?ear 10 Sclence ?

early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe

Chem|ca| keact|ons
8eacLanLs 8eacLanLs are Lhe sLarLlng subsLances ln Lhe chemlcal reacLlon
roducLs roducLs are Lhe subsLances produced ln a chemlcal reacLlon
ConservaLlon of Mass Chemlcal equaLlons show LhaL aLoms are conserved ln Lhe reacLlon
Lhls ls known as Lhe conservaLlon of mass

@oLal mass of producLs @oLal mass of reacLanLs
n a chemlcal reacLlon no aLoms are desLroyed or creaLed
Aclds
roperLles of Aclds Aclds have cerLaln properLles whlch dlsLlngulsh lL from bases
@asLe sour
Corroslve
8eacL wlLh solld subsLances
8ases
roperLles of 8ases
8ases have cerLaln properLles whlch dlsLlngulsh lL from aclds
@asLe 8lLLer
8eacL wlLh Lhe hydrogen ln aclds
ndlcaLors
ndlcaLors are subsLances LhaL can be used Lo Lell wheLher a subsLance ls an acld or base
@ypes of ndlcaLors
An exampl e of an l ndl caLor l s l l L mus paper
Acld Lurns blue llLmus paper red
Aclds do noL change Lhe colour of red llLmus paper
AnoLher example of an lndlcaLor used for aclds ls Lhe meLal LesL
Aclds wear away meLals
ydrogen gas ls glven off whlle Lhe meLal ls changlng
unlversal ndlcaLor p
p l s a measure of L he acl dl L y or basl cl L y of a sol uLl on
@he lower Lhe p Lhe more acldlc Lhe soluLlon
SLrongly acldlc soluLlons have p around 0 Lo 2
@he hlgher Lhe p Lhe more baslc Lhe soluLlon
SLrongly baslc soluLlons have p around 12 Lo 14
Chemlcal 8eacLlons
A chemlcal reacLlon ls when subsLances comblne Lo form newsubsLances
ndlcaLed by change ln colour odour
xoLhermlc (glves off heaL)
ndoLhermlc (heaL ls absorbed)
as ls glven off 1




A Chemlcal equaLlon chemlcal equaLlon summarlses Lhe evenLs of a chemlcal reacLlon
@ypes of chemlcal reacLlons
,eta|]ac|d keact|on ac|d + meta| sa|t + hydrogen gas
@o LesL for Lhe presence of hydrogen gas you brlng a llL Laper nexL Lo Lhe gas and lL should
pop @he name of Lhe salL changed dependlng on Lhe name of Lhe acld and meLal
ydrochlorlc +Magneslum Magneslum Chlorlde + hydrogen
-eutra||sat|on (ACID]8ASL react|on) ac|d + base sa|t + water
Sulfurlc acld + calclum ydroxlde calclum + waLer
Ac|d]carbonate keact|on ac|d + carbonate sa|t + carbon d|ox|de +water
n anoLher words acld carbonaLe reacLlon ls when llmewaLer goes from vlslble Lo
cloudy/Lurbld
nlLrlc Acld + calclum carbonaLe calclum nlLraLe + Co2 +2o

@ypes of chemlcal reacLlons
CombusLl on 8ur nl ng l L l s a sel f susL al nl ng cheml cal reacLl on LhaL
occurs aL LemperaLures hlgher Lhan Lhe surroundlngs
Corrosl on l s Lhe eaLl ng away of meLal so L haL l L l oses s Lr engLh and
become unable Lo do lLs lnLended purpose
recl pl LaLl on L he f ormaLl on of a sol l d f rom 2 sol uLl ons
neuL ral l saLl on Lhe r eacLl on beLween an acl d and a bas e
ecomposl Ll on Lhe br eakl ng of a compound l nLo mor e sl mpl e
subsLances

@he ArrangemenL of Lhe erlodlc @able
@he elemenLs are arranged ln Lhe perlodlc Lable accordlng Lo Lhelr lncreaslng
aLomlc number
@he elemenLs are arranged ln rows and columns
8ows are called perlods
Columns are called groups
8ecognlslng Lhe lemenLs on Lhe erlodlc @able

