership in an informal, not colloquial style. The most
common variety of 'marked' error in register among student translators tends to be
colloquial and intimate, e.g. use of phrases such as more and more for
increasingly, job for work; and excessively familiar phrasal verbs get out of, get
rid of. The other common error, use of formal or official register, e.g. decease for
death, also shows signs of translationese. All this will help you to decide on the
degree of formality, generality (or specificity) and emotional tone you must
express when you work on the text. The scale of formality has been variously
expressed, notably by Martin Joos and Strevens. Peter Newmark suggests the
following styles the translator should be familiar with to make the right choice:
Officialese 'The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categoric ally
prohibited in this establishment.'
Official The consumption of nutriments is prohibited.'
Formal 'You are requested not to consume food in this establishment.'
Neutral 'Eating is not allowed here.'
Informal 'Please don't eat here.'
Colloquial 'You can't feed your face here.'
Slang 'Layoffthenosh.'
Taboo 'Lay off the fucking nosh.'
IX. WHY DO TRANSLATORS PAY ATTENTION TO CULTURE DURING

TRANSLATION PROCESS ?
Some difficulties can arise when translating. One key factor is cultural
sensitivity: Not only do translators have to communicate the message from the
source language into the target language, but they also have to take into account the
culture of the target language. In order to avoid misunderstandings, translators have
to look out for the lexical content and syntax, as well as ideologies, value systems
and ways of life in a given culture – translators need to know their audience in both
languages and also consider the variants of the target language, like European
French and Canadian French, among other things.
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There are a variety of cultural elements to take into consideration when starting a
translation. For example, the name of a company or a product, humor, material
culture such as names of food, the style of the language and the target audience,
pictures, symbols, colors, gestures, habits, traditions as well as cultural references
are important cultural factors for translators to consider in order to correctly convey
a cultural equivalent in the target language. Beyond their linguistic expertise, they
need to have a thorough understanding of the culture of the source language as well
as that of the target language. At times, a text with cultural implications may lose
some meaning in translation or information may have to be added because it is
impossible to communicate all the levels of meaning that a cultural reference may
imply.
The role of the translator is to facilitate the transfer of message, meaning and
cultural elements from one language into another and create an equivalent response
from the receivers. The message in the source language is embedded a cultural
context and has to be transferred to the target language (Nida 1964: 13).
X. WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN TRANSLATION AND

CULTURE ?
In the early stages of translation theory, according to Tour (1980),
translation was defined as replacing a text in one language by another in a different
language, with the two texts having approximately the same meaning. The main
emphasis was on the linguistic and the semantic aspects of translation, whether in
the process of the product. The meaning in translation has always been
problematic; what meaning is intended? Is it semantic or pragmatic or social?
Finally all these types of meaning were thought relevant, and have been resumed
under ‘cultural aspects of translation. Nowadays translation is rarely envisaged
without one taking into account the source culture and the target culture.
Can culture be translated? Can a text be translated in isolation of its culture?
It is a linguistic fact recognized by every scholar that language is interwoven with
the threads of culture, and that it is difficult, probably impossible, to separate the
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two. If this is true, then every act of translation involves both language and culture
when ‘market’, for instance, is rendered into Arabic as ‘suq’, the two words refer to
two different things in different cultures, two different activities of buying and
selling. If the reader of translation coming across ‘suq’ conceptualizes ‘the oriental
market’, then the source culture has been replaced by the target culture and we are
in the process of familiarization. If, on the other hand, the new reader, through his
efforts or those of the translator, conceptualizes ‘an English market’, then we are
dealing with the process of foreignization. This is a simple example, but it is
adequate to clarify the relation between culture and translation. It is clear from this
example that the new reader plays an important role in this relation. A well-
educated reader reacts differently to a translation from a less educated reader.
Great works of translation do not only transform texts, but also the mind of the
reader in the target language. This is the most effective type of translation, of
which we read in the books of history, taking place in certain periods of intellectual
transformation like the one which took place at the time of the Abbasid period and
reached its peak in the reign of the Caliph Al-Ma’mun. Through translation, Arab
scholars mastered the learning of the Greeks, the Persians and the Indians; they
assimilated the new ideas which became part of their own culture. The same
process, or something similar, took place at the beginning of the Renaissance in
Europe, when, through translating the learning of the ancients was rediscovered,
often via the writings of the Arabs. All these great translations affected greatly the
Arab and European cultures.
A translator is a cultural mediator, who may move from the source culture to
the target culture, choosing as much as he/she thinks appropriate to serve the aim of
the translation. One basic purpose why we translate from language A into langue B
is to enrich linguistically and culturally language B. In this case the translator aims
at preserving as much as possible the source culture. He/she translates the content
and the style of the source text and introduces these into the target text. Gradually
these foreign elements are integrated into the target language and culture and
become part of the new environment. However, there is always the danger of
rejection, similar to that which takes place in the medical transplant of organs in the
new body. Integration or rejection awaits every work of translation. Obviously,
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our interest lies in integration, which is surely the characteristic of a successful

translation.
XI. WHAT ARE THE COMMON TYPES OF EQUIVALENTS OF

CORRELATED UNITS ?
The structural similarity of ST and TT implies that relationships of equivalence are

established between correlated units in the two texts. Depending on the type of the
language units involved regular equivalents can be classified as lexical,
phraseological or grammatical. The choice of the equivalent will depend on the
relative importance of a particular semantic element in the act of communication.
Some of the SL units have permanent equivalents in TL, that is to say, there is a
one-to-one correspondence between such units and their equivalents. Thus Canada
in Vietnamese is Canada, a machine-gun as súng máy and water is nước. As a rule
this type of correspondence is found with words of specific character, such as
scientific and technical terms, proper or geographical names and similar words
whose meaning is more or less independent of the particular contextual situation.
Other SL units may have several equivalents each. Such one-to-many

correspondence between SL and TL units is characteristic of most regular
equivalents. The existence of a number of non-permanent (or variable)
equivalents to a SL units implies the necessity of selecting one of them in each
particular case, taking into account the way the unit is used in ST and the points of
difference between the semantics of its equivalents in TL.
A variety of equivalents may also result from a more detailed description of the
same object in TL. The English word “attitude”, for instance, is translated
differently depending on the variant the Vietnamese language prefers in a particular
situation. Here the choice between equivalents is determined by TL factors.
Sometimes even if a SL unit has a regular equivalent in TL, this equivalent cannot
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be used in TT whenever the unit is found in ST. An equivalent is but a potential

substitute, for the translator’s choice is, to a large extent, dependent on the context
in which the SL unit is placed in ST. There are two types of context: linguistic and
situational. The linguistic context is made up by the other SL units in ST while the
situational context includes the temporal, spatial and other circumstances under
which ST was produced as well as all facts which the receptor is expected to know
so that he could adequately interpret the message.
XII. HOW DO TRANSLATORS CREATE OCCASIONAL

EQUIVALENTS ?
(1) Using loan-words imitating in TL the form of the SL word or word

combination, or using an explanation to convey the meaning of the SL unit
followed by a foot-note explaining the meaning of the equivalent-lacking word in
ST.e.g. hotdog (English) > hotdog (Vietnamese).
(2) Using approximate substitutes (approximate translation) when the translator

makes use of a TL form partially equivalent to the equivalent-lacking SL unit: hear
smb > nghe thấy ai đó nói, amid rising prices > trong bối cảnh giá cả tăng. If
necessary, with the help of foot-notes the translator can use TL words with similar
meaning which is extended to convey additional information, e.g. drugstore: hiệu
thuốc as it is not exactly a drugstore where they also sell such items as magazines,
soft drinks, ice-cream, etc.
(3) Using transformations (transformational translation) (nouns into verbs, phrases

into clauses..., e.g., Your presence at the meeting is not obligatory: Không bắt buộc
cậu phải có mặt trong cuộc họp đó.
(4) Zero translations when the meaning of the grammatical unit is not rendered in
the translation since it is non-existent in TL or practically identical to the meaning
of some other unit and can be safely left out. For example, the sentence It is late
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may be rendered as Muộn rồi in Vietnamese since there is not anything that
corresponds to It is in the sentences and the sentence I have never seen such a
horrible scene as Tôi chưa bao giờ nhìn thấy cảnh hãi hùng như vậy; since the
words từ trước tới giờ would be made superfluous by the presence of chưa bao giờ
that implies time duration since the past upto now.
As has been emphasized, equivalents are not mechanical substitutes for SL units
but they may come handy as a starting point in search of adequate translation. The
translator will much profit if he knows many permanent equivalents, and will be
good at selecting among variable equivalents and resourceful at creating
occasional equivalents, taking into account all contextual factors.
XIII. WHAT DOES THE TRANSLATOR DO ?
Conventionally, it is suggested that in order to perform their job successfully,

translators should meet three important requirements; they should be familiar with:
 the source language

 the target language
 the subject matter
Based on this premise, the translator discovers the meaning behind the forms
in the source language and does his best to produce the same meaning in the target
language - using the forms and structures of the target language. Consequently,
what is supposed to change is the form and the code and what should remain
unchanged is the meaning and the message. (Larson, 1984)
The translator should understand perfectly the content and intention of the author
whom he is translating. The principal way to reach it is reading all the sentences or
the text completely so that you can give the idea that you want to say in the target
language because the most important characteristic of this technique is translating
the message as clearly and naturally as possible. If the translation is for a different
country, the translator should translate the cultural words of that country
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appropriately. For example if he/she has to translate hotdog into Vietnamese, of

course, since there is no equivalent of the concept, the translator might say
“hotdog” or might have to go all the way up to the superordinate category of it,
saying “xúc xích nóng”. In this case it is really important for the translator to
understand cultural words because if the translator does not, his/her translation will
be misunderstood.
Also, the translator should have a perfect knowledge of the language from which he
is translating and an equally excellent knowledge of the language into which he is
translating. At this point the translator must have a wide knowledge in both
languages for getting the equivalence in the target language, because the deficiency
of the knowledge of both languages will result in a translation without logic and
sense - translationese.
The translator should avoid the tendency to translate word by word, because doing
so is to destroy the meaning of the original and to ruin the beauty of the expression.
This point is very important since if every word is translated literally it can
transmit another meaning or understanding in the translation.
The translator should employ the forms of speech in common usage. The translator
should bear in mind the people to whom the translation will be addressed and use
words that can be easily understood.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION - 1

1. What is the aim of translating?
2. What are the basic characteristics of translation, according to the definitions of
translation given above?
3. What is the nature of translation?
4. Point out the different kinds of equivalents in translation.
5. What qualities do you think a translator needs to have to do the job based on the
characteristics described in your definition?
6. Point out the basic tasks the translator must perform in the job. Give examples.
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PRACTICE 1
I. Comment on the translation of the following sentences and give your own
translation of them
Example: 0. My dad was fixing the roof and the ladder slipped out from
under him and he is hanging from the eaves (Lúc đó bố tôi đang
sửa mái nhà, bỗng nhiên chiếc thang dưới chân ông bị đổ và
bây giờ ông đang treo lơ lửng trên xà nhà).
Your translation: Bố tôi đang dọi lại mái nhà thì bỗng nhiên thang đổ và
giờ đây ông đang bị lơ lửng dưới xà nhà.
1. A man’s wife had scratched the side of their new car as she backed it out of
the garage (Vợ một người nọ làm xước một bên thành xe hơi lúc bà ta lùi xe
để ra khỏi nhà để xe).
2. A man was injured in an accident aboard a bus, and his friends told him that
he should sue for damages (Một người ngồi trên xe buýt và lúc xảy ra tai
nạn, anh ta bị thương. Bạn bè khuyên anh ta đi kiện vì các thiệt hại).
3. A crew was unloading a tank car of highly explosive chemicals when it
exploded (Một toán người dỡ một chiếc xe chở hóa chất dễ cháy, đang làm
thì bị nổ).
4. Her grandmother, willing to break her neck to please her little
granddaughter, took away the cereal and went to work preparing a bacon and
egg breakfast (Muốn chiều cháu, bà cất bát ngũ cốc đi rồi làm món thịt hun
và trứng cho cháu).
5. Even though he had made a lot of money with several inventions, some of
his neighbours thought he was a bit of an oddball. Being rich, they referred
to him as eccentric (Mặc dù ông kiếm được nhiều tiền nhờ có nhiều sáng chế,
một số láng giềng cho rằng đầu óc ông ta không bình thường. Thậm chí họ
còn bảo ông là dở người).
II. Underline (single line – ) the subject and (double line =) the verb predicate of
all the sentences. Then, translate the story into English, paying special attention to
the italicized parts.
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Sinh viên của một trường đại học Mỹ thường (1) chơi khăm nhau khi bạn gái
mới của một sinh viên nào đó (2) đến chơi lần đầu. Thường thì họ mang tất cả đồ
đạc ra khỏi phòng của người sinh viên đó, (3) để cho khi cô bạn của anh ấy đến sẽ
không có vật gì để ngồi.
Ted Jones là một thanh niên nông thôn, (4) cho đến khi được nhận vào đại
học, chưa bao giờ rời quê. Lần đầu đến trường và khi nghe nói về sự nghịch ngợm
này, anh ta tỏ ra không thích và tuyên bố với các sinh viên khác, “Tôi nhất định
rằng điều đó sẽ không xảy ra với tôi. Tôi sẽ khóa cửa phòng lại.” Các sinh viên
khác đều (5) cười trước lời lẽ tự tin của anh.
Lần đầu tiên khi Ted đưa bạn gái về phòng, anh kinh ngạc thấy tất cả đồ đạc
vẫn còn đó nhưng (6) cửa phòng đã bị lấy đi mất.
(Key words: chơi khăm ai: play tricks on; lần đầu: for the first time; để cho: so that; cho đến...
vẫn chưa: not until; cười trước cái gì: laugh at; lấy, gỡ cái gì: remove sth)
III. State the kinds of equivalents you will use in the phrases in bold type when
translating the following text
By the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century a number of our
Eastern institutions – Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Pennsylvania – had some of
(1) the necessary ingredients of a university, but hardly yet the point of view.
They were (2) little clusters of schools and institutes. Indeed, just after the
Revolution, the schools of Pennsylvania and Harvard had assumed the somewhat
pretentious title of university, and, shortly after, the University of Virginia was
founded under the guidance of Thomas Jefferson. (3) In the South, Georgia and
later North Carolina began (4) to rise. (5) The substance in all these was mainly
lacking though the title was honored. (6) There were rather feeble law, medical,
and divinity schools, somewhat loosely attached to (7) those colleges. It has been
(8) commonly recognized, however, that the first decade after (9) the close of the
Civil War, that is, from about 1866 to 1876, was (10) the great early flowering of
the university idea in America.
IV. Define the kinds of equivalents used in the numbered phrases of the translated
text below
17
There are roughly three New Yorks. Sơ bộ có 3 trong một thành phố New
There is, first, the New York of (1) the York. Thứ nhất, đó là thành phố của
man or woman who was born there, những người sinh ra ở đó, những người
who (2) takes the city for granted and coi nơi đó là lẽ đương nhiên không thể
accepts its size and (3) its turbulence as né tránh, họ chấp nhận quy mô và cuộc
natural and inevitable. Second, there is sống náo nhiệt của nó. Thứ hai, đó là
the New York of the commuter – the thành phố New York của những người
city that is (4) devoured by locusts each đến rồi lại đi vào mỗi ngày và mỗi đêm.
day and each night. Third, there is the Thứ ba, đó là thành phố của những
New York of the person who was born người sinh ra ở nơi khác và đến đó vì sự
somewhere else and came to New York kiếm tìm. Trong cả 3 thành phố đều náo
in quest of something. Of these three (5) nhiệt này thì thành phố thứ ba là đông
trembling cities the greatest is the last – nhất, bởi đây là điểm đến cuối cùng, là
the city of final destination, the city that đích đến. Chính thành phố thứ ba này đã
is a goal. It is the third city that accounts đem lại địa vị cao sang, dáng vẻ thơ
for New York’s (6) high-strung mộng, sự hết mình vì nghệ thuật và
disposition, its poetical deportment, its những thành quả không gì so sánh được
dedication to the arts, and its của New York. Nếu những người đến
incomparable achievements. Commuters rồi lại đi đem lại cho New York sự nhộn
give the city (7) its tidal restlessness; nhịp thăng trầm, thì những người vốn
natives give it solidarity and continuity, sinh ra ở đó đem lại cho thành phố sự
but the settlers give it passion. And đoàn kết và sự kết nối, còn những người
whether it is a farmer arriving from a định cư lại mang tới đây một sự đam
small grocery store in a slum, or a young mê. Cho dù đó là anh nông dân đến từ
girl arriving from a small town in một của hàng rau quả nhỏ trong một túp
Mississippi to (8) escape the indignity lều hay một cô gái trẻ đến từ một thị trấn
of being observed by her neighbors, or nhỏ vùng Mississipi nhằm tránh cảm
by a boy arriving from the Corn Belt giác xúc phạm bị những người xung
with (9) a manuscript and a pain in his quanh nhòm ngó hoặc đó là người con
heart, it makes no difference; each (10) trai đến từ miền Corn Belt mang trong
embraces New York with the intense lòng nỗi đau hay niềm hy vọng thì tất cả
excitement of first love, each (11) cũng đều giống nhau, mỗi người đến
18
absorbs New York with the fresh eyes New York đều mang trong lòng niềm
of an adventurer, each (12) generates phấn khích mạnh mẽ của tình yêu ban
heat and light to dwarf the Consolidated đầu, mỗi người đều ngưỡng mộ New
Edison Company. York bằng con mắt tươi tắn của người
khám phá, mỗi người đều sản sinh ra
nhiệt lượng và ánh sáng làm lu mờ hình
“The Three New Yorks,” E.B. White. Here Is ảnh của công ty năng lượng
New York Consolidated Edison Company.
V. Translate the text below into Vietnamese

Perhaps the most powerful woman in media today is Oprah Winfrey. To
quote an old TV commercial, when she talks, people listen, and they've been
listening in record numbers since her daytime talk show debuted in 1986. Since
then, she has covered a broad range of topics, from family issues and drug abuse to
celebrity profiles. A shrewd businesswoman, Oprah has inspired trends in the
marketplace simply by mentioning a product on the air. On top of all this, she has
battled with her weight and won while motivating many to "Make the Connection".
Oprah has championed literacy and inspired thousands to read. As a result, she has
single handedly propelled unknown authors to the top of the best seller list.
All this power did not come easily, however. Born in a small town in rural
Mississippi on January 29th 1954, Oprah had a difficult childhood and endured
sexual abuse. She eventually overcome it all and at age 19 she landed her first job
as a radio reporter in Nashville Tennessee, where she attended college. In her
sophomore year she became the first African American anchor at WTVF TV in
Nashville. After that it was only a matter of time until she was hosting a talk show
in Baltimore which led to her transfer to Chicago in 1984. Then, in 1985 she
received an Oscar nomination for her role in The Color Purple.
RECOMMENDED READING - 1
1. Al-Shabab,O.S. (1994). Interpretation and the Language of Translation:
Creativity and Conventions in Translation. Beirut, Lebanon.
19
2. Bassnett, S. (2001). Translation Studies. New York: Mathuen & Co.Ltd.

3. Christiane, N. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Manchester, UK &
Northampton MA.
4. Dự, Nguyễn Hữu. (2003). Tuyển tập truyện cười-Tập II. Nhà xuất bản
Đồng Nai.
5. Gaddis, R.M. Translation Spectrum - Essays in Theory and Practice. State
University of New York Press.
6. Larson, M.L. (1998). Meaning-based Translation. University Press of
America Inc.
7. Nida, A. E. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation. The Netherland:
E.J.Brill, Leiden
8 Nigel.A. Translation, Linguistics, Culture - French-English Handbook.
Multilingual Matters LTD. Clevedon • Buffalo • Toronto.
9. Newmark, P. 1986. Approach to Translation. Prentica Hall
10. Newmark, P. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall International
11. Wilss, W. Translation and Interpreting in the 20th Century. John Benjamins
Publishing company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
12. Tiến, Lê Hùng. Nghiên cứu dịch thuật và những khuynh hướng nghiên cứu
ngôn ngữ. Tạp chí KHOA HỌC ĐHQG - NGOẠI NGỮ T.XIX Số 1,
2006.
20
Lesson 2
ELEMENTS OF TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION VS INTERPRETATION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you will

- be aware of the elements of translation
- review the basic features of translation
- identify the basic features of interpretation
- be aware of the basic differences between translation and interpretation
I. ELEMENTS OF TRANSLATION
Defining the number of elements is necessary for the study of translation. In the
past, the majority of theorists on translation (St. Augustine, Nida, Catford...)
suggested three elements of translation, firstly focusing on the linguistic sign and
then on the situational or contextual substance between two languages for
translation to be possible (source language, language sign / contextual substance,
target language). This book accepts six elements below as essential to any linguistic
theory of translation:
1.1. The source language (SL)

The source language is the language to which the text to be translated belongs. In
other words, the source language is prior to translation. The source language must
be acknowledged as a given entity which is already, functionally set in place with
its meanings, grammar and culture independent of and regardless of the translation
phenomenon. The translator is unable to change any aspect of the source language.
Rather, many aspects of the translator's work are conditioned and determined by
the source language. That is why, mastery of the source language is a must for the
21
translator, since this mastery is the key to his/her readings and interpretations of the
text to be translated.
1.2. The source text (ST)

The source text is the text which has been chosen for translation. In academic
settings, it may well happen that the translator chooses a text either out of personal
interest to translate or as a task given by another authority (teacher or test) or a
publisher. In most cases, the translator cannot, without a good reason, change any
part of the source text. The source language, as has been seen earlier, is not only
the very central and initial point for the start of the translation process but also is
the background for all translation processes. It is on the basis of the source
language that the translator refers to the general rules and norms of the source
language at different levels of linguistic analysis (word, phrase, clause...) - rules
and norms without which the source text cannot be understood.
1.3. The translator (T)

The translator is a human agent who knows two languages or more and who can
express the message(s) of a text from one language using the system(s) of the other.
Hence, the translator is the most important element in translation, since the study of
translation and the language of translation is no more than the study of the
translator's linguistic ability and the translator's output of translated texts. The
translator is the initial knower of two languages, or more, who has the ability to
move between two languages.
He/she is the interpreter of the source text, and the producer of the final
interpretation which determines the meaning(s) which readers of the translation
will read.
Besides being a bilingual, or a multilingual, individual, the translator is

philosophically in a unique position between two cultures, since he/she is
supposed to be beyond the influences of the social and cultural environment of
22
any of the two languages. In this sense, the translator, like the linguist who takes
all human languages to be on an equal footing, is among the first candidate to be
liberated from the dominance of one language/culture, no matter how old, great or
powerful that language/culture may he.
1.4. The translated text (TT)

If the source text is taken to be the starting point of the translation process, then the
translated text is the text which results from the translation process. Thus, the
translated text is the actual definite material, which has been produced by
conveying the meaning of a source text in terms of another language and culture. In
this important sense, the three elements of source language, source text, and
translator, theoretically and practically precede the translated text. In addition to the
changes resulting from the movement from one language to another, translation
necessarily changes the receiver or addressee of the text. While the source text is
addressed to a certain readership, the translated text changes this factor in the
situation of the language event to new readers in a new language. This change in
the addressee has far-reaching implications for the equivalence of the translated
text at different levels of meanings, grammar and culture of the target language.
1.5. The language of translation (LT)