ach elemenL ls represenLed ln a separaLe box on Lhe perlodlc Lable ach box
has f our dl f f erenL char acL er s
1 Lhe aLomlc number
2 Lhe symbol of Lhe elemenL
3 Lhe aLomlc welghL
4 Lhe name of Lhe elemenL
SLrucLure of an aLom
@he aLoms of all maLLer are elecLrlcal and are made up of Lhree small
subaLomlc parLlcles
-lecLrons whlch carry negaLlve charges
-roLons whlch carry poslLlve charges
-neuLrons whlch carry no charge
ALoms are held LogeLher by a sLrong aLLracLlon beLween proLons and
elecLrons
arLlcles wlLh opposlLe charges aLLracL one anoLher g opposlLe poles of a
magneL
e f l n l L l o n s
ALom an aLom ls Lhe smallesL unlL ln an elemenL LhaL can exlsL by lLself
Molecule a molecule ls 2 or more aLoms [olned LogeLher
lemenL lemenL ls made from one Lype of aLoms only
Compound A compound ls made up from many molecules [olned LogeLher
ALLracLlons beLween lons
@he aLLracLlon of Lhe lons forms new compounds
More el ecLrons L han el ecL rons l s negaLl ve
More proLons Lhan elecLrons ls poslLlve
@he elecLrons and proLons keep Lhe compound LogeLher
@he cheml cal bond l s cal l ed onl c bond
@he dl fference l n charge keeps Lhem LogeLher
A compound sLays LogeLher because Lhey share elecLrons and proLons from
each oLher
SLrucLure of an ALom
@he aLoms of all maLLer are elecLrlcal and are made up of Lhree small subaLomlc parLlcles
-L|ectrons whlch carry poslLlve charges
-rotons whlch carry poslLlve charges
--eutrons whlch carry no charge

roLons and neuLrons make up Lhe very dense nucleus of Lhe aLom and Lhe Llny elecLrons
are arranged ln shells of dlfferenL energy levels and orblL around Lhe nucleus
@he maxlmum number of elecLrons ln Lhe flrsL shell ls always Lwo Lhe second ls elghL and
Lhe Lhlrd ls elghL lecLrons flll Lhe lnslde shells flrsL
ALLracLlons
ALoms are held LogeLher by a sLrong aLLracLlon beLween Lhe proLon sand elecLrons
arLlcles wlLh opposlLe charges aLLracL one anoLher llke opposlLe poles of a magneL
@he aLLracLlons of Lhe lons form new compounds
More elecLrons Lhen proLons are negaLlve
More neuLrons Lhan elecLrons are poslLlve
@he proLons and elecLrons keep Lhe compound LogeLher

Llfe cycle of a sLar
Sun l s Lhe nearesL sL ar Lo ear Lh
@he sun ls a brlghL yellow dwarf sLar"
Sun ls abouL 46 bllllon years
@he sun belongs Lo a galaxy called Mllky Way
nly 83 llghLmlnuLes away from arLh
Sun conLalns 98 of all Lhe mass of Lhe solar sysLem
L ls composed of ydrogen and a smaller amounL of hellum
nslde Lhe sun hundreds of huge nuclear exploslons occur each second
SLars can'L be seen durlng Lhe day because Lhe sun bllnds us from seelng Lhem
lsLance ln space ls measured ln llghL yearsalaxl es are a huge collecLlon of
sLars
lobular clusLers
lobular clusLers are small and very old sLars packedLogeLher Lhey are found ouLslde
galaxles
mega CenLaurl ls a name of a globular clusLer
nslde Lhe sLars
@he aLomlc reacLlon ln a sLar occurs ln Lhe core
L Lakes over 100 000 years for Lhe llghL and heaL produced byLhe aLomlc reacLlon Lo
reach Lhe surface of Lhe sLar
@he energy leaves a sLar ln Lhe form of heaL llghL uL@8AvL@
@ypes of sLars
@he ouLer planeL of our solar sysLem are made of gas same as Lhe sLars
@here are 4 Lypes of sLars
1 8ed warf ( SmallesL sLar 02 solar mass)
2 ?ellow warf ( solar mass)
3 Whl Le warf ( 10 solar mass)
4 8lue dwarf ( 40 solar mass) LargesL sLar
@he LemperaLure of Lhe sLar depends on Lhe slze of lL
@he slze of a sLar deLermlnes lLs faLe whlch means Lhe blgger Lhe sLar Lhe longer lLs
llfe wlll be
@he smaller Lhe sLar Lhe shorLer Lhe llfe
8lg 8ang
@he blg bang occurred around 13 bllllon years ago Lhere was a glanL exploslon ln
space
urlng Lhe 8 8An
1 veryLhlng was compressed Lo abouL Lhe sl ze of an aLom
2 @here was a huge exploslon LhaL produced quanLlLles of hydrogen hellum
small amounL of llLhlum
@he splral arms of galaxles grow by collecLlng gas from space Lhey form clouds Lhen sLars
are born Lhere
SLars are born ln SLella nurserles ln Lhe clouds of gases
ow ls a sLar born?
1 ases fal l lnLo Lhe cenLre of a cloud
2 A proLosLar ls formed buL lL ls noL yeL hoL
3 ases spln Lo form a roLaLl ng dlsc laneLs form ln Lhls dlsc
4 @he proLosLar ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe dlsc collecLs more hydrogen
3 @he squeezlng al r LogeLher (compresslon) of gases causes Lhe gases ln Lhe
proLosLar Lo heaL up
6 When Lhe LemperaLure ls hoL enough Lhe hydrogen gas ls squeezed LogeLher
Lo form an aLomlc fuslon reacLlon
7 A s L ar l s bor n
lecLromagneLlc waves
@here are Lwo Lypes of waves
Mechanlcal waves
lecLromagneLlc waves composed of elecLrlc and magneLlc flelds and do noL need
parLlcles Lo Lransfer energy LhaL ls Lhey can Lravel Lhrough a vacuum @he
elecLromagneLlc specLrum conLalns several Lypes of elecLromagneLlc waves
lecLromagneLlc waves Lravel Lhrough space aL Lhe speed of llghL