The language of translation is an abstraction obtained via the study of translated
texts. It is not a source language or a target language. The language of translation is
perceived from the translated text, reflecting the translator's interpretations, the
translator's strategies and the translator's abilities. In other words, the translation
language is subjective. At the same time, the translator has to take into
consideration his/her translation to suit a reader according to the reader’s social
norms in the target language, so the language of translation is social. For these
reasons, when different translators translate the same text, different features (some
changes or even some additions may be made) of the language of translation can be
found in different translated texts.
1.6. The target language (TL)
23
The target language is the language into which a text from another language is
translated. The readers to whom the translated text is addressed are native or non-
native users of the target language. The translated text is formulated in accordance
with the linguistic systems and the socio-cultural norms of the target language (In
this sense, a Vietnamese-English translated text should follow the language rules
and social-cultural features of the English - not Vietnamese - language and vice
versa). That is why, compared with the source language text, the target language
translated text may be so long, longer, or even shorter and may have new features
which may not be found in the source language.
Although the boundaries of the elements of translation have been defined clearly,
still they interact as elements achieving one function, in which each element
relates to one or more of the rest. Hence, the source language potentially exists in
the translator's interpretations: it advances or limits the translator's scope. The
source text also potentially exists in the translated text: the relationship of
intertextuality and parallel linearity cannot be better exemplified. The translator's
judgments, strategies and manipulations do all potentially exist in the translator's
interpretation of the source text and the formulation of the translated text which is
governed by the target language. The intermingling and interaction among the
elements of translation is only natural. After all, the elements themselves are
nothing but theoretical abstractions postulated to account for one phenomenon,
translation.
II. INTERPRETING VS TRANSLATING
2.1. Denotative meaning of translation and interpretation

In many materials on translation studies, the word “translator” implies a person
who translates both written and spoken texts. However, we designers of the book
accept the term “language mediation” which divides into “translation” and
“interpreting”.
24
From above definitions of translation and in today's usage - at least in specialist

circles - "translation" denotes the written reproduction of an original text in another
language (a foreign language or the mother tongue), while "interpreting" is used for
the oral reproduction of a spoken text in another language (a foreign language or
the mother tongue). The word interpreting in the profession's jargon means "to
transfer orally a text in a language into another." The language of origin is called
source language (SL), the language into which the text is to be transferred is called
target/receptor language (TL/RL).
The first interpreters were not trained but entered the profession on the strength of
their mastery of languages, prodigious memory, and their impressively broad
cultural background. Some of the legendary figures of interpreting include Jean
Herbert, Andre Kaminker and Prince Constantin Andronikof, who was personal
interpreter to General de Gaulle and one of the founders of AIIC, which was
established in 1953.
With the setting up of international and European organizations (United Nations –

1945, Council of Europe – 1949, European Community - 1957) there was a
growing need for a much larger number of trained professionals.
In the interwar years consecutive interpretation alone was provided at international

gatherings, such as at meetings of the League of Nations in Geneva where English
and French were used.
In mid-fifties of the last century conference interpreter was still in its infancy with
the first simultaneous interpretation having been used after World War II at the
Nuremburg Trials (English, French, Russian and German).
The situation in the early 20th century was totally different from what is known
now as conference interpreting – a highly professional field requiring advanced
learning and special training. Conference interpreting actually started during World
25
War I, and until then all international meetings of any importance had been held in
French for that was language of the 19th century diplomacy.
Today, roughly speaking, three forms of interpreting are practiced: liaison,

consecutive and simultaneous interpreting. Liaison interpreting is by far the oldest
form of interpreting (as far back as ancient times, even in pre-antiquity) and today
it is the most common form of interpreting involving only a small group of people,
where the interpreter sits next to or behind his "client" doing a great variety of
activities under different names: “community interpreting", "public service
interpreting", "hospital interpreting", "mental health interpreting" and "social
service interpreting"... A consecutive interpreter is one whose job is to change what
has been said in one language into another language, while a simultaneous
translator changes what is being said in one language into another language as
someone is speaking. The umbrella term for consecutive and simultaneous
interpreting can be called “conference interpreting”.
Simultaneous translation/interpretation is applied during congresses, conferences,

seminars, workshops and business meetings which include a larger number of
participants. The presentation here is conducted in a systematic manner with
somewhat restricted interactivity and closeness and much faster than consecutive
interpretation. Typically, two interpreters are placed together in a booth, and they
follow an audio-transmission of speeches and interpret them directly. For
simultaneous interpretation, microphones, earphones and a booth are necessary
technical equipment.
In both consecutive and simultaneous translation all speakers should bear in mind
that, in order to have interpretation as precise as possible, they should make regular
shorter breaks to enable the interpreters to relay the message in the same spirit.
During larger events, moderators should pay attention to this aspect and make the
participants aware. During preparations for simultaneous interpretation, the
interpreters’ booth, if not fixed, should be positioned so that the interpreters can see
the speakers. This will enable them to observe the body language and facial
26
expressions of the speaker to get a better feeling of what is being said in context. If
a simultaneous interpretation session exceeds 45 minutes, then two interpreters are
required.
2.2. Basic differences between translation and interpretation

Translation (written translation) differs from interpreting (oral translation) in
several aspects:
- The two forms of reproduction require different abilities and skills (but not a
different degree of intelligence): whereas the interpreter is faced with a unique,
orally delivered text, the translator has the possibility of "flicking back" through the
permanently available written text. This means that the translator has, despite the
pressure of deadlines, more time than the interpreter (especially the simultaneous
interpreter) to process the source text thoroughly and analytically. What the
interpreter is unable to grasp in his first and only confrontation with the text is lost
forever. A postediting of the original or a repetition of the interpreting event is
impossible (except, perhaps, in cases of so-called "liaison interpreting").
- The modem interpreter demands a combination of qualifications which by their
very nature are rarely found in a single individual. Full command of both
languages, that from which he interprets and that into which he interprets, is the
basis of his work. This is true also of the professional translator. But the translator's
assignment is easier. He can regulate the tempo and rhythm of his work. In the
stillness of his office he can consult dictionaries and revise his text. The interpreter
has none of these advantages. On the spur of the moment he must orally convey not
the gist but the full content of a speech. He must be an orator and perhaps even
something of an actor. The whole effect of an important declaration may be lost if
the mannerisms and intonation of an interpreter are uncongenial to the spirit of a
debate. He must furthermore be familiar with the questions under debate, or at least
he must have a sort of sixth sense enabling him to detect the essential in a
conventional phrase, its political implications and importance. While he must, as a
rule, not play down any statement, he must not overemphasize it in his rendering or
bearing.
- Translation of written materials is a slower process than interpreting ... An oral
27
linguist must do his work simultaneously and he must be right the first time, which
involves picking exactly the right word or phrase, not one which "will do". Clearly,
then, an interpreter must be quick witted ... Since oral work is considered more
demanding mentally and emotionally than written work, interpreters are the elite of
the profession, usually earning appreciably more than translators.
- Yet, there is another side to the story. An interpreter has the advantage of being
right on the spot ... Translation, on the other hand, is continually frustrating ... To
add to the translator's irritations, the work must often be done from documents
sloppily or ambiguously written, or expressed in highly technical jargon.

1. How do the elements of translation interact with each other?
2. In translating, is the source text the main basis or the target source is? Why?
3. What is/are the role(s) of the translator in translation?
4. Point out the basic differences between oral and written translation.
5. Tick the qualities/skills needed for each job.
Qualities/skills Translator Interpreter

spelling/reading
sense of humor
analytical thinking
fluency
linguistic competence (grammar, syntax,
semantics...)
flexibility and creativity
mobility
reading skills
hand writing
pronunciation
vocabulary
28
PRACTICE 2
I. Translate the sentences into English
1. Phía trước tôi, một con chó to đang sủa thằng bé với nét mặt hoảng sợ.
2. Lúc đó, trời nhiều mây; gió bắt đầu thổi mạnh.
3. Bữa tiệc bắt đầu được 10 phút anh ta mới đến.
4. Sự bất cẩn của người lái xe đã gây ra tai nạn thương tâm đó.
5. Mọi người gia đình nhà vợ đều coi anh ta là người ở của họ .
6. Khi phát hiện anh ta không đáng tin nữa cô ấy quyết định chia tay.
7. Tôi chẳng còn gì để nói với anh nữa.
8. Mãi hôm qua họ mới gửi công văn phúc đáp cho chúng tôi.
9. Giá mà tôi biết trước cô ấy không đến tôi đã không phải chờ lâu đến thế.
10. Con nhớ mang theo ít tiền nhỡ có phải mua gì thêm nhé.
II. Translate the underlined parts in the passages into Vietnamese

A. (1) Smashing Stereotypes
In a study titled Male and Female Drivers: How different are they? Professor
Frank McKenna of the University of Reading (2) looked at the accident risk
between men and women. He found that men drive faster, commit more driving
violations, and (3) are more inclined to drink and drive. They look for thrills behind
the wheel, while women seek independence. And, although anecdotal evidence
might (4) suggest otherwise, women are not starting to drive as aggressively as
men.
The question of whether, as drivers, women, differ from men is important,
because it could affect insurance premiums, (5) which are closely geared to
accident statistics.
Despite the increase in women drivers, McKenna's researchers found no
evidence that this is (6) changing accident patterns. It seems that age is far more
important than gender in the car. It is the biggest single factor in accident patterns.
and, while inexperienced new drivers of both sexes are more likely to be involved
in accidents, the study found striking new evidence to confirm that young men
drive less safely than any other group.
29
(7) The survey shows that men and women aged 17 to 20 are most likely to
be involved in bend accidents-men almost twice as often-but the difference
decreases as driver’s mature.
B. Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra

(1) It is one of the world’s last great wildernesses, a 435-mile-long peninsula
of lakes and squelching tundra stretching deep into the Arctic Ocean. For 1,000
years the indigenous Nenets people have migrated along the Yamal peninsula. (2)
In summer they wander northwards, taking their reindeer with them. In winter they
return southwards.
But this remote region of north-west Siberia is now (3) under heavy threat
from global warming. Traditionally the Nenets travel across the frozen River Ob in
November and set up camp in the southern forests around Nadym. These days,
though, this annual winter pilgrimage is delayed. Last year the Nenets, together
with (4) many thousands of reindeer, had to wait until late December when the ice
was finally (5) thick enough to cross.
III. Work in pairs on oral translation (one student reads one sentence after another
with an interval of 3 seconds and the other translates the sentence he/she has
heard. When the text is finished, the roles will be reversed)
A. What High Youth Unemployment Means For Our Economy

by Campus Progress April 11, 2013
More than a quarter million American college graduates worked for minimum
wage last year—that’s 70 percent more than ten years ago. We can all agree that’s a
sign of an unhealthy economy.
But what kind of unhealthy? Is degreed underemployment just a product of the

Great Recession, or does it reflect more fundamental economic problems?
In a recent paper, economists Paul Beaudry, David A. Green, and Benjamin M.

Sand argue that there has been a “great reversal” in the demand for skilled labor.
That is, fewer employers need to hire employees with college degrees. The Daily
30
Beast’s Megan McArdle suggested that the findings mean “A BA is now a ticket to
a job in a coffee shop.”
Ominously, the reversal began well before the recession started.
“Many researchers have documented a strong, ongoing increase in the demand for
skills in the decades leading up to 2000,” the researchers wrote. “In this paper, we
document a decline in that demand in the years since 2000, even as the supply of
high education workers continues to grow.”
So does that mean we’re headed for an education surplus? Are those college-
educated minimum-wagers here to stay?
It’s too early to tell, according to Dean Baker, co-director of the Center for
Economic and Policy Research.
“I do think we will need more college grads,” Baker told Campus Progress. “The
question is: do we need them at the same rate we’re producing them? And that’s
just much less clear.” To find out for sure, though, we’ll have to bring the economy
back to full employment.
“Let’s assume the economy does recover five, six years out,” Baker said. “I think
we’ll see a lot of college grads working at jobs that would not ordinarily require
college degrees.”
However, that doesn’t necessarily mean they’ll be working for minimum wage.
Even if it’s not a requirement for the job, employers will likely still be willing to
shell out for the skill set and credentials provided by a college degree.
But, once the economy has recovered, if college-educated Americans still find
themselves in dead-end jobs, there might be a political gain in their economic pain.
As The Roosevelt Institute’s Dorian Warren said recently:
“The Millennials who are more privileged and get to boomerang are finally starting
to feel and realize just a sliver…of what these groups of poor black and brown kids
are experiencing, and that does open up possibilities for alliance and solidarity.”
31
B. Chợ trong trung tâm thương mại ở Hà Nội vắng khách

17 giờ chiều 28-5, trong khi phần lớn các chợ lớn, nhỏ trên địa bàn Thủ đô tấp nập
người mua, người bán, thì khu vực chợ dưới tầng hầm trung tâm thương mại Hàng
Da vẫn vắng vẻ, thưa thớt. Các quầy bán thịt, cá, rau... lác đác một vài người mua
hàng. Tại nhiều quầy không thấy bày bán thực phẩm, trên mặt bàn chỏng chơ chiếc
chậu, chiếc thớt. ....Cách đó không xa, tại trung tâm thương mại chợ Cửa Nam, khu
chợ dân sinh dưới tầng hầm, buổi chợ chiều cũng thưa thớt, uể oải không kém.
Vắng khách, chủ hàng ngồi túm tụm buôn chuyện, tán gẫu với nhau....
Sau trung tâm thương mại Hàng Da, Cửa Nam, hiện thành phố đang tiếp tục triển
khai mô hình này tại chợ Mơ, chợ Ngã Tư Sở... Nhưng sau khi xây xong, làm thế
nào để chợ truyền thống trong khu thương mại có thể tiếp tục hoạt động hiệu quả là
cả một vấn đề. Trước hết, trung tâm thương mại mới xây dựng trên diện tích của
chợ cũ phải ưu tiên sắp xếp, thiết kế vị trí đặt chợ truyền thống phù hợp, thuận tiện;
bố trí khu vực bãi để xe rộng rãi, đầy đủ và miễn thu phí trông giữ xe. Quan trọng
hơn, theo Phó Giám đốc Sở Công thương Hà Nội Nguyễn Văn Ðồng thì phải dẹp
bỏ được chợ cóc, chợ tạm, hàng rong. “Nếu hàng rong vẫn thoải mái hoạt động, thì
sẽ không có cơ quan nào đủ khả năng quản lý chất lượng hàng hóa, thực phẩm.
Cảnh tắc đường, lộn xộn vẫn có thể diễn ra. Dẹp hàng rong, đưa các tiểu thương
vào chợ sẽ tạo thói quen mua sắm đúng nơi quy định cho người dân, Nhà nước
thuận tiện quản lý chất lượng vệ sinh an toàn thực phẩm, vệ sinh môi trường”. Bên
cạnh đó là sự thay đổi ý thức tiêu dùng, sao cho hướng đến văn minh, hiện đại, an
toàn của mỗi người dân. Có như thế, chợ truyền thống trên địa bàn mới dần dần có
diện mạo hiện đại và hoạt động hiệu quả.
Theo Thu Trang, NhanDan Online, 29/5/2012
Northampton MA.
32

E.J.Brill, Leiden
33
Lesson 3
TYPES OF TRANSLATION
OBJECTIVES

- be aware of basic principles of classification of translation types
- be aware of main types of translation based on translation methods
- identify the differences between semantic and communicative translations
I. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION
In the history of translation development there have been a great number of terms:
literal, free, literary, non-literary, borrowing, equivalence, figurative, so on and so
forth. Different strategies or different methods of translation produce different
kinds of translation. Actually, the classifications of translation types are many
according to different points of view, based on either structure, function, or
semantics of language.
In his article “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation” Roman Jacobson distinguishes

three types of translation:
1. Intralingual translation, or rewording (an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of other signs in the same language). Dịch nội ngôn/ nội ngữ (giải
thuyết ký hiệu lời nói này bằng ký hiệu lời nói khác của cùng một ngôn ngữ).
2. Interlingual translation or translation proper (an interpretation of verbal signs
by means of some other language). dịch ngoại ngữ ( tức là giải thuyết ký hiệu
lời nói của ngôn ngữ này bằng ký hiệu của một ngôn ngữ khác, )
3. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation (an interpretation of verbal signs
by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems). Dịch ký tự, hoặc sự chuyển
đổi ký tự, tức là sự giải thuyết ký hiệu ngôn ngữ thành lời (verbal signs)
bằng ký hiệu ngôn ngữ không thành lời.
On the basis of forms of translation (Elena Shapa – 2008), it can be divided into:
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1. Written and oral (literary, informative, semantic)

2. Mixed
3. Computer-assisted/aided translation (CAT)/Machine translation (MT) – still
involving human pre & post editing
And on the basis of the number of translators involved in translation, it can
include:
1. Individual
2. Committee/group
On the basis of means of communication (Tien, 2006), translation can be divided

into four types:
1. Written translation - written ( translation)
2. Spoken translation - Spoken ( interpretation )
3. Written translation - Spoken ( transcripted translation)
4. Spoken translation - Written (Dicto-translation)
These types of translation can be diagramatically represented as follows:
Source language Target language
Written 3 Spoken
1
2
Spoken 4 Written
On the basis of purposes of translation, there are the following types:
1. Translating
- Non-commercial language
+ Language exercises (in language learning)
+ Entertainment
+ Documents
+ Advertisements...
- Professional translation
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+ Literary translation: poetry, novels, stories...

+ Technical translation
+ Drama and film translation
+ Legal documents translation: contracts, law-related documents, scientific
articles, theses....
+ Gist translation : Reports and reviews, thesis summary, footnotes ....
2. Interpreting:
- Sectional interpretation: Seminars, tour-guides, conversations....
- Simultaneous interpretation (cabin interpretation): Conferences
II. PRACTICAL TYPES OF TRANSLATION

Based on the methods of translation the following are worth consideration:
2.1. Word-for-word translation (WT)

Word for word translation (or sometimes direct/interlinear translation) focuses
mainly on translating words from the source text into the target language while the
word order of the original is preserved. This method of translation can be seen in
those cases where some value of humor is needed. It is also very useful for the
translator to understand and analyze the original text before translating it into the
target language. For instance, word for word translation Bạn đi đâu đấy?into
English can be “You are going where?” whereas the correct version must be “
Where are you going?”, or in the situation where an Englishman is giving a
consolence, saying “ No worries or no problem” (không sao đâu), a Vietnamese
word for word translation may be “ No star where”.
2.2. Literal translation (LiT)

Literal translation is featured by the fact that grammatical structures and the
meaning of words are translated almost as closely as those in the target language
without paying attention to the situation or context (In this sense, many theorists
coincide literal translation with word-for-word translation). For example, the
question “Can you sit down?” can be literally translated into Vietnamese Anh có
thể ngồi xuống được không?, but in fact it is really a request which can be
36
communicatively translated “ Anh hãy ngồi xuống”, “Anh ngồi xuống đi”....
2.3. Faithful translation (FT)

Faithful translation can be described as one kind of translation which tries to
convey the meanings of words and context situation according to the grammar rules
of the target language; however, there is some unusuality or unnaturalness in the
target language. For example, if the sentence “ Tôi e rằng cô ta không làm được
việc đó” (*I think she cannot do it) was translated this way, then the structure of the
target language (English) does not sound natural. In English, the negation of the
verb in the first clause stands for the negation of the verb in the following clause.
For this reason, the translation could be “I don’t think she can do it”. Another
example may go with the infinitive verb used as subject of the sentence, a faithful
translation of “ Học khóa này phải mất 2 năm (*To do this course takes 2 years)
may sound unnatural to English people (It takes two years to do this course).
2.4. Semantic translation (SeT)

Semantic translation focuses to a great degree on meaning (semantic content) and
form (syntax) of the original texts of high status such as religious texts, legal texts,
literature, or speeches. Using this strategy, the translator tries to come as close as
possible to the meaning conveyed by the words by means of word order change or
word choice (synonyms/antonyms) so that the true meaning is conveyed. For
example, in the case of idioms, “It’s water under the bridge” or “Past waters don’t
power mills” if translated literally these idioms make little or no sense; however,
their meanings (Hãy để cho quá khứ ngủ yên) could possibly be clear if semantic
translation is to be exploited.
2.5. Communicative translation (CT)

Communicative translation is freer than the above-mentioned types. This strategy
gives high priority to the message communicated in the text where the actual form
of the original is not closely bound to its intended meaning. For example, if the
sentence “*Do you mind closing the door, please? No, I don’t” (Anh có phản đối
việc đóng cửa ra vào không? Không, tôi không phản đối was translated this way,
37
then the message of the sentence has not yet been interpreted correctly since this
sentence implies a request rather than a question, so the following translation could
be accepted (Nhờ anh đóng hộ cửa ra vào. Vâng/Được thôi).
2.6. Idiomatic translation (IT)

Idiomatic translation is based on the meaning of the text which aims to produce the
message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by using idioms
and colloquialism where there do not exist in the original. For example, in
Vietnamese to describe a peasant’s hard life, there are such idioms as : cuộc đời
chân lấm tay bùn / hai nắng một sương / bán mặt cho đất bán lưng cho trời...; these
idioms can be used to translate the meaning of “hard life” - the extreme of
hardships a peasant has to suffer (a peasant’s hard life: cuộc đời hai sương một
nắng). Another example of idiomatic translation can be applied to the English
sentence that describes the degree of the sameness of the two girls’ appearance “
They look exactly the same” (Chúng giống nhau như hai giọt nước).
2.7. Free translation (FrT)

As indicated by the word “free”, free translation (sometimes dynamic translation)
focuses more on content than form in the target language; as a result, sometimes the
grammar structure or the form of the words in the target language may change; the
number of words and the sentence length may vary, depending on the subjectivity
of the translator when he/she adds explanation or comment to make clear the
meaning of the original. For example, “business is business” could be translated
freely as Công việc là công việc, không chen tình cảm vào đây được.
2.8. Adaptation translation (AT)

Adaptation is a highly free type of translation. Here the focus is on socio-cultural
phenomena or practices that are absent in the target culture, rather than on
linguistic units, although these are of course inevitably concerned. In other words,
adaptation translation aims to create an equivalence of the same value applicable to
a different situation than that of the source language. For this reason, we can use
this method for plays, adapting them to an audience from a different cultural
38
background, or for advertising & subtitling when characters and function of

original text are preserved to get the same effect on the audience.
Adaptation can also be considered a translation technique used when the context in
the original text does not exist in the TT culture. In this situation the translator’s
task is recreate some form of language to convey the same meaning. Imagine a
situation in which speaker A sees B leaving for a journey where the Vietnamese
speaker will tend to express a wish: Chúc thượng lộ bình an (Have a safe trip).
However, in the same situation English speakers often say something different, so
the Vietnamese wish could be translated: See you, Good bye, Have a nice time... .
Another example is that when meeting for the first time, especially when
introduced to a guest, English people often say: How do you do? as a greeting
while Vietnamese people say differently; therefore, this so-called question in
English could be equivalent to Chào ông/bà/bác... depending on the age or social
status of the person who you are speaking to. Literal force is of course inevitably
lost in these cases and the best that can be achieved is by means of faithfulness to
the pragmatic function of the TL cultural reference or practice.
2.9. Gist translation (GT)

As the word “gist” indicates, gist translation is characterized by keeping the main
idea/gist of a text, omitting all of its supporting details and subsidiary arguments.
It is the most free type of translation. Gist translation can be used in language
learning situations (using the same language) to summarize a written text at a
written test or a viva voce or in professional circumstances (using different
languages) to summarize for example an article in a newspaper or a journal. As in
all summary, a text could be translated into anything, ranging from one sentence
to usually one third of the original length, depending on specific situations.
It goes without saying that all the types of translation mentioned above may be
justified in particular circumstances. In addition, it can be seen easily that the
criteria for distinction are not always completely clear and in many cases there
might be overlapping among them. However, those types of translation just aim to
39
give you prospective translators an overview and basics of translation so that you
can practice using them later in real translation practices.