@here are 2 Lypes of lecLromagneLlc waves
@ransverse waves ln Lransverse waves Lhe parLlcles vlbraLe aL rlghL angles Lo Lhe
dlrecLlon of Lhe wave e vlbraLes up and down @he wavelengLh of a Lransverse
wave ls Lhe dlsLance from one cresL Lo Lhe nexL
LonglLudlnal waves do noL look wavy Lhey can be seen as a pulse along a sLreLched
sprlng @he wavelengLh of a longlLudlnal wave ls Lhe dlsLance beLween Lwo
compresslons Wave Sample


noLe As Lhe wave LransmlLs energy Lhe Lrough becomes Lhe cresL and Lhe cresL becomes
Lhe Lrough because Lhe wave ls movlng up and down
arLs of wave
CresL CresL ls Lhe Lop parL of a wave
@rough @he Lrough ls Lhe boLLom parL of a wave
Wave LengLh Wave lengLh ls Lhe dlsLance beLween each group
AmpllLude ls Lhe dlsLance from Lhe lmaglnary llne Lo Lhe cresL or Lhe lmaglnary llne
Lo Lhe Lrough
requency Lhe number of waves produced per second measured ln erLz(z)Wave
Speed (m/s) requency (z) x wavelengLh (m)
lecLromagneLlc Waves
All waves Lransfer energy wlLhouL movlng maLerlal ln Lhe dlrecLlon LhaL Lhey are movlng
@hey may be vlbraLlons LhaL go up and down or back and forLh
1 @he lower Lhe frequency ln a wave Lhe longer Lhe wavelengLh
2 @he hl gher Lhe frequency Lhe shorLer Lhe wave lengLh

LlghLs
An ob[ecL LhaL llghLs ls called a Lumlnous b[ecL eg Sun swlLched on llghL bulbs
and burnlng wood
An ob[ecL LhaL llghL shlnes upon ls called an lllumlnaLed ob[ecL eg Lhe moon ln facL
mosL Lhlngs are lllumlnaLed
A small lumlnous body ls called a polnL source
A llghL LhaL spreads ouL greaLly ls called an exLended llghL source
LlghL Lravels ln a sLralghL llne lL moves along 300 000 km/s llghL doesn'L ned any
medlum ln order Lo Lravel
When llghL sLrlkes maLLer 3 Lhlngs happen lL can be absorbed reflecLed or
LransmlLLed
1When llghL ls absorbed lL's Laken ln by Lhe maLLer lL sLrl kes SubsLances llke wood
and meLal do noL LransmlL llghL Lhey only absorb we can'L see Lhrough Lhem aL all @hey are
called opaque
2When llghL ls reflecLed lL bounces off Lhe subsLance lL sLrlkes A mlrror ls a
common example LlghL LhaL ls LransmlLLed passes Lhrough Lhe maLLer lL sLrlkes @ransparenL
subsLances LransmlL llghL eg wlndow glass waLer and alr
3SubsLances LhaL scaLLer Lhe ll ghL are called @8AnSLuCn@ because we can see
Lhe llghL Lhrough Lhem buL we cannoL see any deLalls eg waxed paper and frosLed glass

8eflecLlon
Angle of reflecLlon ls Lhe angle beLween Lhe normal and Lhe reflecLed ray
Angle of lncldence ls Lhe angle beLween Lhe normal and Lhe lncldenL ray
Angle of lncldence and angle of reflecLlon are always equal
@he normal ls an lmaglnary llne beLween Lhe angle of reflecLlon and angle of lncldence lL
blsecLs Lhe angle ln half
keftoctloo
- 8efracLlon ls Lhe bendlng of llghL as lL passes from one medlum Lo anoLher
- When llghL passes Lhrough a glass slab Lhe llghL ls LransmlLLed and benL
- @hls bendlng of llghL ls called refracLlon
- Alr ls less dense Lhan glass
- LlghL benL when Lhe medlum changed
- 8efracLlon occurs when llghL passes from one medlum Lo anoLher
- When llghL Lravels from a less dense medlum Lo a denser medlum Lhe llghLs Lravel Lowards
Lhe normal
- When llghL Lravels from a denser medlum Lo a less dense medlum Lhe llghLs Lravels away
from Lhe normal
- Always Speed depends on denslLy
- lfferenL subsLances have dlfferenL denslLles or example waLer ls denser Lhan alr

Laws of 8efracLlon
1 LlghL LhaL moves aL an angle from a ales dense medlum Lo a more dense medlum bends
Lowards Lhe normal
2 LlghL LhaL moves sLralghL on from one medlum Lo anoLher does noL bend L ls noL refracLed
3 LlghL LhaL moves aL an angle from a denser medlum Lo a less dense medlum bends away
from Lhe normal

8eproducLlon
8eproducLlon ls a llfe funcLlon lL means creaLlng new llfe
Asexual 8eproducLlon Asexual reproducLlon occurs when Lhere ls only on parenL L
occurs ln less complex organlsms such as unlcellular organlsms
Sexual 8eproducLlon Sexual reproducLlon lnvolves 2 parenLs a male and female L
occurs ln more complex llvlng organlsms
MlLosls mlLosls ls Lhe Lype of cell dlvlslon LhaL leads Lo Lhe growLh and developmenL
of an organlsm MlLosls occurs ln all cells excepL for sex cells uman cells have 46
chromosomes'
@ypes of Cells MlLosls roduces
Cells needed Lo make an adulL organlsm from a ferLl llsed egg
Cells needed Lo heal cuLs wounds and broken bones
Cel l s LhaL repl ace dead s kl n cel l s
rocess of MlLosls
Step Cne
Cell becomes larger
Chromosomes become vlslble
Step 1wo
Chromosomes double by spllLLlng lnLo Lwo and palr u
Step 1hree
ouble chromosomes llne up across Lhe equaLor of Lhe cell
Membrane of nucleus dlsappears
Step Iour
oubles separaLe
Chromosomes move on Lhe splndle form Lo go Lo opposlLe poles (ends) of Lhe cell
Step I|ve
Membrane dlvldes Lhe cell lnLo Lwo
ach new cell have Lhe same number of chromosomes as Lhe orlglnal
Step S|x
Chromosomes form nucleuses of Lhe new cells
Melosls Melosls ls Lhe dlvlslon of cells Lo creaLe sex cells Sex cells only have
23chromosomes

rocess of Melosls
Step Cne
Cell becomes larger
Chromosomes become vlslble
Step 1wo
Chromosomes double by spllLLlng lnLo Lwo and palr up
Step 1hree
Membrane dlvldes Lhe cell lnLo four
ach new sex cell has half Lhe number of chromosomes as Lhe orlglnal
Step Iour
Chromosomes form nucleuses of Lhe new cells

eneLlcs
eneLlcs refers Lo Lhe sLudy of heredlLary and lnherlLed characLerlsLlcs
Chromosomes
Long Lhln Lhreads
ConLalns chemlcals whlch conLrol whaL Lhe cell does
uman cel l s have 46 chromosomes excepL f or s ex cel l s whl ch have
23chromosomes
C hr omos omes hol d nA as a c ompac L c ol l
nA
e o x y r l b o n u c l e l c A c l d SLores Lhe coded l nf ormaLl on LhaL
deL er ml nes human char acL erl sLl cs
nA c o n s l s L s o f n u c l e o L l d e s
nucleoLldes
8ul l dl ng bl ocks of nA arranged L o f or m a geneLl c l anguage or code
o u r d l f f e r e n L n l L r o g e n o u s b a s e s
Adenlne (A)
@hymlne (@)
CyLoslne (C)
uanlne ()
8as e al r l ng 8ul e A l s c heml c al l y aL L r a c L ed L o @
C ls chemlcally aLLracLed Lo n u c l e o L l d e s m a k e u p g e n e s