1. Point out the main differences between word-for-word translation and literal
translation although many translators consider these two methods just one and
the same.
2. Point out the main differences between literal translation and communicative
translation. Give examples.
3. Point out the basic features of idiomatic translation and give two examples for
illustration.
4. Point out the main differences between semantic translation and communicative
translation. Give examples.
PRACTICE 3
I. Write down in the “Types of translation” column the strategy that you think has
been used to translate the source language sentence.
Source language Target language (TL) Types of translation
(SL)
1. Anh ấy coi cô ta như cái thảm
lau chân.
He treats her like a 2. Anh ấy rất coi thường cô ta.
doormat 3. Anh ấy coi cô ta như cái giẻ
lau mâm.
4. Anh ấy coi cô ta không là cái
gì cả.
5. Dưới con mắt của anh ấy, cô
ta chỉ là cái rơm cái rác, không
hơn không kém.
6. Cô ta chẳng là cái gì đối với
anh ta cả.
40
II. Order the following types of translation (ST, FT, WT, LT) on the basis of form
according to the extent they are bound to the source language text.
SL text 1........., 2........., 3.......... 4 ............... (least bound) ..... TL text
And order the following types of translation (AT, IT, CT, GT, FrT) on the basis of
meaning according to the extent they are free from the source language text.
SL text 1........., 2........., 3........., 4 .........., 5........... (most free)... TL text
III. Paraphrase the following sentences

1. ‘I’m sorry I have to leave so early,’ John said. apologised
John ………………………….................................………..leave so early.
2. This is the worst production of this play I have ever seen. bad
I have …………………...........................……………production of this play.
3. Mary moved here in 2005. living
Mary ................................................................. 2005.
4. I haven’t decided yet whether to move or not. mind
I haven’t ……………...........................……………… whether to move or not.
5. It is increasingly difficult for me to read without my glasses. finding
I am …………………………………...................to read without my glasses.
6. “If you don’t apologize, immediately I am leaving.” She told him threatened
She…………………………. immediately if he did not apologize.
7. I don’t normally go into town by car. used
I ……………………………………into town by car.
8. I would like to express my thanks for everything you have done for me.thankful
I’d like to say ………………………. for everything you have done for me.
9. You can’t blame me for your stupid mistakes. fault
It isn’t……………………………………stupid mistakes.
10.. Mike hates other people criticizing him. stand
Mike ............................................................... other people criticize him.
IV. Practise translating the italicized parts in these sentences into Vietnamese
41
1. “Well” replied the teacher with a smile on his face.

2. George, who lives and works in a U.S. city on the border of Mexico, announced
to his friend Juan that he intended to ask a young woman from Mexico to be his
wife.
3. Suddenly, a brilliant idea came to him.
4. Visiting Hanoi or HoChiMinh city without ever taking a pedicab means missing
out on a very unique experience.
5. There was a place that the aunt knew where a lot of fruit grew.
6. In the end, he found himself in the middle of a thick jungle; he heard a cold
stone of fear inside him.
7. He’s as ignorant as the scarecrow when it comes to letters and figures.
8. Teacher, classroom, world receded like a rocket into a warm, easy blackness
leaving behind a trail of glorious stars, and he was one of them.
9. “I’ll tell you why, Jane,” her granny said, “You have two eyes so as to see more,
two ears to hear more, two hands and feet to do more and walk more, but only
one tongue so as to talk less, and one nose so as not to poke it into other
people’s business”
10. “For shame, Johnny, you’ve left your pen again at home. Could you name a
soldier who would go to fighting without his rifle?” the teacher berated little
Johnny.
“A general, sir “ was the smart reply.
V. Underline (single line – ) the subject and (double line =) the verb predicate of
all the sentences. Then, translate the passage into Vietnamese
Probably the most dumbfounding of nature’s extraordinary creations is the
horned toad of our Southwest. A herpetologist once invited me to observe one of
these lizards right after it had molted. In a sand-filled glass cage I saw a large male.
Beside him lay his old skin. The herpetologist began to annoy the beast with mock
attacks, and the old man of the desert with his vulnerable new suit became
frightened. Suddenly his eyeballs reddened. A final fast lunge from my friend at the
beast and I froze in astonishment – a fine spray of blood shot from the lizard’s eye,
42
like fire from a dragon! The beast struck back with a weapon so shocking that it
terrifies even the fiercest enemy.
VI. Translate the gist of the text Smashing stereotypes (Lesson 2, Ex.II.A), into
Vietnamese within 3 sentences
RECOMMENDED READING – 3

Northampton MA.
2. Cory, H. (1999). Advanced Writing with English in Use. Oxford University
Press.
America Inc.
E.J.Brill, Leiden
43
Lesson 4
WORD-RELATED ISSUES IN TRANSLATION
OBJECTIVES

- identify the structure of word
- identify word meaning
- be able to handle words in combination in translation
- be able to translate proper names
- be able to translate cultural words
The word is a basic unit of language. Words combine with each other to make up
other units: phrase, clause and sentence. Therefore, it can be said that without an
essential mastery of word study, translators will not be able to perform their job
effectively.
I. WORD STRUCTURE
The definition of the word is one of the favourite puzzles of linguistics. However, it
is clear that words are made up of by morphemes. For example, the word book has
one morpheme and book-s two morphemes, book meaning something and -s
meaning plurality. In other words, English words can be monomorphemic
(containing one morpheme) or polymorphemic (containing more than one
morpheme). When a word has one morpheme, the morpheme belongs to the
free/root category girl, house, do... which cannot be divided into smaller
meaningful units. The morphemes which stand before or after the free morpheme
are bound morphemes. Free morphemes forms the semantic core of words: do,
sleep, run, house... and bound morphemes: doing, oversleep, eggs... convey
abstract information: “continuous action”, “excessive degree”,“plurality”. In word
formation, morphemes which occur at the front of a word are called prefixes and at
the end suffixes. Prefixes can have the possibility of changing meanings of words
44
dislike, unable, imbalance and suffixes can often (not always) create new words, as
well often as shift words from one category to another worker (V-N), careless (N-
Adj)... (books, doing, learned: no word category change).
English vocabulary mostly consists in single words, but the amount of multiword
vocabulary is not small. Many vocabulary items contain two or more than two
words, such as newsstand, swimming pool, mother-in-law,... Translators should be
aware of the concepts muli-words convey and the rules how to make and write
compound words in English.
Unlike English, Vietnamese is a non-inflectional language. Vietnamese words do

not change their forms. Translators should bear in mind that the meanings that
correspond to those of bound morphemes in English words are expressed by
isolated words. In Vietnamese, if words are defined as having space and sound
boundary, then one English word can correspond to one Vietnamese and in many
cases to more than one words books (nhiều sách), hardly (khó có thể), imbalance
(mất cân bằng)...
II. WORD CATEGORIES

Discussion of word categories or word classes in language is a traditional activity
in the study of grammar, as well as in modern linguistics. Terminology was
developed in antiquity to describe the grammar of Latin, and in the Middle Ages
these terms were applied with greater or lesser success to the description of the
Modern Languages. Any traditional grammar will refer to nine principal word
categories, word classes, or “parts of speech” as follows:
1. Nouns: book, house, love...
2. Verbs: run, eat, study...
3. Adjectives: nice, good...
4. Adverbs: well, rapidly...
5. Pronouns of various types: personal pronouns: I, he ....; relative pronouns:
who, which, that....; interrogative pronouns: what, who...
6. Articles: a, an, the
45
7. Conjunctions: and, because....

8. Prepositions: in, on, at....
9. Interjections:Oh!, well!
However, in addition, as with some grammarians we propose that there could be

also functional words called determinative: demonstrative det. : this, that...;
possessive det.: my, his...; quantitative det. : two, one hundred, many, few...;
personal det. : we, you; etc. since they only appear in their function as determiner in
noun phrases.
Space is lacking for an extensive discussion of this system of categorisation.

Translators should remember that English words can be classified according to
what they look like (their forms: beauty/N, beautiful/Adj, beautify/V,
beautifully/Adv) and how they are distributed in a sentence (their usage). Roughly
speaking, nouns stand before or after verbs, adjectives before nouns, adverbs before
adjectives or other adverbs, adverbs usually after verbs... Nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs are lexical words that refer to concepts outside the text. Grammatical
words organised in closed sets (prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, articles,
determinatives) have the function, within the text, of clarifying the status of the
lexical words, and the relationship between them.
It can be said that language cannot exist without words. Word categorization is the
reflection of human perception of the world. However, there are some word classes
that are universal in any language (e.g., noun and verb), and there are some word
classes that are only typical in certain languages, so the number of word classes in
all languages is not similar and their syntactic functions are not the same. As a
result, there cannot be one-by-one equivalence of word categorization between two
languages. The same can be said of the differences between Vietnamese and
English. In Vietnamese, words that correspond to both lexical and grammatical
words in English are numerous. However, grammatical words in general and
articles and prepositions in particular might cause headache to translators. The
reason is that in English the indefinite article a, an is used before singular count
46
nouns.
Vietnamese has no articles; however, it has classifiers (cái, con, chiếc...) to go with
nouns (since Vietnamese nouns are all non-count) so that nouns can be used
countably. To some extent, Vietnamese classifiers therefore can correspond to
English articles a book (quyển sách / một quyển sách /*một sách), a bird (con
chim, một con chim /*một chim), two snakes (hai con rắn / *hai rắn). In most
English gammar books, one of the uses the definite article the may have is to
indicate that the noun has been mentioned before. This definite meaning may
induce the translator to think that the seemingly corresponding words: ấy, đó... can
be used. This is not necessarily so. In the following example: He spotted a
policeman directing traffic at an intersection. Watching traffic carefully, he finally
dashed between the passing cars to where the policeman stood the definite article
the does not need translating because the situation is definite to the reader. This
case is also true to prepositions. In English, one preposition may have different
positions in the sentence, for example, between nouns a cup of tea, between an
adjective and a noun: keen on cartoon films, or between a verb and a noun: to talk
about daily life; one preposition may have a variety of meanings depending on
their combinations with other words, for example: John found the book on the
floor (location), John found the book on mathematics (topic), John found the book
on Tuesday (time), John found the book on sale (condition). The appearance of
prepositions in English sentences is compulsory according to grammar rules;
however, whether or not English prepositions will be translated into Vietnamese
words depends on specific situations of context; word-for-word translations can
somtimes make Vietnamese sentences unnatural or even meaningless: the book on
the floor (cuốn sách trên sàn nhà), a cup of tea (một chén trà / *một chén có trà),
in the middle of a snowstorm (giữa lúc cơn bão tuyết đang lồng lộn/*ở giữa một
cơn bão tuyết), staring at him (nhìn anh ta chằm chằm/*nhìn chằm chằm ở anh ta),
eating with hands (ăn bằng tay/*ăn tay/*ăn với tay). Another example is that the
words such as hai, chục, triệu..., which belong to numerals in English, are said to
be nouns by many Vietnamese scholars: Nước Việt Nam là một, Hai chúng ta như
một, hai trăm nghìn... Also, the distinction of adjectives, nouns and verbs in
47
Vietnamese is sometimes not so easy to make as in English. For example, it is

difficult to tell the word class of the word đẹp in the following cases: Cô gái ấy
đẹp, Cô ấy là một cô gái đẹp, Cô ấy múa đẹp, Chẳng có người phụ nữ nào không
biết làm đẹp cả, Đẹp không chưa đủ, Đẹp mặt nhỉ?...
For these reasons, translation experiences indicate that while learner translators
must base themselves on word categorization in English grammar to decode the
meaning of a text, they seem to have to depend more on the meanings and usage of
words than word categorization in Vietnamese grammar to construct sentences
since word-class distinction in Vietnamese is not so distinctive.
III. WORD MEANING
1. Denotation and Connotation

When we use lexical words to refer to concepts in the outside world; for example,
the word family is used to denote the members of a household, whether or not they
are related, we have denotation as the core meaning of a word. Besides denotation,
we can have connotation, the secondary meaning attaching to words beyond their
central “denotation”. There are several sets of terms used in semantics to express
this basic distinction: denotative meaning is also referred to as conceptual,
cognitive or propositional meaning, but the sense is the same. The denotation of a
word is its reference to the central concept it expresses, In this sense, denotation is
objective: it is accepted by the speech community in terms of its reference to the
concepts in the outside world. By contrast, connotation is subjective by the
language users, and can be influenced by many factors. A simple example is the
word holiday; the denotation of this word can be defined clearly at least in the
dictionary; however, the connotations of holiday can differ from one language user
to another: holiday can be associated with travel, seaside, beach, camp, relaxation,
etc. Therefore associative meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning,
affective meaning or social meaning can be more in common with connotation than
with denotation. The essential characteristic of connotation is therefore secondary
to the core denotation.
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However, that does not mean that it is not important: this layer of neaning is so
common that it needs very often to be taken into account in translation.
2. Polysemy and homonymy

Polysemy refers to the quality of some words which have several related meanings
(polysemous words/polysemes). For example, the word head is a polyseme
because it has several related meanings:
1. My head hurts. (Tôi đau đầu quá - N)
2. His name headed the list. (Tên anh ta đứng đầu danh sách - V)
3. Where are we heading? (Chúng ta đang đi về đâu vậy? - V)
4. They headed off the car at the turning. (Họ chặn chiếc ôtô đó ở chỗ rẽ -
V+Adv)
Polysemes can be compared with homonyms, which are words with several
unrelated meanings; for example, the word bank means differently: 1) a business
dealing with money, 2) land along the side of a river or lake, and 3) a pile of earth,
sand or snow. Polysemy is a very useful aspect of language as it enables learners in
general and translators in particular to make informed guesses about the meaning
of new words if they can recognize them as polysemes.
3. Synonyms and Antonyms

Synonyms are different words with identical or very similar meanings and
antonyms are words with opposite or nearly opposite meanings; for example,
automobile and car are synonyms, and short and tall are antonyms.
Synonyms/antonyms are any part of speech as long as both members of the pair are
the same parts of speech: student/pupil (N); on/upon (Prep); dead><alive (Adj);
add><subtract (V). As for synonyms, note that synonyms are defined with respect
to certain senses of words; in other words, two or more words may be synonyms in
one situation but in others they may be not; for example, He expired means the
same as He died but My passport has expired cannot be replaced by *My passport
has died. Translators should rely on the context to select the right word; in case of
doubt about which word to be used, they could consult a dictionary of synonyms
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and antonyms or any thesaurus for help.
4. Figurative meaning
Figurative meaning is based on or makes use of figures of speech such as metaphor
(an implied comparison between two things with the same characteristic: Life is a
sea full of troubles), simile (an explicit comparison, often using the word like : My
love is like a red rose) or personification (regarding an object as human: The
ground is thirsty). In other words, while literal meaning is direct, denoting what
words mean according to dictionary usage, figurative meaning is indirect,
connoting/implying some information - it adds layers of meaning that depend on
culture or history in order to achieve a special effect or interest in the reader or
make things clearer by creating interesting images. Since figurative language is not
intended to be interpreted in a literal sense, in translating figurative language,
translators should make use of comparison between different things so that they
can help readers understand what connotations mean.
MEANING AND CONCEPT
1. Components of meaning and concept

Traditionally, words can be defined in different ways either as having lexical or
grammatical meaning; lexical meanings can be further classified as denotative or
connotative; in the sentence, a word can be said to be used literally or figuratively,
etc. Semantically, the meaning of a word includes a number of meaning
components classified as things, events, attributes or relations which are combined
into lexical items. However, meaning components are ‘packaged’ differently in one
language from another. That is why the translator needs to be able to analyze the
lexical items (words) of the source text in order to translate them. This means being
able to "unpack" words in order to show the meaning that is represented by the
lexical form. Dictionaries "unpack" the meanings of words. That is why a good
translator will use all the dictionaries and lexicons available in his study of the
source language text. He wants to be sure he knows the meaning of each word.
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Since languages combine meanings differently, many words will not have an exact
one-word equivalent in the receptor language.
Things are defined as all animate beings and all inanimate entities. Events include
all actions, processes, and experiences. Attributes include all attributes of quality.
And quantity describes things or events. Relations include all those relations
posited between two semantic units.
Concept is used in this section to refer not to the form (word) but only to the
meaning in any given language. These concepts may be broken down into a
number of meaning components (bits of information). For example, the concept
ram can be broken down into sheep, male and adult. A concept is a bundle of
components of meaning. The first step in the analysis of words is to determine
whether the word is referring primarily to a thing concept, an event concept, an
attribute concept, or a relation concept. What is the central concept of the word?
Many words are easily classified. For example, stone is a thing, eat is an action,
green is an attribute and on is a relation. However, many words are not that easily
classified. They are more difficult to classify because there is a skewing between
the semantic classification and the grammatical classification. Some words are
made up of more than one concept.
When we define such a word, we make explicit the concepts which are combined
together in that word. For example, we might define runner by saying a person who
runs. We have made explicit the fact that runner is used to refer to a person and that
person runs. Runner is a word in the English language. The central concept is
person and the concept runs serves to define more concisely (to restrict) person.
The word runner is talking about a thing, that is a person, but it is also talking
about an event, run.
The combining of a number of meanings into a single word reflects the principle of
language economy. In surface structure lexicons, several concepts may be
represented by a single lexical item. Common things and events are usually
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identified by a single word even though they may consist of a number of concepts.
For example, most languages have the words for “see”, “hear”, and “smell”. The
concept perceive is restricted by other concepts – with eyes, with ears, and with
noses, so that in each case English has a single word carrying the complex
meaning.
2. Translating concepts
A translator will often find that there is no exact equivalent between the words of
one language and the words of another. There will be words which have some of
the meaning components combined in them matching a word which has these
components with some additional ones. There will be overlap, but there is seldom a
complete match between languages. Because of this, it is often necessary to
translate one word of the source language by several words in the receptor language
in order to give the same meaning. Sometimes the opposite will also be true.
Several words in the source language may be translated by a single word. This is all
too true to Vietnamese since it is a non-inflectional language; for example, cook
(người nấu ăn), runner (đấu thủ chạy), surprise sb (làm cho ai ngạc nhiên), to be
sure (chắc chắn), have an appointment with (hẹn)....
In order to analyze the meaning of a word in preparation for translation one must
first think of what the central concept is and in what way it is limited. It may then
be possible to translate with a word in the receptor language which is equivalent to
the central concept and use a phrase to add a further definition.
The same form may also be used as two different parts of speech. For example,
notice the use of blue in the phrases blue sky and sky blue. In the first, blue is used
as an adjective to describe the sky, and in the second, sky is used as an adjective to
describe blue. In the first, there is no skewing because blue is an attribute used as
an adjective and sky is a thing used as a noun. In the second, however, sky is used
as an adjective to modify blue which is an attribute used as a noun. Whenever there
is skewing of this kind, there is likely to have to be some kind of adjustment in
translation. The skewing between the grammar and the semantic categories must be
52
taken into consideration in finding the underlying meaning. Translators must be

aware of skewing in the source language. Once the meaning is clear, they can think
about how to reconstruct the meaning in the receptor language.
The translator must guard against trying to match parts of speech from language to
language, since each language has its own system for arranging concepts into
different parts of speech. There is little guarantee that what is noun in one language
is best translated by a noun in another language. In other words, transposition is a
usefull procedure for translators to use in dealing with word class usages.
It is interesting, however, that in contrasting languages one often notes a fairly

consistent correlation between two different parts of speech. When one language is
using the verb with some degree or frequency, another language may be expressing
the very same meanings by means of the verbal noun: to drive well / a good driver;
to visit frequently / frequent visitor.... Such observations about the natural
differences between languages can be useful to the translator. Translating from a
language which uses many verbs into a language which also uses many verbs will
be easier than from a language which uses many nouns into a language which uses
mostly verbs.
3. Restatement
The process of "unpacking" the semantic structure of a word is sometimes called
restatement. Restatement, used in a technical way, means to say the same thing in
another way. In this kind of restating, there should be no change in the semantic
components; that is, there should be no additions or deletions, but the same
meaning should be carried by the restatement as much as possible.
The idea is simply to restate by means of semantic concepts and/or propositions.
Restating in this way through a restatement draws the attention of the translator to
all of the meanings of the source language. As he eliminates the skewing between
the grammar and the semantics, he will need to make each concept explicit, and in
this way all of the meaning is brought out.
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When a word is restricted to indicate its full meaning, it is important to be aware of

which concept in the restatement is the central component. In the example of
island, the paraphrase could be land surrounded by water. Land is the central or
nuclear component of meaning and surrounded by water defines more clearly
which land it is. It distinguishes itself from other land which may take the form of a
desert, a plain, or a mountain.
Notice that the English word teacher induces both a thing, that is the person, and an
event, that is, the action teach: A teacher is a person who teaches. A single word
may consist of both a thing and an event. Person is the nuclear concept in teacher
and who teaches describes the person. In the same way help may be restated as
someone who can help for the sentence Help is coming. Help includes both a thing,
something, and an event, the action help.
Some words represent a nuclear concept plus additional concepts and some words
represent whole semantic propositions. Words are generally semantically complex
and consist of a number of concepts which may further be divided into semantic
components.
The classification of the nuclear component, that is, deciding whether it is a thing,
event, attribute, relation, determines the semantic class or classes included in the
word.
The smallest unit of meaning is the meaning component, meaning components

unite to form concepts and concepts form propositions. Often a word represents a
single concept which is made up of meaning components but more often a word
represents a concept cluster, that is, a number of concepts, or even a proposition. In
restating, it is not always important to analyze down the smallest meaning
component. However, when there is more than one concept included in the word,
the restatement will make explicit each concept of the concept cluster or of the
proposition which is represented by the word.
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V. WORDS IN COMBINATION
5.1. Collocation
A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just
automatically appear in chunks or blocks rather than single words. For example,
English people usually say a quick meal (a kind of meal), rather than *a fast meal
even though quick and fast may mean the same, a fast train ( a kind of train) rather
than *a quick train; these words are collocated, (not combined) as the result of
language using habit rather than by putting one word after another. The same can
be found in Vietnamese. Vietnamese people say, for example, chó sủa, mèo kêu,
rather than *chó kêu, *mèo sủa; ăn cơm nhà / *ăn cơm gia đình; trà đặc /*trà
khỏe; dựng son phấn/*mang son phấn... In this respect, the difficulty for the
translator is not only in recognising an SL collocation to find an acceptable TL
equivalent but also in taking care not to be led astray by the TL form into a literal
translation that might be stilted or even misleading. That is why translators have to
remember and use collocations in both source and target languages properly and
effectively. When in doubt about what collocations that could be used, a good
learner’s dictionary or specialized dictionaries of collocations would be of great
help.
5.2. Phrasal units