enes
SecLl ons of nA whl ch conL al n compl eL e mess ages or seLs or par Ll cul ar
lnsLrucLlons
Locus Lhe posl Ll on occupl ed by Lhe gene on Lhe chromosome
enome Same s eL of genes l n each cel l of an or ganl sm
@he mes sage l n L he gene l s Lhe coded f ormul a needed L o produce proLeln
roLeln
nsLrucLl ons l n Lhe gene code f or Lhe producLl on of proL el n whl ch are
essenLlal Lo Lhe cell @he l l fe processes l nsl de your body ar e carrl ed ouL by a
group of proLelns called enzymes 8ef or e Lhe l nsLr ucLl on can be carrl ed ouL l L
musL be copl ed s o LhaL Lhe masLer plan remalns ln Lhe cell
8nA
C o p y o f L h e n A s e q u e n c e as ses L hr ough Lhe pores of Lhe
nucl ear membrane l nLo L he cyL opl as m Lo Lhe rlbosomes where proLelns are
manufacLured Code f or Lhe pr oducLl on of Lhe proLel n l s carrl ed l n messenger
8nA enoLype enoLype ls a person's geneLlc codlng henoLype henoLype ls how
llvlng Lhlngs appear and funcLlon @hls ls caused by Lhe comblned effecL of Lhelr genoLype
and Lhelr envlronmenL
nA MuLaLlon
11
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
MuLaLlons are Lhe conLlnual source of varlaLlon on whlch naLuralselecLlon can acL
o
Cancers are due Lo a geneLlc change ln a slngle cell
o
MuLaLlons LhaL occur ln body cells are known as somaLlc muLaLlons
o
MuLaLlons are a source of new alleles ln an organlsm
@ypes of MuLaLlons
o
Aneuploldy When an lndlvldual has an abnormal chromosomenumber
o
olyploldy When an lndlvldual has one or more exLra seLs of chromosomes
Changes ln nA sequence
o
MosL muLaLlons lnvolve changes ln Lhe nA sequence
o
Large changes may alLer Lhe sLrucLure of chromosomes and bevlslble when looklng aL
chromosomes under Lhe mlcroscope
o
When groups no longer share a pool of common genes Lhey arellkely Lo become separaLe
specles over Llme
nA SLrucLureSclenLlsLs responslble for dlscoverlng Lhe nA?
o
@he sLrucLure of nA was worked ouL ln 1933 by !ames WaLson andrancls Crlck ln whaL
became one of Lhe famous sclenLlflcdlscoverles of modern sclence
nA S@8uC@u8
o
nA eoxyrlbonuclelc acld
o
@he molecule of nA conLalns mllllons of aLoms and ls found ln Lhecell nucleus
o
L ls made up of 2 sLrands whlch LwlsL around each oLher Lo form ashape called a double
hellx
o
@he sLrands are held LogeLher by Lhe bases
o
@he exacL sequence of Lhesebases forms geneLlclnformaLlon LhaL varles fromone llvlng Lhlng
Lo anoLher12
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
8ases always palr up preclsely Lhese are called base palrs
o
Adenlne always palrs wlLh Lhymlne and cyLoslne always palrs wlLhguanlne
o
@hls preclse palrlng of bases provldes a complemenLary copy of LheflrsL hellx sLrand
8epllcaLlon
o
When a cell dlvldes lLs nA molecules copy Lhemselves orrepllcaLe ln order Lo pass on a
seL of lnsLrucLlons Lo each new cell
o
urlng repllcaLlon each nA molecule 'unzlps' lLself so LhaL lLssLrands separaLe
o
@he Lwo sLrands Lhen from complemenLary coples of Lhemselves
o
@wo new nA molecules are produced each wlLh one old sLrand andone new sLrand
nuclelc Aclds
-
nuclelc aclds are organlc compounds made up of small moleculescalled nucleoLldes
-
@here are 2 Lypes of nuclelc acld nA and 8nA
-
nA carrles geneLlc lnformaLlon and ls sLored lnslde Lhe nucleus
-
8nA acLs as a shuLLle servlce copylng Lhe nA's lnformaLlon andcarrylng lL Lo where lL ls puL
lnLo acLlon
@ypes of Cells
-
A
homozygous ce||
ls a cell LhaL has ldenLlcal alleles LhaL conLrollLs parLlcular feaLures @hey are elLher boLh
domlnanL or recesslve13
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
-
A
heterozygous ce||
ls a cell LhaL has one domlnanL and onerecesslve allele for lLs characLerlsLlcs
o
urlng sexual reproducLlon genes are shuffled llke cards ln apack
o
Alleles LhaL are close Lo each oLher on Lhe same chromosomeofLen sLay LogeLher
Alleles
-
Allele
one of Lwo or more forms of Lhe same gene
-
A
dom|nant a||e|e
ls Lhe allele LhaL wlll mosL llkely express lLselfomlnanL characLerlsLlcs are wrlLLen as caplLal
leLLers
-
A
recess|ve a||e|e
ls parLnered by a domlnanL allele ls usuallymasked by Lhe domlnanL one L ls parL of Lhe
genoLype and can bepassed on Lo Lhe nexL generaLlon 8ecesslve characLerlsLlcs arenoLaLed
wlLh lower case leLLers
eneLlc nglneerlng
-
n geneLlc englneerlng sclenLlsLs dellberaLely change genoLypes bymovlng genes from one
organlsm Lo anoLher
-
eneLlc englneerlng can Lherefore glve an organlsm characLerlsLlcLhaL lL does noL normally
have8eproducLlve SysLemsemale 8eproducLlve SysLem
varles
@ w o o v a r l e s C l r c u l a r l n s h a p e r oduc e f ema l e s ex
c el l s eg g s or ov a r oduc e f ema l e hor mone oes L r og en
alloplan @ubes
A l s o k n o w n a s o v l d u c L s r ov l de a pa s s ag e way beL ween ov ar l es
and uLerus for Lhe eggs Lo Lravel er L l l l s aL l on oc c ur s l n f al l opl an L ubes
uLerus
A l s o k n o w n a s L h e w o m b Wher e Lhe f er Ll l l sed egg l mpl anL s
l Lsel f grows and devel ops from azygoLe Lo an embryo Lo a foeLus14
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe Wal l of L he uL erus provl des
nuL rl enL s f or embryo
Cervlx
nL er f a c e beL we en L he uL er us and L he v ag l na S u p p o r L s b a b y
d u r l n g p r e g n a n c y
vaglna
Al s o k nown as v agl nal c anal / bl r L h c a nal Wher e Lhe sper m enLers Lhe
f emal e reproducLl ve sys L emMale 8eproducLlve SysLem
@esLes
@ w o L e s L e s C l r c u l a r l n s h a p e r o d u c e m a l e s e x
c e l l s s p e r m r oduc e mal e hor mone L es L os L e r one
ScroLum
Skl n sac whl ch hol ds Lhe L esLes ouLsl de Lhe mal e body
vas eferens
A l s o k n o w n a s s p e r m d u c L @ube whl ch connecL s Lhe LesL es Lo Lhe
ur eL hra provl dl ng paLhway f orLhe sperm
ureLhra
SL ar L s a L L he v as def er ens L o L he ex L er na l envlronmenL r l m a r y [ o b
c a r r y u r l n e S e c o n d a r y [ o b L r a n s p o r L s p e r m
Semlnal veslcle
r o d u c e s f l u l d L o n o u r l s h s p e r m
lans enls
@r ans f er s s per m f r om L he mal e L o L he f emal e
ConLrol and CoordlnaLlon nervous SysLem
@he nervous sysLem ls dlvlded lnLo 2 parLs
o
@he CenLral nervous SysLem and
o
@he erlpheral nervous SysLem @he CenLral nervous SysLem l s dl vl ded l nLo 2
parL s @he br al n and Lhesplnal cord CnS r epresenLs L he l argesL par L of Lhe
nervous s ys Lem @he splnal cord carrles ouL 2 maln funcLlons
o
ConnecLs large parLs of Lhe perlpheral nervous sysLem Lo Lhe braln
o
@he splnal cord also acLs as a mlnor coordlnaLlng cenLre responslblefor some slmple reflexes
llke Lhe wlLhdrawal reflex
@he braln
o
@he braln ls parL of Lhe nervous sysLem
o
Made up from Lhe forebraln mldbraln and hlndbraln
o
Cerebrum Medulla and cerebellum
13
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
L recelves nerve lmpulses from Lhe splnal cord and 12 palrs of cranlal nerves
o
Analyses and sLores daLa dlrecLs Lhe acLlon Lo Lhe body
o
@he braln and splnal cord are made up of 2 Lypes of cells1 nu8nS Send messages
l n Lhe CnS2llal cells supporLs neurons ln Lhe CnS
SLlmulus 8esponse A sLlmulus ls whaL causes an organlsm Lo reacL
A response ls a reacLlon Lo Lhe sLlmulus @here are varlous nerves ln Lhe body whlch
deLecL sLlmull1When a sLlmulus ls deLecLed your braln sends Lhe message Loyour
muscles2 A bad smell ls a sLlmulus for Lhe recepLors ln your nose3Movlng your
hand from hoL waLer s a response Lo a sLlmull
r
@he paLh of sLlmulusSLlmulus
r
Sense rgan
r
Sensory neuron
r
lnLo Lhe neurons
r
MoLorneurons
r
ffecLors Muscle
@he nervous sysLem process
1SLlmull from Lhe sense organs change Lo elecLrlcal slgnals2@hese elecLrlcal
slgnals do noL sLay ln Lhe sense organs nervescarry Lhe slgnals Lo Lhe braln and splnal
cord3@he braln decldes whaL each sLlmulus l s @he braln also decldes howLo
respond Lo each sLlmulus4nerves carry *whaL Lo do * messages away from Lhe
bral n @hemessages go Lo Lhe parL of Lhe body LhaL wlll answer or respond LoLhe
sLlmull3MosL whaL Lo do messages go Lo muscles Some however go Loglands
MosL responses are carrled ouL by muscles
nerves/ nerve cells
ner v es ar e par L of L he ner v ous s y s L em W h a L d o L h e y d o ?
o
nerves carry elecLrlc pulses backwards and forwards from Lhe bralnsplnal cord and muscles
o
nerves are locaLed Lhrough Lhe body
o
nerve cells work LogeLher Lo coordlnaLe our body
o
nerve cells are Lhe longesL cells ln Lhe body
o
@hey have Lhe speclal name of neuron or neurone
o