Words do not stand alone in language; words usually go with each other to make
up larger units: words put together making up phrases, phrases making up clauses,
and clauses making up sentences. However, there are some cases where words
going together are not phrases; they just look like a phrase: phrasal verbs, phrasal
prepositions, phrasal conjunctions...
Out of phrasal units, phrasal verbs are a group of words that contain a verb
followed either by adverbs: The cold weather set in (Thời tiết bắt đầu lạnh), by
prepositions: She sailed through her exams (Cô ấy dễ dàng vượt qua mọi kỳ thi),
or by adverbs and prepositions: Fame has crept up on her almost by accident
(Danh vọng đã lặng lẽ đến với cô ta hầu như một sự tình cờ). As can be seen from
55
the examples, the meanings of a phrasal verb is usually different from those of the
verb. When in doubt about which phrasal verb should be used in certain situations,
translators can turn to a good dictionary of contemporary English or a dictionary of
phrasal verb. Translators should also remember that phrasal verbs can be used
intransitively (without objects): The traffic eased off around seven o’clock (Giao
thông bớt tắc nghẽn lúc 7 giờ) or transitively (with objects): The engineer let off
the expossives safely (Người kỹ sư đã cho nổ khối thuốc an toàn) and that usually
phrasal verbs can be replaced by single-word verbs even though formal
register/style often uses single-word verbs rather than phrasal verbs (arrive/*set in;
end/*be over; increase/*go up): Long dresses have really become popular
/*caught on (áo dài đã thực sự thịnh hành). Phrasal units may also include phrasal
prepositions: in spite of, because of, with regard to... and phrasal conjunctions: in
case, in order that, on condition that... To the translator, as with the differences
between a preposition and a conjunction, phrasal prepositions go with nouns,
whereas phrasal conjunctions go with clauses:
- I have nothing to say with regard to your complaints (Tôi không có gì để
nói về những điều phàn nàn của anh - phrasal prep.).
- You should bring along an umbrella, in case it rains (Bạn nên mang theo ô
kẻo trời mưa - phrasal conj.).
5.3. Idioms
An idiom is a group of words that has its own meaning, different from the meaning
of each word put together; for example, under the weather means ill, to hand in
means to submit, to keep in touch with and to keep in communication with have the
same meaning.... Idioms can be said to be treasure of a language, which can reflect
the way of thinking and saying of a nation. Since an idiom is an expression the
meaning of which cannot be deduced from its component parts, in English, the
consultation of dictionaries of English, and dictionaries of English idioms is always
helpful to translators who want to fix the meaning of an idiom. At the same time,
depending on context, especially with some idioms that carry culture-specific
information, sometimes the translator may feel it necessary to provide some kind
of explanation (e.g., an expansion or a footnote) for Vietnamese readers so that
56
they can understand why the idiom has to be translated that way. For example, the
idiom let the genie out of the bottle could be followed by a small note in the
translated sentence Once you make carrying guns legal, you let the genie out of
the bottle (Một khi người ta cho phép mang súng hợp pháp người ta đã làm cho
tình hình thêm tồi tệ - Chú giải: Trong truyện cổ Aicập, genie là một thần linh có
sức mạnh kỳ lạ thường sống ở trong một cái chai hoặc cái đèn).
In short, when translating collocated words such as idioms, advertising slogans,

etc., you translators should reformulate the ideas conveyed to find their equivalents
expressed in a completely different way in the TL. The process is creative, and not
easy but when the translator knows how to flexibly base himself on the context,
cultural knowledge and/or dictionaries, he can tackle the challenge.
VI. THE TRANSLATION OF PROPER NAMES
Current linguistics sometimes makes a distinction between proper

nouns and proper names. Proper nouns are limited to single words only (possibly
with the), while proper names include all proper nouns as well as noun
phrases such as United Kingdom, or North Carolina, which is headed by a common
noun kingdom (translated) or a proper noun Carolina (not translated).
Peter Newmark (1988b) holds that people's names should, as a rule, be transferred,
not translated when their names have no connotation in the text (p.214). Yet
looking at translated texts we find that translators do all sorts of things with proper
names: non-translation, non-translation that leads to a different pronunciation in the
target language, transcription or transliteration from non-Latin alphabets,
morphological adaptation to the target language, cultural adaptation, substitution,
and so on. It is interesting to note, moreover, that translators do not always use the
same techniques with all the proper names of a particular text they are translating.
In the real world, proper names may be non-descriptive, but they are obviously not
non-informative: If we are familiar with the culture in question, a proper name can
57
tell us whether the referent is a female or male person (Alice – Bill), maybe even
about their age or their geographical origin within the same language community or
from another country, a pet (there are “typical” names for dogs, cats, horses,
canaries, etc., like Pussy or Fury), a place (Mount Everest), etc. Such indicators
may lead us astray in real life, but they can be assumed to be intentional in fiction.
Titles and forms of address can also be problematic in translation. The translation
of proper names has often been considered as a simple automatic process of
transference from one language into another, due to the view that proper names are
mere labels used to identify a person or a thing. .
Basically, nouns are classified as common or proper. Common nouns refer to a

class of entities (e.g. bird, house), while proper nouns have a unique referent (John,
London). Grammatically, proper nouns behave very much in the same way in the
sentence as common nouns. There are, however, well-known co-occurrence
restrictions that distinguish them from common nouns. The most important among
them are:
1. Proper nouns (PN) do not accept demonstrative pronouns as determiners. One

would not normally say *This John just bought a car. However, supposing there
are several Johns out of whom you wish to single out a particular one, you are
already using John as a common noun meaning 'any person called John.'
2. PNs do not accept restrictive adjectives or restrictive relative clauses. In the

sentence the Old Shakespeare felt the closeness of his death one is implicitly
comparing one of several manifestations in time of the person called Shakespeare
with the rest; therefore, one is using the word as a common noun in the
grammatical sense. The same applies to sentences such as she is no longer the Eve
she used to be. One may deny this only at the price of more or less ad
hoc explanations about the character of the noun in question. Another way of
putting this would be to say that we have to do with two homonymous
words John or Shakespeare respectively, one of which is a proper noun, the other a
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common noun. When in a given speech situation we have a unique reference, we

are dealing with a proper noun, otherwise with a common noun.
3. Opposition between definite and indefinite is neutralized in PNs (a given PN

either invariably takes zero articles as in John, London, or invariably takes the
definite article as in the Strand, the Haymarket, and the Queen Elizabeth). A
seeming counterexample such as That is not the John I was talking about is an
instance of John being used as a common noun as seen above. In other words, a
noun's status as either common or proper is ultimately determined by situational
factors. If in a given speech situation, there is a possibility of what looks like a
proper noun having multiple referents (this John, two Johns) we have to do with a
common noun homonymous with a proper noun.
In translating proper names, the translator should take the following into
consideration:
1. Names of countries, names of towns, municipalities and villages seldom pose a

problem to the translator, unchanged in translation. Consequently, the city of
Hanoi, for example, does not change its name, nor does London or Ontario.
2. Names of organizations normally have translation equivalents (with common

nouns translated, proper nouns transferred): Hanoi Open University – Viện Đại học
Mở Hà Nội.
3. The Vietnamese-English translation of units of the metric system and others will
depend on the setting and the implied readership. Thus in translating newspaper
and periodical articles into English, they are normally converted to the (so-called)
Imperial system, i.e., miles, pints, pounds, etc. In translating specialised articles,
professional magazines, etc., they are usually transferred (i.e., the metric system is
retained) but for cookery articles they are both transferred and converted to the
Imperial system. When approximate figures are given in the SL text, translate with
59
correspondingly approximate figures (thus 10 km would be 6 miles, not 6.214

miles).
All of the above features derive directly from the fact that PNs refer to unique
referents. However, there are exceptions to this basic rule.
1. Proper nouns can be used as a common noun, e.g., in Randolph was a true
Churchill the surname is being used in the sense 'a member of the Churchill
family', that is, as a common noun.
2. Personal proper names used metaphorically may turn into common
names: He thinks he is a Napoleon.
3. The order of a Vietnamese person's family and given name is the opposite to
the most common Western order of first name + last name. Names of
musicals, operas and ballets are sometimes retained in translation. My Fair
Lady, West Side Story and Swan Lake are known all over the world by the
original names.
4. Names of objects as proper names consist of trademarks, brands or
proprietaries. They are normally transferred and often coupled with a
classifier if the name is not likely to be known to the TL readership, e.g.,
Honda: chiếc Honda, NhanDan: tờ Nhõn Dõn.
To sum up, PNs can be treated in a number of ways in translation:

1. They can be imported unchanged from the SL text: Canada > Canada;
2. They can be modified to fit the phonological/graphological system of the TL by
means of :
(a) Transliteration: (a name is shifted to conform to the phonic or graphic
rules of the TL: Beijing > Bắc Kinh, Moscow > Maxcơva).
(b) Transcription: (a name is transcribed in the equivalent characters of the
TL. in order to keep the readability of the TT: Canberra > Can-bơ-rơ,
Myanma > My-an-ma. Note that transliteration is opposed to transcription,
which specifically maps the sounds of one language to the best matching
script of another language.
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3. They can be expanded with a gloss/note to make up for the TL reader's lack of
world knowledge in the target culture either within the text or at the bottom of the
page.
4. Re-creation: In some cases, a newly-created name in the ST is recreated in the
TT so that it reproduces the similar effects in the TL such as Mr. Ollivander that is
translated to Sr. Olivares.
5. Substitution: A TL name replaces the SL name, although they are formally
and/or semantically unrelated.
6. On occasion, they might be omitted altogether (perhaps replaced with a
paraphrase) if considered peripheral in terms of the central message of the text or if
retaining them would be more likely to cause the reader to pause in puzzlement.
True, this would be more likely to happen in interpretation, but could not be ruled
out altogether in translation, either.
VII. THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURAL WORDS
7.1. Features of cultural words
Cultural words can be defined as culture-specific words and phrases which are
often difficult, if not impossible to translate into another target language. Newmark
(1988: 95) claims that most “cultural”words are easy to detect, since they are
associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated.
Cultural words are found within the realm of cultural language (different from
general language) which comprises concepts both culture-specific, and subculture-
specific, such as monsoon (mùa mưa bóo), killer litter (rác từ tầng cao mém
xuống), spotted dick (bánh put đinh có rắc nho khô) and so on. The words
expressing such concepts are typically difficult to translate, sometimes to the point
that, rather than translating them, languages just borrow them instead of coming up
with a translation.
7.2. Cultural categories
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Newmark offers a list of areas which typically contain cultural words:

1. Ecology:
- flora: e.g., honeysuckle (cây kim ngân)
- fauna: e.g., panda (gấu trúc)
- winds: e.g., monsoon (gió mùa), sirocco (gió sirroco, nóng và khô thổi từ châu
Phi tới nước Ý)
- plains: e.g., savanna (đồng bằng đầy cỏ)
- hills: e.g., downs (vùng đất nhấp nhô), tundra (vùng lãnh nguyên- toàn có băng
không có cây cối)
2. Material culture (artefacts)
- food: e.g., sake (rượu sakê)
- clothes: e.g., anorak (áo có mũ trùm đầu), sarong (sà rông – dạng váy của phụ nữ
Malay hay Inđô), e.g., low-rise (trễ-quần áo)
- houses and towns: e.g., bungalow (nhà một tầng), tower (tháp)
- transport: e.g., bike (xe đạp/xe máy), rickshaw (xích lô)
3. Social culture
- work and leisure : e.g., reggae (nhạc hay điệu nhảy regi của người Tây Ấn, 'rock
(nhạc rốc)
4. Organisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts
- Political and administrative: e.g., democratic (dân chủ)
- Religious: e.g., karma (nghiệp, kiếp, số phận), temple (đền, miếu, điện)
- Artistic: e.g., mosaic (tranh ghép)
5. Gestures and habits: e.g., spitting (việc nhổ nước bọt)
7.3. Translation strategies

Below are some of the effective strategies which can be used to translate cultural
words:
7.3.1. Transference
The SL word is brought into the target language text (TLT). It is the process of
transfering a SL word exactly to a TL text (loan word), with similar sounds to SL
words (transcription), or with the conversion of different alphabets (transliteration).
62
As an example of this strategy, the word pudding can be translated as putđinh,

pizza as pitsa or pizza in Vietnamese.
7.3.2. Cultural equivalent

This is an approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL
cultural word. This strategy is not accurate but can help readers understand the
basic concept the words express. In other words, this strategy is of more pragmatic
than semantic value. For example, soccer can be rendered as bóng đá, a pub as
quỏn bia, and soup as chỏo.
7.3.3. Using componential analysis

SL word is replaced with a more general TL word (superordinate) plus one or more
TL sense components to complete the meaning which is not embodied within the
first TL word. Using this strategy, the translator explains the description and/or
function of the idea embodied in the SL word. Usually it results in long wording,
e.g., British Council (tổ chức chính thức quảng bá văn hóa và ngôn ngữ Anh ở
nước ngoài)
7.3.4. Using recognized translation

The SL word is replaced with previously recognized translation of the SL word in
the TL. An example of this strategy can be said of the word cycle ricksaw, bike
taxi, velotaxi, pedicab, bikecab, cyclo, beca, becak, trisikad, or trishaw with the
driver’s seat usually at the front of the cab. The word has long been rendered as
xớch lụ, so this translation can be used for the word xớch lụ when it is to be
translated into English even though the seat of the driver of Vietnamese pedicabs is
usually at the back,
7.3.5. Addition and note (paraphrase, gloss, notes, etc.)

An addition or note is added after the translation of the TL word or phrase. This
addition which is clearly not a part of the translation can be put in the text in
brackets, at the bottom of page or at the end of text. .
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7.3.6. Literal translation

If a SL word or phrase, as a translation unit, is translated into a TL word or phrase,
without breaking the TL syntactic rules. Used with this strategy of translation, the
word tea in the question When is tea? can be rendered as Lúc nào thì dùng bữa trà?
7.3.7. Classifier
The translator defines the class or cultural equivalent of a word to be translated. For
example, pudding is a kind of cake, so in Vietnamese translation, the classifier
bỏnh can be added: bỏnh putđinh.
7.3.8. Couplet
Couplet is helpful when two strategies are used to solve a single problem in
translation; for example, clasifier can be combined with transference to translate
the word pizza (mún pitsa/pizza)

1. Do you agree with the statement “ A translator who just needs a modest
knowledge of grammar on the target language and a bilingual dictionary
can do the job well”? Give your reasons and example for illustration.
2. What is the difference between a collocation and an idiom? Give
examples.
3. What is skewing? Give examples.
4. Point out the differences between proper names and proper nouns.
5. What should the translator take into consideration when translating proper
names?
6. What is a cultural word? Give examples.
7. How are cultural words translated? Give one example for each way.
PRACTICE 4
I. The following English lexical items are semantically complex. What components
are found in each lexical items? Which is the central? Rewrite in such a way that
64
semantic and grammatical classes match and only relevant components are
included.
Example: matyr - human being who is killed because he refuses to renounce
what he believes. The central component is human being.
1. postponement
2. pilot
3. to whiten
4. to dive
5. to tree
6. running (water)
II. Rewrite the following so that there is no skewing between the semantic and
grammatical classes:
Example: It took a lot of judgment to find a solution.
...> Someone judged well and solved something
1. I cried when they told me of the death of my mother.
2. The love of our country is very important.
3. Envy is not good.
4. Did you like your grandfather's gift?
5. He is a liar.
6. Nobody respects a cheat.
7. Success spoiled him,
8. Dishonesty is bad.
9. The wealthy live here.
10. He's here on a visit.
III. Translate the following sentences, paying special attention to the italicized
words.
1. Noise levels at the Austerlitz rail terminus, Paris, have been greatly reduced by
the application of sound-absorbing tiles of synthetic rubber. The tiles are oil-
65
resistant, fire-resistant, and flexible enough to be applied on uneven concrete

surfaces.
2. We knew him vaguely. He was usually invited to our embassy parties. He was,
somehow, on the permanent guest list. But he was seldom a guest. I had seen
him once, but only long enough to shake his hand - a damp, slack, small-boned
hand. The only other thing that I could remember was that he had been wearing
evening-dress of an old-fashioned kind. He looked uncomfortable in this stiff
and slightly ill-fitting suit, and it also looked forty years out of date.
3. The Lewis Law: If your outgo exceeds your income, your upkeep will be your
downfall.
4. (In a job interview) the interviewer will often have to make decisions of far-
reaching importance for the interviewee, on the sole basis of information gained
from the applicant’s interviewperformance.
5. Fijians are tall and big-boned, but Tongans - if the ‘Tasi’s’ captain and crew
were anything to go by - are big in a different way: big all round, verging on the
corpulent. In his way, the captain reminded me of a very genial Japanese ‘sumo’
wrestler.
‘We will be very happy to take you,’ he said, beaming. ‘Everyone here will be
happy with you! They like to talk.’ He wore a ‘Hawaiian’ shirt of delicate sea-
blues and sea-greens, pinks and yellows, over a long blue kilt: a many-
splendoured Buddha with close-cropped white hair and eyes that, when he
smiled, were pinched up Mongol-fashion by his billowing cheeks.
(Extracted from Alan Duff: Translation OUP, 1989)
IV. Translate the following compound adjectives into English, paying attention to
the underlined phrases
1. Xe máy sản xuất trong nước đang phải đối mặt với sự cạnh tranh gay gắt từ xe
máy nhập khẩu với giá rẻ.
2. Chính phủ đã tuyên bố rằng việc phát triển nhanh chóng và cân đối của khu vực
nông thôn là ưu tiên hàng đầu của đất nước.
3. Một cuộc điều tra do UNDP tài trợ đã cho thấy rằng an ninh lương thực cùng với
giáo dục và chăm sóc sức khoẻ ban đầu là mối quan tâm hàng đầu của bà con
dân tộc thiểu số.
66
4. Việt nam và Trung quốc đã cam kết đẩy mạnh mối quan hệ lâu đời và sự hợp tác
nhiều mặt giữa hai nước.
5. Cô ấy thích loại nước hoa có mùi nhẹ nhưng thơm lâu.
V. Practise translating the sentences into English, paying attention to the italicized
parts
1. Không phải tôi không thích cá. Cá ngon đấy nhưng thật lắm xương.
2. Hãy dựng thang vào tường, rồi nghỉ tay ăn cơm.
3. Người bán thuốc nghĩ là mình đã hiểu lầm ông ta nên lịch sự hỏi lại: “Xin lỗi tôi
chưa nghe rõ, thưa ông.”
4. Hai anh em cùng làm trong một trang trại của người cha, rất thật thà và sống rất
hòa thuận.
5. Tớ đánh giá cao sự nhanh trí của cậu.
6. Vào đầu mùa thu năm mười hai tuổi, tôi được bố tôi cho về Bắc Giang với bà tôi.
7. Rỗi rãi, tôi lục sách của cô tôi ra đọc.
8. Tôi buồn lắm, cảm thấy thật oan ức.
9. Tôi chỉ ngồi nghe là chính, vì các món ăn tây tôi chưa quen, nên cũng không biết
khen chê thế nào.
10. Cho đến sáng, chả ai ngủ được.
11. Hà Nội hôm nay khác xa Hà Nội khi tôi đến lần đầu cách đây 5 năm.
12. Sông Hồng to và dài hơn sông Kim Ngưu.
VI. Point out the kinds of meaning traditionally classified of the italicized parts in
the text below and translate the whole text into Vietnamese
There are basic differences between the large and small enterprise. In the small
enterprise you operate primarily through personal contacts. In the large
enterprise you have established “policies,” “channel” of organization, and fairly
rigid procedure. In the small enterprise you have, moreover, immediate
effectiveness in a small area. You can see the effect of your work and of your
decisions right away, once you are (1) a little bit above the ground floor. In the
large enterprise even the man at the top is (2) only a cog in a big machine. (3) To
be sure, his actions affect a much greater area than the actions and the decisions
67
of the man in the small organization, but his effectiveness is remote, indirect, and
elusive. In a small and even in a middle-size business, you are normally exposed
to all kinds of experiences and expected to do a great many things without too
much help or guidance. In the large organization you are normally taught one
thing thoroughly. In the small one the danger is of (4) becoming a jack-of-all-
trades and master of none. In the large it is of becoming the man who (5) knows
more and more about less and less.
VII. One Vietnamese word may sometimes have different meanings in different
contexts and therefore may be translated differently into English. Now try to find
the English equivalents to the words below, being aware of what they really mean
1. xây dựng 2. áp dụng
xây dựng lòng tin áp dụng biện pháp
xây dựng kế hoạch áp dụng khoa học kỹ thuật
xây dựng chính sách áp dụng chiến lược
xây dựng đề án áp dụng biện pháp tránh thai
xây dựng nền móng áp dụng chính sách thắt lưng buộc bụng
xây dựng chỉ số
3. thực hiện 4. lớn
thực hiện dự án đúng kế hoạch đề ra thành phố lớn
thực hiện kế hoạch số tiền lớn
thực hiện ước mơ công ty lớn vấn đề lớn
thực hiện lời hứa thành tựu lớn
thực hiện chuyến thăm tiến bộ lớn
thực hiện cam kết thách thức lớn
thực hiện nhiệm vụ mục tiêu lớn
thực hiện chính sách khủng hoảng lớn
thực hiện kiểm tra giám sát ảnh hưởng lớn
thực hiện đơn hàng sự phân cách lớn
giải thưởng lớn
sự đa dạng lớn
5. đặt 6. to
68
đặt hàng mưa to

đặt phòng gió/bão to
đặt vé máy bay lỗ/lãi to
đặt bàn ăn cỗ to
đặt niềm tin vào ... mồm to
đặt bát đĩa lên bàn to mồm
đặt nền móng cho ... cãi nhau to
đặt thuốc nước to
đặt điều/chuyện
VIII. Suggest suitable translations for all words in italics in the passages below.
Wherever possible, offer two translations for each expression, and note the one
which you consider better suited to the context
1. In south India, the Madras studios, which turn out films in a dozen languages,
have been involved since Independence in politics.
2. Some people are always up in the clouds or down in the depths. They swing
from one extreme to another. Others are stolid and indifferent, never much
thrilled by success and never greatly put out by failure.
3. Social behaviour is a matter of output and input. We send out signals with our
own actions, and we take in messages from the actions of others. When all is
well we achieve a balance between these two, but sometimes this equilibrium is
upset.
4. (Former Prime Minister) Sir Anthony Eden’s main metaphor groups are sensual
and related to smoothing, rubbing, stroking and eating. Molotov (he said) ‘did
what he could to rub off some of the sharp angles', but at the end of the
conference they had to admit that there were matters ‘that cannot be ironed out
between us’ .
5. In great cities men are like a lot of stones thrown together in a bag; their jagged
comers are rubbed off till in the end they are as smooth as marbles.
69
6. A good talker can talk away the substance of twenty books in as many evenings.
He will describe the central idea of the book he means to write until it revolts
him.
7. A month ago, a bundle of about 70 dictionary slips was discovered in the
Printing Division of the Oxford University Press. They turned out to be the
original copy of almost the first words of the OED (Oxford English Dictionary)
sent by James Murray to the printers in April 1882.
8. Men are prepared to go to extraordinary lengths to get political power. They will
sacrifice health, comfort and domestic peace, put up with almost unlimited
amounts of public criticism and abuse, and risk the humiliations and
disappointments of defeat.
9. Interviewer: You often give the impression of being very tough, often
pugnacious, yet some of your contemporaries seem to remember you as a very
gentle person.
Edward Heath: I can assure you that I never go around putting on toughness.
10. Most films (in India) have fight scenes to enable the hero to demonstrate his
masculinity. Battered and bloody, he wins through.
11. We nearly always eat the same thing for breakfast. This is because we are at our
most insecure in the morning. When we wake, we need the reassurance of
something familiar to see us through the first moments, and this familiarity is
provided by the unvarying breakfast menu.
IX. Translate the following article into Vietnamese, paying special attention to the
proper names
OECD predicts stronger global growth

The world's major economies will see stronger growth this year, but Europe's
recovery will continue to be slow, an international organisation has said.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) predicted

stronger growth in the US, Japan and Germany.
70
But it said concerns remained over the recovery of the wider eurozone.
It said governments would need to keep special measures in place to boost

economic growth.
Overall, the OECD forecast an average annualised growth of 2.4% among the
seven biggest economies in the first quarter of this year.
That suggests a marked recovery from the last three months of 2012, when leading
economies shrank at an annualised rate of 0.5%.
"The bottom line is that we are moderately more optimistic," the OECD's chief
economist Pier Carlo Padoan told the Reuters news agency.
But the organisation paints a picture of contrasting fortunes in Europe, where

German growth is expected to be relatively strong, while France and Italy are
expected to stay in recession until at least the second quarter of the year.
Italy is expected to perform the worst among the seven economies covered, which
do not include China.
The OECD said it was still too soon for governments to consider ending economic
stimulus measures that are aimed at encouraging growth.
It welcomed recent policy changes by Japanese authorities aimed at tackling

deflation and boosting growth.
X. Translate the following article into English

Việt Nam đáp ứng tốt cho việc đăng cai ASIAD 18
Chủ nhật, 14/04/2013
Trong chuyến thăm Việt Nam mới đây, Chủ tịch Ủy ban Ô-lim-pích châu Á
nhận xét công tác vận động, chuẩn bị cơ sở hạ tầng của Việt Nam đáp ứng tốt việc
đăng cai éại hội Thể thao chõu Á lần thứ 18 (ASIAD 18). Việt Nam đó cam kết và
thực hiện đúng các nội dung, yêu cầu của Hội đồng Ủy ban Ô-lim-pích châu Á đề
71
ra đối với việc tổ chức các giải thể thao; Việt Nam có đủ nguồn lực cơ sở hạ tầng
để tổ chức thành công ASIAD 18 năm 2019 tại Việt Nam.
Đội bóng đá U23 Việt Nam đấu giao hữu với đội U23 Mi-an-ma
Trong kế hoạch hướng tới SEA Games 27 và nhận lời đề nghị từ Liên đoàn
bóng đá Mi-an-ma, Việt Nam (VFF) sẽ tổ chức trận đấu giao hữu giữa U23 Việt
Nam và U23 Mi-an-ma vào ngày 11-6. Là chủ nhà của SEA Games 27, Mi-an-ma
đặt mục tiêu đội U23 lọt vào trận chung kết. Để hoàn thành kế hoạch, nước chủ nhà
sớm tiến hành chiến lược trẻ hóa đội hỡnh. Vỡ thế, đội U23 Mi-an-ma đến Việt
Nam với lực lượng nòng cốt là các tuyển thủ, trong đó gồm những cái tên trong đội
hình từng buộc U23 Việt Nam phải chia điểm với tỷ số 0-0 tại vòng bảng SEA
Games 26 và giành thắng lợi với tỷ số 4-1 trước U23 Việt Nam trong trận tranh
Huy chương đồng.
Cam-pu-chia xây dựng tổ hợp thể thao quốc gia cho SEA Games
Chính phủ Cam-pu-chia vừa khởi công xây dựng Tổ hợp Thể thao quốc gia.
Đây là công trình quan trọng nhất chuẩn bị cho Cam-pu-chia đăng cai Đại hội Thể
thao Đông - Nam Á (SEA Games) vào năm 2023. Tổ hợp Thể thao quốc gia Cam-
pu-chia được xây dựng trên tổng diện tích đất 80 ha, cách Thủ đô Phnôm Pênh 20
km. Hạng mục quan trọng nhất là một sân vận động Ô-lim-pích mới, nơi diễn ra lễ
khai mạc và bế mạc của SEA Games 2023 cũng như tổ chức thi đấu các môn điền
kinh, bóng đá. Ngoài ra, tổ hợp cũng bao gồm các nhà thi đấu đa năng, làng vận
động viên. Ước tính tổng vốn đầu tư cho công trình là hơn 100 triệu USD. Quá
trình xây dựng được chia làm ba giai đoạn và dự kiến hoàn thành trong tám năm.
XI. Translate the words below into Vietnamese

1. a kimono ..................................
2. morning glory ..................................
3. tofu ..................................
4. a corsage ..................................
5. a skylight ..................................
6. Yong tau foo ..................................
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7. A-level ..................................
8. a bandana ..................................
9. a yacht ..................................
10. a cyclone ..................................
XII. Translate the text into Vietnamese

In the United States prom (short for promenade) is a semi-formal (black
tie) dance or gathering of high-school students. It is typically held near the end of
the senior year (i.e., the last year of high school). It figures greatly in popular
culture and is a major event among high school students. High-school juniors
attending the prom may call it "junior prom" while high-school seniors may call it
"senior prom." In practice this may be a combined junior/senior dance. At prom, a
Prom Queen and Prom King may be revealed. These are honorary titles awarded to
students chosen in a school-wide vote prior to the prom, and are usually given to
seniors. Juniors may also be honored, but would be called "Prom Prince" or "Prom
Princess." Other students may be honored with inclusion in a "Prom Court." The
selection method for Prom Court is similar to that of Homecoming Queen/Princess,
King, and Court. Inclusion in a Prom Court may be a reflection of popularity of
those chosen and their level of participation in school activities, such as clubs or
sports. The Prom Queen and Prom King may be given crowns to wear. Members of
the Prom Court may be given sashes to wear and photographed together.
In Britain, Canada and Australia the terms formal and grad are most commonly
used for occasions equivalent to the American "prom", and the event is usually held
for those graduating high, secondary or middle school. However the term "prom" is
becoming more common in the UK and Canada due to the influence of US TV
shows and movies. In Ireland (and Australia), the event is known as
a debs (originally an abbreviation of debutante ball).
(Extracted from From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
73
1. Bosco, G. Translation Techniques. www.interproinc.com

2. Duff, A. (1989). Translation . OUP
3. Hướng, Đặng Ngọc. (2010). Danh ngữ tiếng Anh - Đặc trưng cú pháp-ngữ nghĩa
thành tố. Nxb KH-XH, Hà Nội.
America Inc.
5. Lộc, Vũ. (2010). Từ loại tiếng Việt và vấn đề chú thích từ loại trong từ điển.
Ngôn ngữ & Đời sống, Hội ngôn ngữ học Việt Nam. Số 8, 178-2010.
E.J.Brill, Leiden
10. Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of English. 2001.
Oxford University Press.
11. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English (2002). Oxford
University Press.
12. Translation 1, 2, 3. Đại học Ngoại Thương (FTU) 2005
13. Viện Ngôn ngữ học. (1993). Từ điển Anh-Việt, Nxb.TP Hồ Chí Minh.
74
Lesson 5
SYNTAX-RELATED ISSUES IN TRANSLATION
OBJECTIVES

- identify sentence structure
- get a basic understanding about clause and its differences from sentence
- be able to define a proposition
- be able to handle linguistic transposition
- be able to handle modulation and reformulation
- be aware of the importance of style and register in translation
In linguistics, grammar normally includes morphology (the formation of words

from morphemes) and syntax (the formation of sentences from words). The term
syntax is from the Ancient Greek, meaning approximately “arranging words
together within the sentence”. When considering translation difficulties at the
syntactic level, we are therefore concerned mostly with how English and
Vietnamese arrange words / use word order to express the same meaning. The basic
units of syntax from bigger to smaller are sentence, clause, and phrase.
I. SENTENCE STRUCTURE
In a written text, the basic unit is sentence. That is why there might be no
exageration in saying that studying translation is just studying how to translate
sentences. In linguistic study, various definitions of the sentence have been
proposed so far. However, basing ourselves on its meaning and structure we
designers of the book wish to say that a sentence is a group of words conveying a
complete idea which normally contain a subject and a verb predicate in “finite”
forms. Finite verb forms must be go, goes (I go, she goes) or went (she went) and
are not infinitives to go (*I to go) or participles going or gone (I’m going, she has
gone/*I going, *she gone) ; the verb can be static be, become or dynamic shout,
drive; dynamic verbs can be either intransitive (taking no object) run fast or
75
transitive (taking an object run a business. Therefore, the sentences translated as

follows: (1) Cô ấy không yêu tôi (*she not loves me); (2) Trời lại mưa (*It raining
again!); or (3) Tôi đói lắm (*I very hungry) are not accepted in English because
sentence (1) lacks the auxiliary verb in finite form before “not”; sentence (2) has no
finite verb; and sentence (3) has no verb predicate; the correct translations should
be: (1) She does not love me; (2) It is raining again; and (3) I am very hungry.
Concentrating on those elements that are normally obligatory in the sentence, Quirk
(1985) defined the five units based on their syntactic functions: subject (S –
what/who?), verb predicate (V), complement (C), object (O - what/whom?),
adverbial (A - how? Why? When?), in which complements can be sub-divided into
subject complement (Cs) and object complement (Co), and objects into direct
object (Od) and indirect object (Oi). These elements are used in the seven sentence
types as follows, sequenced top-down by the increasing number of elements:
1. SV The child laughed.
2. SVC Mary is kind / a nurse.
3. SVA The boss is in the office.
4. SVO She loves him.
5. SVO C His friends proved him wrong.
6. SVO A Someone has put the plate on the table.
7. SVOi Od He gives the girl everything.
As can be seen from above, the English sentence is mechanically indicated by

means of a period/stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!) - never
by a comma (,) - at the end in writing. The sentence is structurally made up of a
group of words which has subject and verb predicate as indispensible elements; the
complement, object and adverbial are optional: they appear when the meaning of
the sentence requires them to. That is why translators should define both subject
and verb predicate at the same time if they want to translate a sentence. Then, they
move on to define specific elements/parts in the SL sentence to match with those in
the TL in proper sentence structures. It should be noted here that the ways English
and Vietnamese people employ to express themselves are almost similar, from left
76
to right; sentence structures in English and those in Vietnamese are the same in
most cases. However, it does not always mean that the sentence structure of a
specific sentence in English is exactly similar in Vietnamese; consequently word-
for-word or literal translation does not work effectively in this situation. In this
example, the position of subject in the two languages is different : It is too late for
him now to learn another language (Đối với anh ta học một ngoại ngữ nữa bây
giờ quả là quá muộn).
1.1. The subject

As the element which begins a sentence, the subject needs mentioning first. Firstly,
the subject in the English sentence is usually a noun phrase (Remember that apart
from common nouns: book, water..; pronouns: I, someone... and proper names:
Mai, Hanoi... are nouns), a nominal such as to-infinitives: To see is to believe (Có
nhìn thấy mới tin), gerunds: Their quarrelling over pay was the reason for his
resignation; or clauses: How the book will sell depends on its author. Secondly, the
noun phrase as subject is always independent: there can’t be anything like
prepositions in, on...; or conjunctions because, and, so, but, or... standing right
before: *In Hanoi has many lakes; *Because he did not come; Tom is five. *And
Mary is three.
In translation, probably it is not so difficult to define the subject in an English

sentence; however, to realize the subject in a Vietnamese sentence might be more
challenging. The reason is that in some cases a prepositional phrase at the
beginning of the English sentence may make the translator misunderstand that it is
the subject of the sentence: *In Hanoi has many lakes. Therefore, in Vietnamese-
English translation our experience has shown that during preliminary analysis of a
text, translators, by all means, should define the subject of the sentence. For
example, in the sentence Trong quyển sách này kể rất nhiều chuyện hay, the subject
might be “the book” : This book contains / has a lot of interesting stories; *This
book tells / * In this book tells / *In this book has a lot of interesting stories;
“readers” : In this book, readers can enjoy a lot of interesting stories or “stories”:
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There are a lot of interesting stories in this book, depending on the meanings the
translator wishes to convey.
1.2. The indefinite subject

In order to mean indefinitely, the Vietnamese words “có ai đó”/“có người”
(singular), “người ta”, “mọi người” (plural)... are commonly used as subject
followed by a verb. The corresponding words in English might be someone, one,
people...: People speak English in many parts of the world (Người ta nói tiếng Anh
ở nhiều nơi trên thế giới); however, in English it seems to be more often that
different structures could be used to express the same meaning by using either
derivational nouns from the verb, passive voice, or the structure “there - be”:
Rumour has it that / It is rumoured that/ There is rumour that the price for petrol
is going up soon (Người ta đồn rằng giá xăng sắp tăng).
1.3. The verb

The verb predicate in the English sentence usually stands right after the subject,
giving information about the subject (Many structural grammarians claim that the
verb predicate is the most important element in the sentence!). It is obligatory that
in an English sentence the predicate verb (V) be in finite forms, the predicate
agreeing with the subject in person and number: I go, she goes.... Specifically, at
the same time the predicate verb must bear both proper tense forms showing past,
present or future time: went, go/es, will go... and aspect forms: simple, continuous,
or perfect. Consequently, the verb predicates in the English sentence have different
tense forms: simple past/present/future, past/present/future continuous,
past/present/ perfect tenses: The child often cries at night / Now she is crying
again / Since 5 minutes ago she has cried for milk.
In English-Vietnamese translation of the predicate verb, the meanings of time and

aspect can correspond to such words as đã, sẽ, sắp, đang... These so-called time-
aspect words may or may not appear in Vietnamese sentences as required by
Vietnamese grammar rules. However, in Vietnamese-English translation even
though the meanings of time and aspect of predicate verb are not expressed by
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means of words, still those words or morphemes that indicate the meanings of time
and aspect, and numbers and persons as well must be used in English: Từ sáng tới
giờ cô ấy đọc sách ở thư viện (She has been reading in the library since morning, /
*She reads in the library since morning / *She have been reading in the library
since morning). In other words, syntactical forms which are used to express
grammaticl meanings of the verb in English sentences are obligatory, whereas the
grammatical meanings of the verb in Vietnamese sentences may or may not need
those words that may correspond to English specific words: did, has, will... or
morphemes: -es, -ed... to appear.
The predicate verb may stand alone (intransitive verb: cry, fall...) or may need other
elements to follow, for example: complements: She is helpful / a helpful girl;
objects (with transitive verbs): She loves me; or adverbials: He loves her very
much, depending on what the sentence means. In translation, we do think that
translators must work very hard to dealth with those complexities that have been
discussed so far by using their good knowledge of both English and Vietnamese
grammar. In addition, it is noteworthy that in Vietnamese-English translation,
translators should define proper verbs of English to go with the subject, either
linking/static verbs: be, get, become.. or action/dynamic verbs run, work... to follow
the subject in the English sentence since the classification of words in Vietnamese
does not seem to be so distinctive: word classes do not have their typical forms,
their forms never change in the sentence. Consequently, in terms of structure with
one meaning in Vietnamese, there might be more than one way of saying in
English: Tôi đói (I’m hungry / I’m starving); Tôi không sợ chó (I’m not afraid of
dogs / I do not fear dogs).
Based on the seven-type sentence structure and from the examples discussed above,
we can come up with the three most basic sentence structures in English below in
which S and V are obligatory in all cases; the verb in (1) is an intransitive, in (2) a
linking verb: be, beccome…, and in (3) is a transitive verb; the elements in brackets
are just expansions:
1. SV(A) (who?) The child (what to do?) laughed (how? - loudly).
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2. SVC (A) (who?) Mary is (how?) kind / (what job?) a nurse / (where) here.
3. SVO (O, C, A) She loves (whom?) him (how?) very much.
1.4. The Passive

In the English sentence, the passive voice (be + past participile: be sold) is very
common when the doer of the action is not necessarily or inconveniently
mentioned. However, in Vietnamese, passive constructions seem to be less
common; instead, the active voice with definite persons: Mai, cô thư ký... or
indefinite pronouns with có ai đó or người ta are more often used. Although the
meaning of passive voice as in English is also used with such words as bị, do, bởi...
when needed, these words are not always obligatory in Vietnamese. That is why
literal translation from Vietnamese into English may read: Táo này bán 5,000 đồng
1 kilo (*These apples are selling at 10,000Đ per/one kilo), or Bài này dịch không
khó (*This text translates easily). Translation of this way may be due to two
reasons. The first reason is that the translator does not know that the subject of the
sentence cannot actively perform the action expressed by the verb (things such as
apples cannot sell or a text cannot translate!) and the second is the translator does
not know that the verbs after the subject are to be used transitively (sell what?,
translate what?). In order to avoid possible mistakes in translating sentences with
passive meaning, translators should use procedures of tranposition to render from
the SL texts in such ways as to suit the TL grammar rules. Therefore, even though
the words of passive meaning in Vietnamese: bị, do, bởi... do not appear in
Vietnamese, still in translated English texts, the verb be should be used in suitable
tense forms followed by the past participle of the transitive verb: These apples are
being sold at 10,000Đ per/one kilo, This text was translated easily .
II. THE CLAUSE

The clause is a unit in syntax that is intermediate between phrase and sentence.
Based on the presence or absence of the verb used in the sentence, there are finite,
non-finite and verbless clause in English.
2.1. Finite clauses
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Structurally, the clause looks like the sentence in that it has a subject and a finite
verb but differs from the sentence in that in writing the clause has either
conjunction: and, but, when, though..., a relative pronoun: who, which, that... or
sometimes a semicolon (;) (Remember that a comma “,” is never used to connect
two clauses together). Main clauses can function in a syntactically independent
way, coordinated/equally connected with such coordinating conjunctions as: and,
but, or, so, for or separated by a semicolon:
- The field is flooded, for it has been raining a lot recently.
- The field is flooded; it has been raining a lot recently.
- *The field is flooded, it has been raining a lot recently.
A main clause can be supplemented by a dependent or subordinate clause which is

preceded by a subordinating conjunction such as though, if, because, so that... : The
field is flooded, because it has been raining a lot recently. The differences between
main and subordinate clauses are as follows: main clauses can stand together, by
using coordinating conjunctions or coordinating adverbs with semi-colons:
- I liked fish but he liked chickens.
- I liked fish; however, he liked chickens.
They can also be separated by a stop with coordinating adverbs (Even though
coordinating conjunctions can begin a sentence, you are not advised to do that): I
liked fish. However, he liked chickens / *I liked fish. But he liked chickens.
However, subordinating clauses cannot stand alone; they always depend on the
main clause, giving more information to the main clause: When I last saw him, he
lived in Hue / *When I last saw him. He lived in Hue.
Coordinating conjuctions are only in mid-position whereas subordinating

conjunctions can be in initial or mid-position in the sentence. In writing, if the
subordinate clause stands before the main clause, there can be a comma between
them, but there is no punctuation between them when a main clause is followed by
a subordinate one: He lived in Hue when I last saw him.
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2.2. Non-finite clauses

When in an English sentence there is a finite verb as a predicate and a subject, if
another verb is to be used to give information to an element of the sentence, then
the verb must bear a non-finite form: -ed or -ing ending, or infinitive (with or with
out “to”). The added verb cannot be used in finite form because the element the
verb modifies cannot be its subject when it plays a specific role in the sentence
already. That is why the literal translation of the following sentence is not accepted:
Người dạy tiếng Anh gọi là giáo viên tiếng Anh (A man who teaches English is an
English teacher /*A man teaches English is an English teacher). The common non-
finite clauses in English are:
1. Shocked by the news, she left early. (-ed clause)
2. Hearing the news, she left early. (-ing clause)
3. To hear the news, she left early. (infinitive clause)
Non-finite clauses with different forms perform different syntactic functions as

dependents in the sentence and have different positions, depending on the
grammatical rules in the target language sentence. However, when standing at the
beginning of a sentence, non-finite clauses are usually followed by a comma (,).
Vietnamese-English translators should base themselves on specific verb structures
in English grammar to decide on the form of non-finite clause that could be used in
the sentence. They also bear in mind the fact that in terms of meaning, the subject
of the non-finite verb is also the subject of the finite verb (in sentence (1) above she
was shocked, in (2) she heard, and in (3) she wanted to hear). That is why in
translating into English such a sentence as Khi viết thư xin việc, có hai điều cần
nhớ, translators should make sure that the verb write in non-finite form shares the
same subject with the finite verb remember as follows:
- Writing a job application letter, you / the writer should remember two
things.
- *Writing a job application letter, there are two things to remember.
2.3. Verbless clauses
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The verbless clause is an ellipted clause which has no verb and is usually used to
function as an adverbial or free subject complement. If the verb “be” or sometimes
a subject is to be added to the clause, then there will be two finite clauses in the
sentence. Like a non-finite clause beginning the sentence, the verbless clause is
usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma:
- Whatever their faults (may be), they are still our friends.
- He came back home, (and he was) wary and depressed.
III. THE PHRASE