neurons have Lhe shape and feaLures Lo allow Lhem Lo carrymessages
o
nerves are bundles of neurons
8eflex
A r ef l ex l s when you accl denLal l y Louch a hoL s Love and you pul l yourhand
away qulckly so qulckly LhaL your braln does noL know abouL lL16
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe @he normal acLl on l s f or a s Ll mul us
Lo be r ecel ved l n a sense organ andLhen deLecLed by a sensory neuron @he
lmpulse ls LransmlLLed Lo LhelnLerneuron @hen l L wl l l be s enL down sever al moLor
neurons Lo an ef f ecL or or gan such as a muscle Lo produce a movemenL Whereas ln a
reflex acLlonLhe message ln Lhe sensory neuron ls passed dlrecLly Lo a moLor neuronln Lhe
splnal column @he effecLor muscle recelves Lhe message Lomove sooner
8eflex paLhway
1SLlmulus deLecLed by heaL recepLors ln skln 2 Sensory neuron carrl es
l mpul se 3 Spl nal col umn r el ays l mpul s e 4 MoLor neur on carrl es
l mpul se 3 ff ecLor organ pul l s hand away
8ecepLors
o
8ecepLors are hlghly speclallsed cells LhaL are able Lo plckup a sLlmulus
o
@ypes of recepLors1 L l g h L r e c e p L o r s 2 @ a s L e r e c e p L o r s 3 S m e l l
r e c e p L o r s 4 S o u n d r e c e p L o r s 3 @ o u c h r e c e p L o r s 6 @e mper a L ur e
r e c epL or s 7 r es s ur e r ec epL or s
ffecLors
o
ffecLors are Lhe parLs of Lhe body LhaLrespond Lo a sLlmulus when lL ls senL Lo Lhem
Lndocr|ne System
ndoc r l ne s y s L em hel ps L he body L o ad[ us L L o L hechanges ouLslde and
lnslde Lhe body Wh a L d o e s L h e n d o c r l n e S y s L e m d o ? 1L produces
hormones (Chemlcal messages) 2 el ps conLr ol cheml cal r eacLl ons3ormones
move Lhrough ducLs and Lhey do noLempLy dlrecLly lnLo Lhe blood sLream where
Lhehormones are used4 u c L s a r e L u b e s arLs of Lhe ndocrlne SysLemlands
LocaLlon ormonesroduceduncLlons1 @he @hyroldglandALLached Lowlndplpe @hyroxln
ConLrols Lhe speed of chemlcal reacLlons lncells17
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe2 Adrenallandsn Lop of
LhekldneyAdrenalln repares your body foracLlon3
v a r l e s 8 e p r o d u c L l v e sysLem e s L r o g e n l
v e s g l r l s L h e l r f e m a l e feaLure such asbreasLs sofL skln anda femlnlne
volce4 lLulLaryglandsunder Lhe braln Makes manyhormonesConLrol growLhn females lL
conLrolsLhe release of eggsfrom ovarles LheblrLh of a baby3 @ h e
p a n c r e a s 8 e l o w L h e sLomachnsulln nsulln conLrols LheamounL of glucose lnLhe
blood6 @esLes 8eproducLlvesysLem @ e s L o s L e r o n e l v e b o y s L h e l r
m a l e feaLures such asdeeper volces andmore body halr Lhanfemales
@ransmlsslon of lseases
A dl s eas e l s a condl Ll on LhaL pr evenLs or s Lops L he body or any of l Ls parLs
from worklng welll seases ar e dl vl ded accordl ng Lo wheLher L hey are
l nf ecLl ous or non lnfecLlous
nfecLlous dlseases
o
nfecLlous dlseases are Lhose LhaL can be spread or Lransferred fromone person Lo anoLher
o
nfecLlous dlsease ls Lrlggered by an lnfecLlon or Lhe growLh of paLhogen
aLhogen
o
A dlsease produclng organlsm
o
aLhogenlc bacLerla damage Lhe cells of anlmals and planLs causlngdlsease
o
SomeLlmes Lhey produce polsonous wasLes or Loxlns
o
A plmple ls caused when a bacLerla geLs lnLo you sweaL glands
Mlcrobe
o
A mlcrobe ls usually [usL a slngle cell and so cannoL be seen wlLhouL amlcroscope
o
Mlcrobes are used Lo make bread and cheese
8acLerla
18
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
8acLerla are onecelled organlsms Lhey are among Lhe smallesL andslmplesL llvlng Lhlngs
o
@hey carry ouL all Lhe llfe funcLlons
o
8acLerla cells don'L have a deflnlLe nucleus
o
MosL bacLerla can'L move by Lhemselves Lhey are carrled by alr or movlngwaLer
lseases caused by bacLerla
l s e a s e W h a L l L d o e s o w l L
s p r e a d s @onsllllLls eadache sore LhroaLralsed LemperaLureSneezlng
coughlngsplLLlngW h o o p l n g c o u g h 8 a d c o u g h
r a l s e d LemperaLureSneezlng LouchlngsplLLlngSalmonella foodpolsonlnglarrhoea
feellng slck aLlng lnfecLed food @uberculosls very lll a bad cough WaLer dropleLs ln Lhealr
vlruses
o
vlruses are bundles of geneLlc maLerlal LhaL aLLack cells and Lakechemlcals from Lhem
o
@hey cannoL exlsL on Lhelr own
o
Some vlruses are easler Lo caLch Lhan oLhers and someLlmes you don'LcaLch Lhem agaln