The smallest of the three units of interest here is phrase. The phrase can be a word
Marie, children or word group: a nice girl, a naught boy who you met functioning
as a part of a clause or sentence. A phrase has the following characteristics:
1. Having no subject-predicate structure (a clause or sentence has)
2. Having a head as a core element by which different kinds of phrase are
defined: noun phrase (NP): a book, verb phrase (VP): will do, adjectival
phrase (AdjP): responsible for the mistake, adverbial phrase (AdvP): very
heavily, prepositional phrase (PrepP): in the morning, and determinative
phrase (DP): almost all. Being part of the sentence, a phrase can be as long
as one word (only the head) or many words (the head modified by other
elements). Other elements (modifiers) which can be words, phrases, or
clause can serve to give extra information about, or help identify the head of
a phrase.
3. Performing a specific function in the sentence: S (NP): Time is gold,
predicate (VP): This dog cannot bark, O (NP): I love children, C (AdjP,
NP): I’m sorry for her, Mod (AdjP, NP, PrepP): a girl with long hair, A
(PrepP, AdvP): She eats very noisily.
As for noun phrases (NP), the noun (common noun love, proper noun Mai, and
pronoun you) is head of the phrase. Within a NP, head nouns can stand alone or can
be modified by adjectival phrases; a nice girl, by a noun: a history teacher, a
prepositional phrase: a cup of tea, by a relative clause the book I bought two days
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ago. As can be seen from the examples, modifiers in English noun phrases can
stand either before or after the head.
Even though there do not seem to be fixed rules for word order in noun phrases a
teacher of English = an English teacher, short-structure modifiers (adjective,
noun) usually stand before the head noun, while long-structure modifiers
(prepositional phrase, noun phrase, clause) must stand after. That is why such
translations as cô gái tóc dài (*a with long hair girl), quyển sách tôi mua hôm qua
(*a I bought yesterday book) are not accepted. The correct versions could be a
long-haired girl / a girl with long hair, the book I bought yesterday.
As far as Vietnamese noun phrases are concerned, worder order in Vietnamese

noun phrases is different; only quantifiers: nhiều, những..., numerals: hai, một
trăm... and classifiers: con, cái, chiếc... stand before the head noun; all other
modifiers stand after the head: hai cô gái tôi gặp trên đường, cái bát vỡ trên sàn
nhà. There is a special note that Vietnamese is a classifier language; there is no
article in Vietnamsese whereas the use of article: indefinite articles a, an, definite
article the, or zero article is a must in English noun phrases. In translating into
English, the translator should decide whether a noun is singular, count or noncount
so that a, an or zero must be used before the head noun: Nó mua cho tôi một chén
nước chè nóng (He bought me a hot cup of tea / * He bought me cup tea hot / *He
bought me hot cup of a tea). Also, the translator should remember to use the zero
article with plural count nouns in English to mean generally: Children of today are
the future of tomorrow, or use the definite article with a noun when both the
speaker/writer and listener/reader know what a noun refers to: Dao ở trong bếp ấy
(The knife is in the kitchen / *Knife is in kitchen).
Within a verb phrase (VP), verbs can be preceded by auxiliary verbs is, are, do,
did, have, has, will... or by modal verbs can, must... to express different
grammatical meanings: time Tôi đã đọc bản báo cáo anh viết rồi (I have read your
report), action in progress Trời đang mưa (It is raining), negative meaning Tôi
không biết (I don’t know), or modality Cậu nên nói thật đi (You should tell the
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truth / should be truthful / honest). There is a note here that those Vietnamese
words sẽ, đang, có thể... which may correspond to auxiliary or modal verbs in
English do not necessarily appear in Vietnamese translation if natural Vietnamese
does not need them He was sick yesterday (Hôm qua nó ốm / *đã ốm). Another
striking feature of English verb phrase is that the dynamic verb can be followed by
a noun phrase (with transitive verbs give, run...), or a prepositional phrase (with
intransitive verbs talk, sleep...) or an adverb / adverb phrase, but not by an
adjective/adjective phrase. That is why Cô ấy nói giỏi tiếng Anh can be translated
as She is a good speaker of English / She speaks English well / She speaks good
English, and such translations as * She speaks well English / She speaks English
good are unacceptable.
Within an adjective phrase (AdjP), the adjective as head of the phrase can be
modified either by an adverb very beautiful, by to-infinitive verbs or verb -ing:
willing to go, busy writing a report, by a that-clause I’m sure that he will come
soon, or by a prepositional phrase surprised at the news. In its syntactic function,
the adjective can stand alone or can be followed by other words. As for the last
usage of the adjective as mentioned, remember that each English adjective requires
a certain preposition to follow: good at, afraid of, interested in... , the words in
Vietnamese translation that may correspond to English prepositions may or may
not appear, depending on natural Vietnamese language: sợ chó (afraid of dogs),
trách nhiệm với gia đình (responsible to one’s family).
With prepositional phrases (PrepP), the preposition, as the prefix of the word “pre -
position” indicates, is always followed by a noun phrase. In English, the
prepositional phrase can be used after a verb, an adjective, or a noun and depend on
them. In other words, these words will decide what prepositions are used after:
There is now considerable concern for their safety (Hiện thời người ta rất lo ngại
cho sự an toàn của họ); Crops usually depend / are usually dependent on the
weather (Mùa màng thường phụ thuộc vào thời tiết); She is old enough to be
independent of her parents (Cô ấy đủ khôn lớn để không phụ thuộc vào bố mẹ).
There is a note here that when using English prepositions, translators should
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remember not to confuse prepositions (during, despite...) with conjunctions while,

although... even though their meanings sound the same in Vietnamese: Trong khi
ăn sáng anh ấy chẳng nói chuyện gì (During the breakfast /*having breakfast
/*while breakfast, he did not say anything / said nothing). Also, as the head of a
phrase, English prepositions are usually single words in, at, on...; however, there
are some prepositions that look like a phrase, phasal prepositions: because of, in
spite of... It is also necessary to remember that prepositions stand before noun
phrases, not before clauses: Because of tiredness / Because I was tired / *Because
of I was tired, I could not continue.
As for adverb phrases (AdvP), such adverbs as fast, noisily, well... as head of the
phrase can stand alone in the sentence or can be modified by another adverb quite
well, very fast.... However, translators should be aware of the distinction between
adverb (Adv) referring to word class and adverbial (A) referring to syntactic
function. In English, an adverb can be used to modify a verb: run quickly, an
adjective: very hungry, or another adverb: very heavily. An adverbial which
modifies a whole sentence: Luckily, I have found it, or a verb predicate in answer
to the questions when?, why? How?... can be an adverb phrase: He eats (how?)
terribly fast, a prepositional phrase: We meet together (when?) on the weekends, a
noun phrase: I met him (when?) yesterday morning, or a clause: It is often hot
(when?) when summer comes. As a result, based on the meaning translators want
to convey, they can choose the best way - by using either phrases or clauses - when
conditions permit to express one and the same meaning: It is often hot in summer /
when summer comes. There is a small note here that unlike most of the other kinds
of phrases, the adverbial’s position is rather flexible: it can stand at the beginning,
in the middle, or at the end of the sentence:
- We often talk about him.
- Yesterday I met him.
- I met him yesterday.
As for determinative phrases, such determinatives as all, two, many, few, enough,
first... can be head of the phrase. The number of these determinatives is limited and
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their position is restricted only to noun phrases and their function is determiners.
Since they only stand before and give information to head nouns, determinatives
act like adjectives which may be modified by adverbs to convey different meanings
such as emphasis, approximation... I need only one sheet of paper; There are quite
a few people at the meeting.
In short, the structure of clause and sentence in English shares the same features
with regard to word order (S-V) and the number of elements (S,V,O,C,A); the form
of verb decides on the kind of structure. However, the typical differences between
them are that a sentence usually stands between two periods/stops whereas a clause
does not. Importantly, the idea expressed by the sentence is complete whereas the
idea in a clause is not, so another clause should be added. For these reasons, it is
important that translators define (1) the number of phrases involved in the
sentence; the phrases defined must perform certain syntactic functions, of which
the most important are (2) subject and verb predicate. These nuclear elements must
work in relation to (3) other elements to convey what the sentence means in the
right cultural setting and linguistic criteria (grammar rules) of the target language.
IV. PROPOSITION
Translation is much more than finding word equivalences. The ST structures must
be abandoned for natural receptor language structures without significant loss or
change of meaning.
4.1. Definition of proposition

A proposition is a grouping of concepts into a unit which communicates. It is a
semantic unit consisting of concepts, one of which is central and the other directly
related to the central concept. For example: The three concepts: (1) John, (2) Peter
and (3) hit may be combined to form propositions. The action hit is the central
event concept. What the proposition communicates will depend on the relationship
of the other two concepts to hit. If John does the hitting and Peter is the one who
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was hit, then the proposition would be John hit Peter. If John was the one who was
one who was hit, the proposition would be Peter hit John.
Any one proposition may be encoded in various ways in a given language. The
translator will look for the best way: the most natural way. For example, the
proposition John hit Peter might be translated into English with any of the
following forms depending on the context in which it occurs:
1. John hit Peter
2. Peter was hit by John
3. The hitting of Peter by John
4. Peter, who was hit by John…
5. Peter, the one John hit …
Which grammatical form is used in the translation will depend on the relation that
the proposition has to other proposition and how the receptor language will most
naturally express the propositions and the relations between them. A proposition,
then may be defined as a semantic unit consisting of concepts (things, events,
attributes) in which one concept is central and the other(s) related to it through a
system of relations. If the central concept is an event concept, then the proposition
is an event proposition; if the central concept is a thing or attribute, the proposition
is a state proposition.
4.2. Identifying event propositions

Identifying event propositions begins by classifying the concepts that are
represented by the lexical items in the text. For example, the following sentence is
first analysed by determining which words represent event concepts, which
represent thing concepts, and which represent attribute and relation concepts. For
example:
The destruction (E) of the city (T) was planned (E) well (A).
Then the grammatical sentence can be re-expressed in propositions with the events
as the centre of the propositions. There are two events, destroy and plan. The two
propositions are:
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(Someone) destroyed the city.

(Someone) planned well.
However, the propositions cannot be expressed without including the participants.

Notice that someone has been used in the proposition to indicate the agent; that is
the one who did the action. Because the text does not indicate who did the action, a
generic term has been used in the proposition. If the rest of the text were available,
it might be possible to be more explicit.
In order to look for the forms which express event concepts in the text, as a
translator you should express each of these concepts with a finite verb, identify the
participants (persons or objects that do the action or to which the action is done),
and then rewrite as a proposition with the event expressed as a finite verb and the
participants made explicit, using the form in which there is no mismatch of
grammar and semantics in English, that is, the form used for the proposition that
indicates by the English structure who the agent is by putting the agent as the
subject, who or what the affected is by putting it as the object, etc. The relations
between the concepts are shown by the normal English signals used when there is
no mismatching in grammar and semantics. The relations between the propositions
then need to be studied and a rewrite made, expressing these relations, reordering
the propositions, etc.
V. LINGUISTIC TRANSPOSITION
Linguistic transposition concerns the grammar, and involves replacing the ST word
or structure with a TT word or structure from a different category. In other words,
transposition is the process where parts of speech or phrase structures in the
sentence, when translated, change. Below are just a few examples:
1. Adjectives can be replaced by adverbs, verbs by nouns, possessive

adjectives by personal pronouns, ... and vice versa:
- He speaks good English (Cậu ấy nói tiếng Anh rất tốt).
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- Cô ấy có gửi giấy phép đây (This is her absence request).
2. A multi-word phrase in English can be rendered as a single-word phrase in

Vietnamese and vice versa:
- The carpet was badly stained to such an extent that you couldn’t tell its
original colour (Tấm thảm bị làm bẩn tệ hại, đến mức không thể nói
được màu gốc của nó là màu gì).
- Các ủy viên ban tổ chức sẽ kiểm tra đường chạy xem cuộc đua có thể
tổ chức được không (The stewards will inspect the course to see if racing
is possible ).
3. A phrase of one kind in English can be rendered as a phrase of another

kind and vice versa (NP<>VP, AdjP<>NP, PrepP<>NP, PrepP<>AdvP):
- I’m a college graduate (Tôi đã tốt nghiệp đại học - NP <> VP).
- The fact that she pretended to be surprised at his arrival disappointed me
(Cái vẻ ngạc nhiên không thật của cô ta khi anh ấy đến đã làm cho tôi
thất vọng - AdjP <> NP).
- My understanding was that we would meet here (Theo tôi hiểu thì chúng
ta sẽ gặp nhau ở đây - NP<>PrepP).
- On Sunday they often stay at home (Chủ nhật họ thường ở nhà -
PrepP<>NP).
4. A clause in English can be rendered as a phrase in Vietnamese and vice

versa:
- I do not understand how he did it (Tôi không hiểu cách làm của anh ta).
- Tôi không biết cuốn sách này giá bao nhiêu (I don’t know the price of
the book).
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5. A finite clause can be rendered as a non-finite clause in English and vice

versa:
- Juliet, frightened at hearing a man’s voice in the garden, did not at first
know who it was that, under the cover of night and darkness, had learned
the secret (Juliet hoảng sợ khi nghe giọng một người đàn ông trong vườn,
thoạt đầu không nhận ra ai là người, được màn đêm và bóng tối che giấu,
đã biết hết bí mật của nàng).
- Một bà thấy mình khó chịu, nên đã tìm đến bác sĩ ( A woman was having
some trouble with heart, so she went to see the doctor).
6. A subordinate clause can be rendered as a main clause in English and vice

versa:
- Romeo whose mind was too full of thoughts of his love to let him sleep,
instead of going home, went to a monastery nearby, to find friar Lawrence
( Tâm trí của Romeo tràn ngập những ý nghĩ về cuộc tình của chàng nên
không thể ngủ được, thay vì trở về nhà, chàng tới một tu viện gần đó để tìm
thầy dòng Lawrence).
- Khi tôi về đến nhà trời bắt đầu đổ mưa (I got home when it began to
rain).
7. A non-defining clause can be rendered as a defining clause in English and

vice versa:
- A woman was arguing with the airline ticket agent who had told her that
the plane from Chicago was going to be late (Một người phụ nữ lý sự với
nhân viên bán vé máy bay, ông ta bảo bà rằng máy bay từ Chicago đến sẽ
bị chậm).
- The driver, who had heard everything the ladies had said, said, “Oh, just
drop the ashes on the carpet. I have a servant who comes in and cleans
three days a week” ( Người lái xe đã nghe hết câu chuyện của hai người
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nói với nhau, trả lời, “Ồ, cứ gạt tàn xuống thảm. Tôi có một người hầu đến
dọn dẹp vệ sinh ba ngày mỗi tuần”).
8. A sentence can be translated into a clause:

- This was a bank, where grew many kinds of sweetly smelling, prettily
coloured flowers, under a roof of climbing roses. There Titania always
slept some parts of the night; her bedcover, the skin of a snake, though a
small thing, was wide enough to wrap a fairy in (Titania thường ngủ một
giấc nào đó trong đêm nơi bờ sông mọc đầy những loại hoa dại màu sắc
rực rỡ, mùi hương ngọt ngào, dưới một vòm che có những nhánh hồng leo
quanh; tấm trải giường bằng da rắn của nàng tuy nhỏ nhưng cũng đủ rộng
để phủ một nàng tiên).
- Nhưng người lái xe tắc xi không biết, vì thế Dick đành xuống xe và tới một
phòng đánh điện tín (However, the driver of the taxi did not know. So
Dick got out and went into a telegraph office).
9. A compound sentence can be rendered as a simple sentence:

- Mr. Jones was very angry with his wife, and she was very angry with her
husband (Vợ chồng ông Jones rất giận nhau).
- Nam là người Hải Phòng và Mai cũng là người Hải Phòng (Both Nam
and Mai come from Haiphong).
10. A compound sentence in English can be rendered as a complex sentence

in Vietnamese and vice versa:
- A man wanted to be nice to his aunt on her birthday; so he sent her a
bottle of champagne and a small jar of caviar with this note attatched:
Happy birthday. Live it up. (Một người muốn làm vui lòng bà cô trong dịp
kỷ niệm sinh nhật của bà cụ, bèn gửi biếu bà một chai sâmbanh và một lọ
nhỏ trứng cá hồi, kèm theo tấm thiếp đề: Chúc mừng sinh nhật. Chúc cô
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sống vui và thoải mái.

- Dạo đó có một bà người to béo đẫy đà, ông chồng lại bé nhỏ gầy nhom.
(There was once a large, fat woman who had a small, thin husband).
11. Passive in English can be rendered as active in Vietnamese and vice

versa:
- Friday of the next week was suggested, and so was Monday of the week
after ( Có người đề nghị nên tổ chức vào thứ sáu tuần sau, có người lại đề
nghị nên tổ chức vào thứ hai).
- Ngành đường sắt bị thua thiệt nhiều trong công việc kinh doanh vì các
công ty xe buýt (Railways have lost much of their business to the bus
companies).
12. An interrogative sentence in English can be rendered as a request or

order in Vietnamese and vice versa:
- Will you please write the cards while I am cooking the dinner? (Mình
hãy viết thiếp còn em đi nấu bữa ăn tối đây).
- Sao em không ngồi xuống đi? (Sit down, please!)
As can be seen from the above examples, transposition is a very common

translation method. In idiomatic translation, transposition is also a good choice; for
example, They fell in love at first sight (Mới nhìn họ đã cảm thấy yêu nhau -
Phrase<>Clause), You look down in the dumps (Trông cậu rầu rĩ - PrepP <>
AdjP).... Practices show that it makes sense for translators to think in terms of
transposition where they are working on long phrases, clauses or even sentences in
order to achieve flexibility and variety in sentence structure when the proposition
remains unchanged.
VI. MODULATION
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Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the source and target
languages to convey the same idea.Through modulation, the translator generates a
change in the point of view of the message from SL to TL when the context
requires without altering meaning and without generating a sense of awkwardness
in the reader of the target text. This procedure is also common, and concerns
principally the semantic level, and syntax is also affected. Let’s look at the
following examples:
1. Mind your steps (Lối đi trơn đấy).
2. Beware of the dog (Nhà có chó dữ).
3. Don't mention it (Không có gì).
In the first example, the translator focuses more on the slippery surface of the road
than a warning. The same can be said of the second: the sign at the entrance simply
describes the dog as dangerous rather than warns against it and the third states that
there is nothing to thank for rather than objecting to thanks. Therefore, modulation
often concerns set phrases such as those shown above, and translators need to be
flexible in specific situations to avoid literal translation.
VII. REFORMULATION
Reformulating means formulating in a different way. When you meet a sentence

that is grammatical but does not appear to make sense even though the meaning of
every word in it is clear, you may think of the use of a translation technique
‘Reformulation or Equivalence’. Here you have to express something in a
completely different way. For instance, when translating proverbs (this technique
can be applied with translating idioms, article titles or advertising slogans), you can
match the primary meaning of certain words in the SL against linguistic, situational
and cultural contexts in TL to find the connoted meaning and then choose the
suitable equivalent expressions in TL. Below are two examples.
- Care kills the cat (Lo bạc râu sầu bạc tóc).
- An empty stomach has no ears (Bụng đói tai điếc).
VIII. STYLE AND REGISTER

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It is regrettable that the differences between style and register are not quite clear
among linguists. Where some writers have “register”, others use “style”. Style
concerns the way of using words, writing or telling something and register concerns
the style appropriate to a particular kind of writing or a particular subject matter:
the register of law, of medicine, of linguistics, and so forth. One of the most
important areas to master in terms of register in English is the difference between
formal and informal. There are many differences between them. For example, the
formal language goes with
1. Full forms of words: It is /*It’s, cannot/*can’t.
2. Avoidance of slangs and informal words.
3. Abstract nouns: Is happiness possible during unemployment? rather than
adjectives, verbs or modal verbs: Can people be happy when they
haven’t got a job?
4. Complex sentences: A teacher of English is the one who teaches English
rather than simple sentences: A teacher of English is an English teaching
person.
5. The passive voice: It is said that... rather than the active voice: They say
that...
Of course, there are many degrees of formality and most written English (including
newspapers, magazines and novels) is situated between the two extremes. The
translator must of course keep a close watch on the SL text to monitor its level of
formality at work. In general, texts that are academic and public call for formal
language, and a wide range of reading in both SL and TL is necessary for the
translator to work effectively on the register of a text.
In sum, the sentence is a basic unit in linguistics and a complex unit in

communication. Structurally, the sentence can be divided into smaller parts:
sentence into clause and clause into phrase. If translators wish to accomplish their
task well, they cannot avoid mastering the skills of translating the meaning not only
of its components but also of the whole sentence as well in terms of both linguistics
and culture across the source and target languages.
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Anything which can be said in one language can be said in another. It is possible to
translate. The goal of the translator is to keep the meaning constant. Wherever
necessary, the TL form should be changed in order that the SL meaning should not
be distorted. Since a meaning expressed by a particular form in one language may
be expressed by quite a different form in another language, it is often necessary to
change the form when translating (transposition). But whatever the text type,
whatever the relationship between the ST and TT, the process of transferring it
from one language to another has a spatializing component which should not be
slighted. We know that bad translations usually result when a translator is merely
translating words and does not understand what he is translating. Put more
abstractly, he lacks a coherent interpretation of his text and does not understand
what he is translating as a whole; consequently, he is likely to mistranslate even the
mere words.

1. What are the basic characteristics of the sentence?
2. Point out the differences in sentence structure between English and
Vietnamese
3. What are the similarities and differences between clause and sentence?
4. Many grammarians claim that the verb is the most important element of
the sentence. Do you agree? Why? And how many kinds of clauses are
there in English grammar? Name them.
5. What are the differences between clause and phrase?
6. What are the differences between adverb and adverbial? Give an example
for illustrations.
PRACTICE 5
I. Define the syntactic structure (phrase or clause) and functions (S,V,O,C,A) of the
italicized parts of the passages below and then translate the whole texts into
Vietnamese
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1. (1) The experience of the East Asian industrializers backs this up. Prosperity has
helped most people in these countries to live longer, healthier lives, to gain access
to high quality education and to enjoy (2) a standard of living that their
grandparents could only dream of. (3) Just to cite a few revealing statistics, (4) life
expectancy at birth in Korea rose from 54 to 77 years over this period, and in
Singapore from 63 to 79 years.
2. (1) How did the East Asian industrializers achieve such remarkable results? In
order to answer this question we must first be clear about the causes of economic
growth. (2) To put it simply, growth occurs when people who are not working enter
the labour force, and when people already in work produce more goods or services,
or more valuable goods and services, (3) per day, month and year. In other words,
increasing productivity is the source of economic growth.
II. Underline (single line) the main subject and (double line) the main verb
predicate, and then practise as many ways of transposition as you can to translate
the sentences into Vietnamese
1. A doctor who had taken up as his speciality the treatment of skin disease, was
asked by a friend how he happened to select that branch of medicine.
2. At night, in bed, I would think about Mabel, often this would keep me from
sleeping until one or two o’clock in the morning.
3. His servant, who was standing near, was terrified to see him within some inches
of the edge of the scaffolding. At the least movement backwards he would be
thrown and dashed to pieces on the pavement.
4. Great was her embarrassment when she was told that she had entered the wrong
room: her room was just above the one she had opened on the next floor.
5. A Frenchman who had learned English at school, but had half forgotten it, was
staying in London on business.
6. Apart from failure to consider the difference between speech and writing, and
lack of care, there are other reasons why people fill their writing with empty
words.
7. In her words, she like independence and forms the habit of thinking
independently; in fact, she does be.
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8. For example, the word only is well known for the trouble it can cause when out
of place.
9. In Quangdong province, where industrial output has been increasing more than
20 per cent annually, infrastructure spending has lagged until recently.
10. In the two years, she’s been going steady with this boy, she’s dropped her own
friends and only sees his, who are much older.
III. Underline the word or group of words in these sentences which you think may
correspond to a phrase in English, name the phrase according to the syntactic
function it performs in the sentence structure, and then translate the whole sentence
into English as in the example
Example: Tôi lặng ngồi suy nghĩ. (S, A? , V, A)
Sentence structure: S, V, C, A - (I sat still in deep thought)
1. Anh Thiện bỗng nhìn tôi một cách nghiêm nghị.
2. Giảng viên lần này là “chị” Đỗ Mười. Một công nhân thuần túy.
3. Tôi đọc đi đọc lại bức thư ngắn gọn, mà đầy ý nghĩa, đọc đến thuộc lòng.
4. Thái độ chân tình, câu nói dịu dàng của Xuyến làm tôi thấy mến ngay cô ta.
5. Lâu nay mải tình thơ, tình bạn tôi ít nghĩ đến gia đình.
6. Chưa kịp để tôi trả lời, một cái hôn bất ngờ chộp lên má tôi.
7. Đọc được hai đoạn, tôi bâng khuâng đặt tờ báo xuống bàn, cho lòng được
trấn tĩnh.
8. Vào đến Nhà xuất bản Đời nay, tôi không gặp nhà văn nào, may quá.
9. Tình thương cảm bố chua xót đầy lòng, tôi quay đi giấu hai hàng nước mắt!
10.Trước bữa cơm, Nghĩa dắt tôi gặp một Nguyễn Đình Thi râu đã cạo tóc đã
chải, mặc chiếc áo sơmi đen, đang ngồi trước bàn xem xét công văn báo chí.
(Anh Thơ -2002)
IV. Translate the following into English, using passive voice if it makes the
sentences more natural.
1. Tại diễn đàn kinh tế thế giới vừa qua, người ta không chỉ trích việc toàn cầu hoá,
mà chỉ tập trung tranh luận về những cách tiếp cận khác nhau đối với xu thế này
mà thôi.
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2. Chúng ta ai cũng muốn sống trong một nền kinh tế thị trường, nhưng lại chẳng ai
muốn sống trong một xã hội mang tính thị trường. Và một thách thức mà chúng
ta đang gặp phải giờ đây là làm sao giữ cho xã hội của chúng ta đừng mang tính
thị trường thuần tuý.
3. Theo thủ tướng Anh Tony Blair, vai trò lãnh đạo chính trị của chính phủ trong xã
hội đang thay đổi. Cái chúng ta cần là một chính phủ nhạy bén với cải cách và
không sợ cải cách.
4. Viện trợ không hoàn lại có một số ưu điểm so với việc cho vay. Các nước viện
trợ có thể ngừng cấp viện trợ không hoàn lại nếu các nước nhận viện trợ không
tuân thủ các điều kiện do nước viện trợ đặt ra.
5. Quá trình toàn cầu hoá đòi hỏi chúng ta phải thay đổi những luật lệ và thói quen
cũ.
(Extracted from Translation. Đại học Ngoại Thương-FTU, 2005)
V. With your partner, translate orally the passages below, but note down all
suggested translations for the words in italics.
1. Living in a small hotel on the left bank in Paris, moving between contacts in the
working-class suburbs and among students in the Latin Quarter, Tito gained
many left-wing international contacts.
2. ‘When translating, I usually start by dictating a quick, rough translation of the
foreign language text straight onto a cassette, bypassing any difficulties, if
necessary devising ad hoc ways of overcoming them temporarily, and striving to
get the general hang of the original, while allowing the natural rhythm of the
spoken word to give the translation a shape and a flow which will not be lost by
being revised and polished later on.’
3. (As a young man, the author had sent a letter to The Times.) To my great
astonishment, The Times published my letter in full.
Looking back on it now, over the sixteen years which have seen so much worse,
it seems to me to have been pretentious.
4. A freelancer’s life is in a lot of ways freer that other people’s, but it demands a
great deal of self-discipline. When you are first setting up, a lot of your time will
be spent writing letters of application and CVs, preparing for interviews,
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hounding your friends for contacts, and organizing your time in a manageable
way.
5. ‘Hassan! Look at those flies!’, and he pointed to the horrible mass that hung
from the ceiling. ‘Why have I called you?’
- ‘To drive them away elsewhere,’ said Hassan.
‘Driven elsewhere they always return.’
6. Taken prisoner of war, he (Tito) was transported to a hospital in an old
monastery deep in the Russian interior at Sviashk.
7. The list of rules (in the lodging-house) forbade cooking in one’s room, or taking
food that did not need cooking to one’s room. No visitors were allowed in one’s
room at any time for any reason. Breathing was allowed as long as it made no
noise. The same applied to sleep. Anyone who snored would wake up in the
street.
8. Trevor Howard was one of the great stage and screen stars of his generation - an
actor of enormous power and character of whom Robert Mitchum once said:
‘The nice thing about Trevor is that you never catch him acting. ’ It was a
compliment he well deserved, since nothing would ever induce him to give a
fake performance,
9. Going backward over the day, I find things of which I am quite certain, other
things of which I am almost certain, and other things of which I can become
certain by thought.
10. Because there is a certain tension involved in eating in public, restaurants
employ two major trends to exploit the mood of their diners. The expensive
restaurant, to justify high prices, has to overcome the tensions. It does this by
shielding, screening, and partitioning and also by keeping lights dim and sounds
muffled, and by having more staff than usual so as to reduce waiter-speeds.
VI. Translate these sentences in whatever seems the most natural way in
Vietnamese. You do not necessarily have to begin with the same word as is used in
the English. Wherever possible, offer two translations, using different word order.
But if you feel there is only one correct word order, offer only one translation.
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1. That the Vikings discovered America is accepted by all but a few scholars who
insist that Irish priests got there before them.
2. So colossal is human egotism that people who have met an author are constantly
on the look-out for portraits of themselves in his work.
3. From the spring of 1665 the Great Plague had raged in London. Never since the
Black Death in 1348 had pestilence spread such ravages.
4. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
5. ‘To these islands’ (The Maldives), wrote the Arab geographer Idrisi in the
twelfth century, ‘come the ships of Oman to gather coconuts and cut wood and
build their vessels.’
6. Can one say that anyone, any single figure, characterized the Jacobins? That the
Jacobins provided the revolutionary drive and
7. That translation no longer enjoys anything like the status in foreign language
teaching which it once did must be clear to anyone.
8. Wentworth was the man of all others most worth winning. His abilities were
obviously of the first order, and so were his ambitions. To Wentworth therefore
the King turned.
9. Of all the vices to which my colleagues in journalism are most opposed, none is
more hateful to them than hypocrisy. Diligently they seek it out in high places,
always looking for politicians, bishops, and judges whose practice does not
come up to their principles.
10 Small as she was, she made quite a good horsewoman.
11 Important though language is, both as a channel of communication and as
equipment for thinking, the really special feature of the human brain is its use of
language to question our place in nature. Intense intellectual curiosity is a
hallmark of mankind.
12 Since 1781, Salomon had been well established in London as a soloist and
leader of an orchestra. His admiration for Haydn was well known. Always
impetuous and forceful, he is said to have introduced himself to the composer by
saying: ‘My name is Salomon; I have come from London to fetch you.’
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VII. Translate the following into English, using the prompts given
1. Chưa bao giờ miền quê nhỏ bé này phải hứng chịu một trận bão khủng khiếp đến
như vậy. (Never....)
2. Điều mà mỗi nước cần làm là nâng cao nhận thức cho người dân về tầm quan
trọng của việc bảo vệ môi trường. (What....)
3. Việc giảm thiểu phát thải khí nhà kính và bảo vệ tầng ôzôn không còn là trách
nhiệm của một quốc gia đơn lẻ nào nữa mà đã trở thành nhiệm vụ chung của cả
loài người. (No longer....)
4. Theo ước tính thì với mức tiêu thụ năng lượng như hiện nay và nếu không có sự
phát triển các nguồn năng lượng thay thế thì chỉ đến năm 2050 thôi, toàn bộ
nhiên liệu hoá thạch trên thế giới sẽ bị cạn kiệt. (... as early as ....)
5. Các công ước quốc tế về đa dạng sinh học đã tạo ra các công cụ pháp lý để kiểm
soát việc mua bán các động vật hoang dã trên thế giới. Tuy nhiên chính do nhu
cầu đối với tài nguyên thiên nhiên gia tăng đã làm cho việc suy giảm số loài
sinh vật có nguy cơ tuyệt chủng vẫn tiếp diễn. ( it is.....)
6. Không chỉ sinh viên mà cả giáo viên cũng phải đến lớp đúng giờ. (both)
7. Món ăn Việt Nam không chỉ hấp dẫn khách nước ngoài mà còn hấp dẫn chính
người dân bản xứ. (alike)
8. Trong mấy thập niên qua Việt Nam đã đạt được những tiến bộ đáng kể về kinh tế
cũng như xã hội. (as well as)
9. Trung quốc giờ đây đang được coi là nền kinh tế năng động nhất thế giới vì nước
này tăng trưởng không những nhanh mà còn bền vững. (coupled with)
10. Sở dĩ bản Hiến Pháp của Hoa Kỳ tồn tại được lâu như vậy là vì nó vừa đơn giản
lại vừa rất linh hoạt. (and)
(Extracted from Translation. Đại học Ngoại Thương-FTU, 2005)
VIII. Determine the number of sentences (underline and number) in the passage
below, and then practise as many ways of transposition as you can in translating it
into English
Tuổi thơ của Hà Lê êm đềm cho đến khi cô tròn 16 tuổi - thời điểm cô bắt đầu biết
yêu và rung động trước bạn khác giới. Nhưng khác với những cô bé mới lớn tình
yêu học trò chỉ dừng lại ở những cái nắm tay và ánh mắt trao nhau tình tứ, Hà Lê
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yêu say đắm một thanh niên gần nhà. Tuấn hơn cô 2 tuổi và bỏ học từ lâu, trở thành
kẻ ăn bám gia đình, hàng ngày chỉ có mỗi việc tụ tập bạn bè và đi tán tỉnh những cô
gái mới lớn như Hà Lê.
(Báo Dân trí, ngày 22/9/2010)
IX. Decide in which case modulation could be used with the following signs or
notices and translate them
1. Guests are courteously reminded that no visitors are permitted in the rooms after
10 p.m.
2. The mixture to be taken three times daily after meals.
3. We apologize for the interruption. Normal transmission will be resumed as soon
as possible.
4. Light showers may be expected in the early afternoon. In the north-east, these
may develop into thunderstorms, possibly accompanied by hail.
5. Notice: Bathing and fishing strictly prohibited.
6. All complaints should be addressed in writing to the manager.
7. NO PARKING AT ANY TIME - Your car may be removed.
8. These doors must be kept clear at all times.
9. These premises are protected by guard-dogs.
10. For official use only. Nothing to be written in the space below.
X. The following passages contain proverbs and popular sayings. Try to find
suitable equivalents in your own language for the expressions in italics in the
passages below. In many cases, a literal translation will not be possible. Feel free,
then, to experiment, but try to suit your translation to the context of the passage
1. Common opinion tends to stress the importance of practice. We say: ‘Practice
makes perfect’, but this is certainly not true. In an experiment with dart
throwing, subjects were given long continued practice, but each time they threw
a dart the light was switched off before they could see the result. Under these
circumstances their scores deteriorated rather than improved. The value of
practice is that it enables us to discover what works. But unless we know the
results of our effort there can be no reward and so no reinforcement.
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2. A third cause of disagreement between IQ measures and external criteria may be

related to motivation. If we can lead a horse to the water, so we can send a child
to school, but as we cannot make the horse drink, so we cannot make the child
learn unless he is in fact motivated.
3. THERE COMES A TIME WHEN SILENCE ISN’T GOLDEN
Whether it’s a telephone that doesn’t ring, or a cherished instrument that sits
silently in a corner, the twilight years of a musician can prove deathly quiet.
After a life where the sound of applause was an everyday event, the silence can
prove deafening. But you can help.
4. Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
5 The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
6. He who hesitates is lost.
7. Practise what you preach.
8. Great minds think alike.
9. Fools never differ.
10 He who laughs last laughs longest.
XI. Translate the following sentences into English paying special attention to style
and register
1. a. Nam, ngồi xuống đi mày!
b. Cháu mời bác ngồi ạ!
2. a. Mày muốn hỏi tao cái gì thì hỏi đi.
b. Nếu quý khách hàng muốn biết thêm chi tiết về sản phẩm xin vui lòng liên
hệ với Bộ phận chăm sóc khách hàng để được giải đáp, số máy 0435557788.
3. a. Không biết con Tuyết giờ này nó đang lặn ở đâu nữa.
b. Cháu Tuyết hiện ở đâu quả thật là em không biết bác ạ.
4. a. Nghe đâu thằng Đức ngẻo rồi.
b. Em chỉ biết người ta kết luận cháu thiệt mạng vì đuối nước.
5. a. Với tao ư, ở nhờ nhà vợ nhục bỏ mẹ đi ấy, như chó rúc gầm chạn!
b. Đối với tôi ở nhà vợ nhục hay không phụ thuộc vào cách suy nghĩ và ứng
xử của mình.
104
1. Duff, A. (1989). Translation . OUP
America Inc.
E.J.Brill, Leiden
9. Translation 1, 2, 3. Đại học Ngoại Thương (FTU) 2005
11. Wadensjo, C. 1998. Interpreting as Interaction. Longman
12. Watts, R. J. 2004. Translation - An Advanced Resourse Book. Routledge
105
Lesson 6
THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION
OBJECTIVES

- realize that translation proper is a process (following a number of steps),
not a product (not a one-off activity)
- be able to follow a logical sequence of steps in translation process
- be able to work on a translation project either independently or with a team
Before beginning an actual translation, it is important to have in mind the total

translation process and what is involved in each step to produce a good translation.
In this book, five stages are recognised in the process of translation. It should be
emphasized that although the steps are discussed sequentially, having a sequential
logic, for some translators various steps could be carried on simultaneously.The
stages, according to precedence, are:
Step 1: Approaching a text

When the translator has got a text for translation (assigned or self-selected), he/she
has to do a number of activities.
Preliminary analysis is the first thing to do. Most often the translation is done to
communicate certain information to people speaking another language, or it may be
to share the enjoyment of the source text. The translator should examine his reasons
for choosing the text and the potential for its use by the RL audience. For the
material, the text to be judged worthy of translation, the translator may have
reached this decision himself on the basis of his own taste and interest, or someone
else, e.g., an editor or instructor, may have made this initial judgment for him.
Faced by a text in a language, as student translators, you should analyze the text by
asking and answering the following questions.
106
1. Whether or not the source text needs editing. This activity usually does not take
place. It happens only when the source text has problems either in form or meaning
or both since the text was produced by a poorly qualified writer in the source
language. Therefore, before translating, the translator should make sure that no
grammar structures, or spelling mistakes remain, and that all the ideas in the SL
text are clear.
When analyzing the text for translation for the first time, the translator needs to find
answers to these questions:
2. What? (what is the theme/topic the text is about?). This question may guide you
to find proper background information related to the subject matter discussed in the
text.
3. Why? (what is the purpose of the text writer: to tell, to entertain, or to persuade
the reader?). This question helps you to choose the suitable vocabulary, the
structures and the tone for the translation.
4. Who? refers to the reader of the translated text. This question may help you
select the right way of conveying the equivalent message and selecting the proper
format to suit the recipient of the translated text.
5. How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way which is
influenced not only by the content of the original text, by the situation of context
(location and time where the language event happened), but also by the reader of
the text.
The translation work/translation project can be done completely by one person or

by a team. If working in a team, the translators should make sure that the workload
for each person and the working relationship between the team members need to be
107
well established before the project gets underway. However, some change may
happen as the project moves along and new factors come into focus.
In order to facilitate the project, working facilities should be handy. Apart from
source material, the translator needs more tools. These include dictionaries,
lexicons, grammars, cultural descriptions, etc. in both the SL and T/R L so that the
translator(s) can have as much information available as possible when needed. For
some projects, there need to be a wealth of materials that can be used to help in
translating the SL text and in finding equivalents in the RL. For other projects,
there may be a scarcity of such material, but whatever is available should be there
to make the work easier.
Step 2: Interpreting the source text
This step (which may be called “exegesis”) goes with the understanding and
analysis of the source text for giving it a specific meaning which involves, among
other things, a linguistic analysis of the text at different levels. The translator
should accomplish the following tasks:
- Read the text several times, then if possible read other materials that may
help in understanding the culture or language of the source text.
- Analyse the words (especially key words), the lexico-grammatical relations
within the sentences; and end with the interpretive reading of the sentence by
establishing the textual functions in the ST as realisations of content and
social communication functions in a given variety of discourse in order to
give one specific meaning, or interpretation, to parts of the text; or to the text
as a whole.
- When necessary, resolve ambiguity, identify implicit information, interpret
figurative senses, or recognize when words are being used in a secondary
sense or when grammatical structures are being used in a secondary function,
etc.
All these activities will result in a newly built message that will find its way to
another language in a new language and formulation. This process is particularly
108
important because it is the foundation upon which the new text, the translated text,
is constructed. In this sense, the interpretation of the ST will always reveal the
idiosyncracies of the translator.
However, interpreting the ST on the basis of the SL is not enough. Interpretation in

a new language/the target language is taken to be not less important. In order to suit
the recipients of the translation in terms of their knowledge of the world, their
knowledge of
the ST and its culture, and the recipients' own cultural and educational background,
at this stage, the translator also has to solve, in mind, matters involving text
adjustments in terms of additions, omissions and adaptations. The translator should
try to find in the text those differences (usually by underlining) both in linguistic
and cultural aspects between the source and target language so that certain
strategies to deal with those differences; for example, certain expressions or key
terms in their text-to-be need to be selected.
In short, the translator carefully studies the SL text and by using all the available
tools, determines the content of the SL message, the related communication
situation matters, and all other factors which will need to be understood in order to
produce an equivalent translation.
Step 3: Formulating the translated text ( initial draft )
After a careful analysis of the SL text, as indicated above, the translator begins
drafting the translation piece by piece, section by section by using the lexis and
structures that would make meaningful sentences functioning in a narrow context
as elements of a well structured text in the target language.
Before any extensive drafting can be done, the key terms must be determined.
Every text has a set of words which are crucial to the content and correct
communication of the theme. These need to be decided upon and may need to be
109
checked with a dictionary or by other speakers of the RL.
It is during formulation of the translated text that what is commonly considered

translating takes place. Remember that all of our verbalizing must be done in the
target language now. We must choose between alternatives and produce a text that
is sequentially complete. Most translators will modify their earlier analyses at this
stage. This is because as long as the material remained itself, the expression of its
author or an expression in a foreign language must stay within that containment.
Translators have to make sure that they understand a text well in the original
language and it is on the basis of the source language that the translator firstly
formulates the translation and then on the basis of the target language he or she
reformulates the translation according to the grammar rules, word usage,
cultural norms in the target language.
There are two ways of approaching the transfer and initial draft. Some translators
prefer to do a quick rough translation, sentence by sentence. Then they go back and
tighten up the details to be sure that there is no wrong information, and no
omissions or additions. In this way, the RL text is more apt to be in the natural
style. Others prefer to prepare a proposition-like semantic draft, being sure that all
the information is accounted for, and then reword it for naturalness; that is, reword
it in the idiomatic form of the RL. Either method will result in a well structured text
if careful work is done.
Step 4: Review and comparison
Once the translation is completed, the translator should revise it, rarely fewer than
three times and, when possible, with a time lapse (after hours or even days)
between revisions. It also involves a comparison between the translation product on
the one hand and the prevailing linguistic features and cultural norms in the text
type in the target language on the other. For this purpose the characteristics of text
types, linguistic and extralinguistic, should be investigated and described in the
target language, whether used as guidelines in the editing of the translated text or in
110
the preceding stage of formulation. It is at this stage that the translation is measured
and compared with the original to make sure if:
- The message of the translation is equivalent to that of the original.
- The form of the translation is easy to read and natural in the RL grammar and
style.
- The larger context of culture goes well with the related subcontexts of language
and rhetorical tradition in the target language.
- The translation meets the audience’s needs or intended text functions.
- There is any place where information has been added, omitted, or subtracted.
It is advantageous that translators check their materials with a trained consultant

(specialist) after completing one or two sections or the whole text. Ideally, the
translator will want to have RL speakers read the text and then tell back what the
text communicated to them. As they read, there can be parts that are hard to read or
hard to understand. Any time there is an indication of a problem in reading, this
should be noted for further checking (either with a tick or underlining). The
translator can also hand the translation over to someone else for review and
comparison: editor, instructor, supervisor, or collaborator. This someone else can
detect lapses or lacuna or can judge whether comparable effects are achieved or
comparable functions served (Note that a university press would have at least one
outside reader who could compare the original and the translation). He could judge
whether the appropriate rhetorical expectations of the intended target reader were
observed (A commercial press would tend to emphasize this criterion and modify
accordingly).
Step 5. Editing the translated text / Final draft
The stage of editing the translated text which takes the form of a careful last-minute
checking and correcting of possible mistakes or other inaccuracies is implemented
in most cases of translation. After review and comparison are done carefully, the
translator need revise the draft on the basis of the feedback received from those
people who may have suggested many rewordings, changes, additions or omissions
with the translator. If any key words are changed, the text will need to be checked
111
carefully for consistency in the change made. If some parts were hard to read and
understand, they may need to be made easier by, for example, removing
redundancy, by adding more information to clarify participants or theme or
whatever.
Some other matters may also need special attention when the final draft is being
prepared. For example, if the publication is to include pictures, these will need
taking into consideration. If a special size of print is being recommended, it will
need to be tested. A final editing for spelling and punctuation will need to be made.
When all matters are cared for, the final draft is ready for submission or printing
work. Since every translator wants his final copy to be as accurate as possible, the
time spent on careful checking and preparation of the final draft will improve
quality and will make the translation more acceptable and attractive to its audience.

1. Which stage do you think is the most important in the process of translation?
Give your reasons.
2. How many activities get involved in the first step of the process of translation
and which activity is considered the most important? Give reasons.
3. In what ways do the five steps interact with each other? And which step is the
most decisive out of the five? Give your reasons.
4. Give your reasons to explain the statement “Ideally the translator will want to
have receptor language speakers read the text and then tell back what the text
communicated to them.” Give one example.
PRACTICE 6
I. Indicate your preliminary analysis in the process of translation by underlining

and numbering (1, 2...) the phrase, clause, or sentence in the text below that you
think you translators should take into special consideration and explain your
reasons.
112
Example: 0 - says = to tell smb or announce, declare???...
Cahuzac scandal: French ministers to declare assets
The French government (0) says the value of ministers' assets will be published by
15 April in a new transparency drive, amid a scandal over tax evasion.
The Socialist government also says it will present a draft law obliging MPs to
declare their assets and introducing tougher penalties for financial fraud.
Currently ministers only have to declare any conflict of interest.
France's ex-Budget Minister Jerome Cahuzac has been charged with fraud over a
secret Swiss bank account.
He admitted last week that he had hidden about 600,000 euros (£509,000;
$770,000) in a Swiss bank account, causing shock in France.
The former conservative Prime Minister, Francois Fillon, declared his property on
Monday evening.
He said he had bought his home in Sarthe for 440,000 euros 20 years ago, and now
valued it at about 650,000 euros. He said he had less than 100,000 euros in savings,
in several bank accounts. He also said he had two cars, each more than 10 years
old.
President Francois Hollande was also embarrassed last week when it emerged that
his former Socialist Party treasurer, Jean-Jacques Augier, had personal investments
in two Cayman Islands offshore companies.
Mr Augier, who managed Mr Hollande's campaign funds, insisted there was

"nothing illegal" in his tax haven affairs.
113
The conservative opposition says it is dissatisfied with the transparency measures

announced so far and is demanding a thorough reshuffle of Mr Hollande's
government.
Mr Hollande had promised voters morality and integrity in public life after what
were nicknamed the "bling-bling" years of his conservative predecessor Nicolas
Sarkozy.
But this year Mr Hollande's opinion poll ratings have slumped, as the country
remains mired in recession with unemployment at 10.6%.
II. Revise the following translation by comparing it with the original (in
Vietnamese). Get ready to give your reasons.
Vietnamese English
Trung tâm điện Quốc gia cho biết, National electric center said that,
trong vòng một tiếng thực hiện Giờ during one hour carrying out Earth
trái đất (từ 20h30 đến 21h30 ngày Hour (from 8:30pm to 9:30pm, 27th
27/3), toàn hệ thống điện đã tiết kiệm March), whole system was safe
được 500.000kwh. Theo Trung tâm 500,000kwh. Follow this center, the
này, khoảng thời gian Việt Nam thực time which Vietnam carried out
hiện Giờ trái đất được lựa chọn là Earth Hour, was selected be highest
thời gian giờ cao điểm trong hệ time in electric system. Therefore,
thống điện, do đố thực hiện tắt đèn turning off lamp in one hour showed
trong một tiếng vào giờ này đã thấy the effection of electric saving.
được rất rõ hiệu quả của việc tiết
kiệm điện.
114
III. Practice using the five steps of translation in translating the text into
Vietnamese by doing the exercises below.
How to Keep Air Clean
Sydney Harris
Some months ago, while doing research on the general subject of pollution, (1)
I learned how dumb I had been all my life about something as common and
familiar - and essential - as air.
In my ignorance, I had always thought that ‘fresh air’ was infinitely available to
us. (2) I had imagined that the dirty air around us somehow escapes into the
stratosphere, and that new air kept coming in – much as it does when we open a
window after a party.
(3) This, of course, is not true, and you would imagine that a grown man with a
decent education would know this as a matter of course. What is true is that we live
in a kind of spaceship called the earth, and only a limited amount of air is forever
available to us.
The ‘walls’ of our spaceship enclose what is called the ‘troposphere’, which
extends about seven miles up. This is all the air that is available to us. We must use
it over and over again for infinity, just as we were in a sealed room for the lifetime
of the earth.
No fresh air comes in, and no polluted air escapes. Moreover, no dirt or poisons
are ever ‘destroyed’ – they remain in the air, in different forms, or settled on the
earth as ‘particulates’. And the more we burn, the more we replaced good air with
bad.
Once contaminated, this thin layer of air surrounding the earth cannot be
cleaned again. We can clean materials, we can even clean water, but we cannot
clean the air. There is nowhere else for the dirt and poisons to go – we cannot open
a window in the troposphere and clear out the stale and noxious atmosphere we are
creating.
(4) Perhaps every child in six grade and above knows this; but I doubt that one
adult in a hundred is aware of this basic physical fact. Most of us imagine, as I did,
115
that winds sweep away the gases and debris in the air, taking them far out into the
solar system and replacing them with new air.
The United States alone is discharging 130 million tons of pollutants a year into
the atmosphere, from factories, heating systems, incinerators, automobiles and
airplanes, power plants and public buildings. (5) What is frightening is not so much
the death and illness, corrosion and decay they are responsible for – as the fact this
is an inevitable process. The air will never be cleaner than it is now.
And this is why prevention – immediate, drastic and far-reaching – is our only
hope for the future. (6) We cannot undo what we have done. We cannot restore the
atmosphere to the purity it had before the Industrial Revolution. But we can, and
must, halt the contamination before our spaceship suffocates from its own foul
discharges.
A. Preliminary analysis
- Theme? .......................................................................................................
- Register (informal/formal)? .......................................................................
- Purpose? .....................................................................................................
- Possible language problems? (underline them in the text) ....................
B. Drafting:
1. ...........................................................................................................
2. ...........................................................................................................
3. ...........................................................................................................
4. ...........................................................................................................
5. ...........................................................................................................
6. ...........................................................................................................
C. Comparing and editing the three translated sentences below with the original
(Suggest your translations after giving comments or/and reasons for your
corrections)
2. Tôi đã tưởng tượng rằng không khí bẩn xung quanh chúng ta bằng một cách
nào đó thoát vào tầng bình lưu, và không khí mới tiếp tục tràn vào - giống như
điều thường xảy ra khi chúng ta mở một cửa sổ sau một bữa tiệc.
116
4. Có lẽ mọi trẻ em ở lớp 6 và trên nữa biết điều này; nhưng tôi nghi ngờ rằng
một trong số một trăm người lớn biết được sự thực vật lý cơ bản này.
6. Chúng ta không thể không làm những điều chúng ta đã làm.
IV. Translate the full text below into Vietnamese

Barack Obama was as surprised as most of America, and much of the world,
to be woken before dawn and told he had won the Nobel Peace Prize after just nine
months in office and while he is deciding whether to escalate the war in
Afghanistan. The Nobel Committee said it chose Obama “for his extraordinary
efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples” and
for creating “a new international climate”.
“Only very rarely has a person to the same extent as Obama captured the
world’s attention and given its people hope for a better future,” the Committee said
in its citation. “His diplomacy is founded in the concept that those who are to lead
the world must do so on the basis of values and attitudes that are shared by the
majority of the world’s population.”
V. Translate the full text below into English, practising the five-step process of
translation as described above.
Mỗi năm cứ vào tiết cuối hè sang thu, nắng nhạt đi, gió may se se lạnh, là lòng
tôi lại xao xuyến một nỗi nhớ thiết tha. Năm nào cũng vậy.
Trước phòng viết của tôi, mặt biển Hắc Hải lặng gương. mảnh trăng như chiếc
lược vàng, cài ngang bóng thông trên đỉnh núi. Hương hồng, không khí như bằng
hương hồng, bao quanh cửa sổ. Cảnh đẹp, nhưng buồn vì vắng những người thân,
vì xa nước. Tôi nhớ đến bến sông Thương những đêm thu nước cũng lặng gương,
cũng mảnh trăng như chiếc lược vàng cài bóng thông xa. Chỉ khác đất trời sông
Thương đượm hương hoa ngâu, hương hoa lý. Hương mùa thu vàng quê hương.
Rồi tôi nhớ... Tôi đã mơ ước, đã thiết tha sống bằng tưởng tượng, và đã nhờ dòng
sông quê đưa đi xa, thật xa.
(Anh Thơ- 2002)
117
(Suggested words: cuối... đầu: at the turn of, xao xuyến: to get flurried, phòng viết: study, lặng
gương: peacefully glittering, cây thông: pine tree, hương hồng: rosy scent, hương hoa ngâu:
aglaia scent, hương hoa thiên lý: pergularia scent)
1. Al-Shabab, O.S. (1994). Interpretation and the Language of Translation:
Northampton MA.
E.J.Brill, Leiden
118

REFERENCES

2. Bassnett, S. (2001). Translation Studies. New York: Methuen & Co.Ltd.
Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A coursebook on translation. London and New
York, Routledge.
Baker, M. (1993). Corpus Linguistics and Translation Studies. Implications and
Applications. In M. Baker, G. Francis, and E. Tognini-Bonelli
(eds) Text and Technology, pp. 233-250. Amsterdam &
Philadelphia: Benjamins.
Baker, M. (1995). Corpora in Translation Studies: An Overview and Some
Suggestions for Future Research. Target 7(2): pp. 223-243.
Baker, M. (1996). Corpus-based Transaltion Studies: The Challenges that lie ahead.
In H.Somers (ed.) Terminology, LSP and Translation Studies in
Language Engineering: in honour of Juan C. Sager. p. 183.
Amsterdam and Philadelphia. John Benjamins.
Baker, M. and Olohan M. (2000). Reporting that in Translated English: Evidence
for Subconscious Processes of Explicitation?, Across Languages
and Cultures 1(2): pp. 141-158.

Northampton MA.
4. Cory, H. (1999). Advanced Writing with English in Use. Oxford
University Press.
5. Dự, Nguyễn Hữu. (2003). Tuyển tập truyện cười-Tập II. Nhà xuất bản Đồng Nai.
7. Hướng, Đặng Ngọc. (2010). Danh ngữ tiếng Anh - Đặc trưng cú pháp-ngữ nghĩa
thành tố. Nxb KH-XH, Hà Nội.
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8. Larson, M.L. (1998). Meaning-based Translation. University Press of America

Inc.
9. Lộc, Vũ. (2010). Từ loại tiếng Việt và vấn đề chú thích từ loại trong từ điển.
Ngôn ngữ & Đời sống, Hội ngôn ngữ học Việt Nam. Số 8, 178-
2010.
E.J.Brill, Leiden
14. Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of English. 2001. Oxford
University Press.
15. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English (2002). Oxford
University Press.
16. Robinson, D. 1998. Becoming a Translator. Routledge-London
17. SaigonBook. (2002). Tales from Shakespeare. Danang Publishing House
18. Samuelson-Brown, G. 2004. A Practical Guide for Translators. Multilingual
Matters L
19. Setton, R. 1999. Simultaneous Interpretation: A Cognitive - Pragmatic
Analysis. Benjamins
20. Snell-Hornby, M. 1988. Translation studies: an integrated approach.
University of Zurich
21. Sofer, M. 1999. The Translation's Handbook. Schreiber Publishing
22. Tirkkonen- Condit, S. 2000. Tapping and mapping the Processes of Translation
and Interpreting. Benjamins
23. Viện Ngôn ngữ học. (1993). Từ điển Anh-Việt, Nxb.TP Hồ Chí Minh.
24. Wadensjo, C. 1998. Interpreting as Interaction. Longman
25. Watts, R. J. 2004. Translation - An Advanced Resourse Book. Routledge
120
27. Tiến, Lê Hùng. Nghiên cứu dịch thuật và những khuynh hướng nghiên cứu
ngôn ngữ. Tạp chí KHOA HỌC ĐHQG - NGOẠI NGỮ T.XIX Số 1, 2006.
121
KEY WORDS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS
A
(in)animate: (bất) động vật
a complete match: sự đối hợp hoàn C
toàn category: loại
a wealth of: vô khối categorization: sự phân loại
abstraction: ý niệm trừu tượng certain languages: một số ngôn ngữ
academic: thuộc học vấn chunk: chuỗi
adjective phrase: ngữ tính từ class: loại, hạng
adjustment: sự điều chỉnh classifier: loại từ
adverb: trạng từ clause: cú (đọan), mệnh đề
adverb phrase: ngữ trạng từ closed set: lớp từ đóng
adverbial: trạng ngữ cognitive: tri nhận
agent: tác nhân coherent: mạch lạc
alternative: phương án lựa chọn collocation: cụm từ cố định
ambiguity: sự mập mờ colloquialism: tính thông tục
approximation: mức áng chừng, xấp complement: bổ ngữ
xỉ complexity: sự phức tạp
argument: lí lẽ, luận chứng component: thành tố
article: mạo từ concept cluster: nhóm khái niệm
aspect form: dạng thức concept: khái niệm
associative: có tính gắn kết concisely: một cách ngắn gọn
astray: lạc lối, chệch hướng conference interpreting: dịch hội nghị
as with: giống, cũng như confrontation: sự đối mặt
attribute: đặc tính/tính ngữ conjunction: liên từ
auxiliary verb: trợ động từ connotation: nghĩa liên tưởng
consecutive interpreting: dich đuổi
B consolence: sự an ủi
bilingual: song ngữ containment: giới hạn
block: khối coordinating: kết hợp
boundary: ranh giới core: lõi
122
correlation: sự liên kết, tương quan figures of speech: hình thức tu từ

countable: đếm được finite form: dạng chia (của động từ)
criteria: tiêu chí formulation: việc hình thành
further: thêm
D
definite: xác định G
deletion: sự xóa / bỏ đi generic term: ngôn từ có nghĩa chung
demonstrative: chỉ định chung
denotation: nghĩa biểu đạt gerund: danh động từ
derivational: phái sinh gist: ý chính
determinative phrase: ngữ định từ gist translation: dịch tóm tắt
determinative: định từ guarantee: sự đảm bảo
determiner: định ngữ
discourse: ngôn bản H
distinction: sự phân biệt head: chính tố / đầu tố
distinctive: rõ ràng
dynamic: vận động / năng động I
identical: giống
E idiom: thành ngữ
economy: sự tiết kiệm idiosyncrasy: phong cách riêng
ellipted: bị tỉnh lược
entity: thực thể image: hình ảnh
equivalent: tương đương implicit: hàm ẩn
exaggeration: sự phóng đại indefinite: không xác định
exegesis: sự luận bình indispensible: không thể thiếu được
explicit: hiển ngôn infinitive: dạng nguyên thể
extensive: rộng interjection: thán từ
extreme: thái cực intermediate: ở giữa, mức giữa
intermingling: sự pha trộn
F interpretation: việc hiểu / lý giải
faithful: trung thành interpreting: phiên dịch, thông ngôn
figurative: (nghĩa) bóng interrogative: nghi vấn
123
intertextual: liên ngôn bản multilingual: đa ngôn ngữ

intransitive: nội động
invariant: không thay đổi N
isolated: riêng biệt, đơn lập negation: sự phủ định
nominal: ngữ danh tính
J non-finite: dạng không chia
jargon: biệt ngữ non-inflectional: không biến hình
journal: tạp chí chuyên ngành norm: tiêu chí
note: điều lưu ý
L noun phrase: danh ngữ
language mediation: chuyển ngữ nuance: sắc thái
layer of meaning: lớp nghĩa nuclear: hạt nhân
lexical: thuộc về từ vựng numeral: số từ
lexicon: từ vựng
liaison interpreting: dịch giao tiếp O
linguistic approach: cách tiếp cận object: vật thể
ngôn ngữ obligatory: bắt buộc
literal: (nghĩa) đen optional: tùy ý / không bắt buộc
origin: gốc / nguồn gốc
M overlap: sự chồng / gối lên
mechanically: về mặt cơ học
metaphor: ẩn dụ P
misleading: lừa dối, sai lệch parallel linearity: tuyến tính song song
mismatch: sự không đối hợp part of speech: từ loại
mobility: tính cơ động participant: tham tố
modal verb: động từ tình thái participle: phân từ
modifier: điều biến tố passive (voice): (lối nói) bị động
modulation: phép chuyển nghĩa person: ngôi
personal: nhân xưng
monolingual: đơn ngữ personification: (phép) nhân cách hóa
morpheme: hình vị phrasal preposition: giới từ ngữ dạng
morphology: hình thái học phrasal verb: động từ ngữ dạng
124
phrase: ngữ đoạn (ngữ) root: gốc

polyseme: từ đa nghĩa roughly speaking: nói nôm na, phỏng
polysemy/homonomy: hiện tượng đa chừng
nghĩa / đồng âm
position: vị trí S
pre-antiquity: tiền cổ đại scarcity: sự khan hiếm
predicate: vị ngữ secondary: phụ
prefix: tiền tố section: phần
preliminary: sơ bộ semantic: thuộc về ngữ nghĩa
prepositional phrase: ngữ giới từ sense: nét nghĩa
prevailing: phổ biến sense of humour: tính/khiếu hài hước
priority: sự ưu tiên sentence: câu
project: đề tài sequential: theo thứ tự
proposition: nhận định set phrase: ngữ cố định
prospective translator: dịch giả tương simile: phép so sánh
lai simultaneous interpreting: dịch đồng
puzzle: vấn đề hóc búa thời, dịch cabin
skewing: sự đan chéo nghĩa
Q source language: ngôn ngữ nguồn/gốc
quality: đặc tính specialized: chuyên dụng
quantitative: định lượng spatializingcomponent: yếu tố bao
quát hóa
R specifically: cụ thể là / đặc biệt là
receptor language: ngôn ngữ nhận state: trạng thái
redundancy: sự thừa static: tĩnh
reference: sự nói tới / tham chiếu status: cương vị
register: văn phong stilted: khô cứng
reformulation: tái tạo ý tưởng striking: nổi bật
respect (in this respect): phương diện stylistic: thuộc về phong cách
restatement/paraphrasing: việc nói lại subject complement: bổ chủ ngữ
rewrite: cái được viết lại subjective / objective: chủ quan /
rhetoric tradition: thói quen tu từ khách quan
125
submission: việc giao nộp to be slighted: bị coi nhẹ

subordinate clause: cú / mệnh đề phụ to call for: đòi hỏi
subsidiary: phụ, phụ trợ to care for: quan tâm tới
suffix: hậu tố to classify: phân loại
surface structure: cấu trúc bề mặt to coincide: đồng nhất
synonym / antonym: từ đồng nghĩa / to concern: liên quan tới
trái nghĩa to consult: tham khảo
syntax: cú pháp to convey: truyền đạt
to correspond to: ứng với
T to deduce: suy diễn
target language: ngôn ngữ đích to define: xác định
terminology: thuật ngữ học to denote: biểu đạt
text-to-be: văn bản sau này to determine: hạn định
that is: nghĩa là to edit: biên tập
the affected: cái, người bị ảnh hưởng to eliminate: xóa bỏ
theme: chủ điểm/chủ đề to encode: mã hóa
thesaurus: từ điển đồng nghĩa to exploit: sử dụng
time lapse: dãn cách thời gian to facilitate: hỗ trợ
to a great degree: với mức độ lớn to fix the meaning: xác định nghĩa
to account for: giải thích cho to formulate: đề ra / diễn đạt
to agree in person: phù hợp về ngôi to get underway: được thực hiện
to base oneself on: dựa vào to guard against: đề phòng
to be addressed to: đượcgửi/hướng tới to identify: nhận diện
to be applied to: được áp dụng vào to implement: thực hiện
to be apt to: dễ có xu hướng to imply: ám chỉ
to be aware of: ý thức được / biết to induce: xui khiến
to be bound to: bị buộc vào/gắn với to interpret: hiểu / lý giải
to be distorted: bị bóp méo to justify: chứng minh
to be made up of: được hình thành bởi to make no sense: không có nghĩa
to be packaged: bị đóng gói to manipulate: thao tác
to be posited between: nằm ở to modify: thay đổi / bổ nghĩa
to be restricted to: bó hẹp ở to monitor: điều khiển
126
to notice: chú ý
to perceive: nhận thức treasure: của quý
to precede: đứng trước
to propose: đề xuất U
to recommend: khuyến nghị umbrella term: từ/thuật ngữ bao trùm
to refer to: nói tới uncongenial: không thích hợp
to reflect: phản ánh underlying meaning: nghĩa ẩn chứa
to render: dịch unnatural: không tự nhiên
to represent: đại diện/diễn đạt usage: việc sử dụng
to resolve: giải quyết
to restrict: hạn chế V
to reveal: để lộ vary: khác nhau
to reword: viết / diễn đạt lại verbal noun: danh từ có gốc động từ
to sequence: xắp xếp theo thứ tự verbalizing: việc diễn đạt bằng ngôn
to shift: chuyển từ
to sound: nghe có vẻ verbless clause: cú không có động từ
to supplement: bổ sung via: qua, theo đường
to take into consideration: xem xét vice versa/the other way round: ngược
to take place: xảy ra lại
to tighten up: nắm chặt viva voce: thi vấn đáp
to unpack: mở vs, v (versus): đối lập, ngược với
to vary: thay đổi
tone: giọng điệu W
top-down: từ trên xuống word-for-word translation: dịch từ đối
transitive: ngoại động từ
transposition: phép chuyển dạng/giao workload: khối lượng công việc
hoán
Hanoi, June 2013
127
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Ngọc Hướng, Tuấn Anh, Thu Hường – Basics of Translation, 2013

I. WHAT IS THE THEORY OF TRANSLATION?

Practically, whether the study of translation is termed as ‘Translation Theory’ or

II. WHAT ARE THE COMMON DEFINITIONS OF TRANSLATION ?

Since antiquity (3000BC-Newmark 1986), translation has become popular in

1. Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form

2. Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has

3. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a

6. Translating may be defined as the process of transforming signs or

7. Translation may be defined as follows: the replacement of textual material in one

9. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural

10. Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text which is

12. The linguistic approaches basically saw translating as a code-switching

III. HOW DO TRANSLATORS REPRODUCE THE MESSAGE ?

IV. WHY DO TRANSLATORS PAY MORE ATTENTION TO

What is important here, therefore, is that equivalence is looked upon as a relation

equivalence (between two texts) and formal correspondent (between two

V. WHAT IS DYNAMIC EQUIVALENCE ?

Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the

VI. WHAT IS THE NATURAL EQUIVALENT ?

VII. WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEANING IN TRANSLATION ?

As has already been indicated in the definitions of translating, meaning

VIII. WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF STYLE ?

IX. WHY DO TRANSLATORS PAY ATTENTION TO CULTURE DURING

X. WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN TRANSLATION AND

our interest lies in integration, which is surely the characteristic of a successful

XI. WHAT ARE THE COMMON TYPES OF EQUIVALENTS OF

The structural similarity of ST and TT implies that relationships of equivalence are

Other SL units may have several equivalents each. Such one-to-many

be used in TT whenever the unit is found in ST. An equivalent is but a potential

XII. HOW DO TRANSLATORS CREATE OCCASIONAL

(1) Using loan-words imitating in TL the form of the SL word or word

(2) Using approximate substitutes (approximate translation) when the translator

(3) Using transformations (transformational translation) (nouns into verbs, phrases

XIII. WHAT DOES THE TRANSLATOR DO ?

Conventionally, it is suggested that in order to perform their job successfully,

 the source language

appropriately. For example if he/she has to translate hotdog into Vietnamese, of

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION - 1

V. Translate the text below into Vietnamese

2. Bassnett, S. (2001). Translation Studies. New York: Mathuen & Co.Ltd.

At the end of the lesson, you will

1.1. The source language (SL)

1.2. The source text (ST)

1.3. The translator (T)

Besides being a bilingual, or a multilingual, individual, the translator is

1.4. The translated text (TT)

1.5. The language of translation (LT)

1.6. The target language (TL)

II. INTERPRETING VS TRANSLATING

2.1. Denotative meaning of translation and interpretation

From above definitions of translation and in today's usage - at least in specialist

With the setting up of international and European organizations (United Nations –

In the interwar years consecutive interpretation alone was provided at international

Today, roughly speaking, three forms of interpreting are practiced: liaison,

Simultaneous translation/interpretation is applied during congresses, conferences,

2.2. Basic differences between translation and interpretation

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION - 2

Qualities/skills Translator Interpreter

II. Translate the underlined parts in the passages into Vietnamese

B. Climate change in Russia’s Arctic tundra

A. What High Youth Unemployment Means For Our Economy

But what kind of unhealthy? Is degreed underemployment just a product of the