afLer you have had Lhem once
xamples of vlruses
l s e a s e W h a L l L
d o e s o w l L
s p r e a d s nfluenza Aches palns runny nose
hlghLemperaLureWaLer dropleLs ln LhealrMe a s l e s S m a l l r e d s p o L s a n d a s k l n
r a s h C l o s e c o n L a c L Chlckenpox8alsed lLchy spoLs on skln Close conLacLMumps
Swollen cheeks and neck Close conLacLAS esLroys some of Lhe cells of Lhelmmune
sysLemSexual conLacL orblood8oss rlverfeveraLlgue and hlgh LemperaLure 8loodsucklng
lnsecLs
araslLes
o
A paraslLe ls an organlsm LhaL beneflLs aL Lhe expense of Lhe hosL
o
vecLors carry paraslLes and paLhogens from one hosL Lo anoLher
lseases caused by paraslLes
l s e a s e W h a L l L d o e s
o w l L s p r e a d s Ma l a r l a S e v e r e
r e c u r r l n g f e v e r Mo s q u l L o
@ y p h u s e v e r
m u s c l e p a l n rashLlce mlLes Llcks
fleasA m o e b l c d y s e n L e r y l a r r h o e a b l o o d l n L h e r o L o z o a n
l n f o o d a n d 19
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School
CerLlflcaLef a e c e s w
a L e r 8 l l h a r z l a 8 a s h
c o u g h d l a r r h o e a W a L e r
s n a l l
AnLlbodles
o
@hey are speclal proLelns LhaL are produced by cells of Lhe lmmunesysLem and clrculaLe ln
Lhe blood
o
AnLlbodles aLLack paLhogens when Lhey enLer Lhe body Lhe lmmuneresponse makes Lhe
lnvader harmless
o
@he lmmune sysLem produces subsLances LhaL are speclflcallyselecLed Lo aLLack a parLlcular
lnvadlng paLhogen
Crgan|sat|on of organs |n human body
rgans
o
An
organ
ls a sLrucLure LhaL conLalns aL leasL Lwo dlfferenL Lypes of Llssue funcLlonlng LogeLher for a
common purpose
o
@here are many dlfferenL organs ln Lhe body Lhe llver kldneyshearL even Lhe skln ls an
organ
rgan SysLems
o
rgan sysLems are composed of Lwo or more dlfferenL organsLhaL work LogeLher Lo provlde
a common funcLlon @here are 10ma[or organ sysLems ln Lhe human body1
SkeleLal sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe skeleLal sysLem ls Loprovlde supporL for Lhe body Lo proLecL dellcaLe
lnLernal organs andLo provlde aLLachmenL slLes for Lhe organs Ma[ or or gans 8ones
carLl l age Lendons and l l gamenL s 2
Muscular sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe muscular sysLem ls Loprovlde movemenL Muscles work ln palrs Lo
move llmbs and provldeLhe organlsm wlLh moblllLy Muscles also conLrol Lhe movemenL of
maLerlals Lhrough some organs such as Lhe sLomach and lnLesLlneand Lhe hearL and
clrculaLory sysLem Ma[ or or gans Skel eL al muscl es and smooLh
mus cl es LhroughouL Lhe body3
ClrculaLory sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe clrculaLory sysLem lsLo LransporL nuLrlenLs gases (such as oxygen and
C
2
) hormones andwasLes Lhrough Lhe body Ma[ o r or g an s ear L bl ood v es s el s
and bl ood 4
nervous sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe nervous sysLem ls Lorelay elecLrlcal slgnals Lhrough Lhe body @he
nervous sysLem dlrecLs20
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLebehavlour and movemenL and along wlLh
Lhe endocrlne sysLemconLrols physlologlcal processes such as dlgesLlon clrculaLlon eLc
Ma[ or organs 8r al n spl nal cord and per l pheral nerves 3
8esplraLory sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe resplraLory sysLem lsLo provlde gas exchange beLween Lhe blood and
Lhe envlronmenLrlmarlly oxygen ls absorbed from Lhe aLmosphere lnLo Lhe body
andcarbon dloxlde ls expelled from Lhe body Ma [ or or g ans nos e L r ac hea and
l ung s 6
lgesLlve sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe dlgesLlve sysLem ls Lobreakdown and absorb nuLrlenLs LhaL are
necessary for growLh andmalnLenance Ma[or organ MouLh oesophagus sLomach small
and largelnLesLlnes7
xcreLory sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe excreLory sysLem ls Lo fllLerouL cellular wasLes Loxlns and excess waLer
or nuLrlenLs from LheclrculaLory sysLem Ma[or organs kldneys ureLers bladder and
ureLhra8
ndocrlne SysLem
@he maln role of Lhe endocrlne sysLem ls Lorelay chemlcal messages Lhrough Lhe body n
con[uncLlon wlLh Lhenervous sysLem Lhese chemlcal messages help conLrol
physlologlcalprocesses such as nuLrlenL absorpLlon growLh eLc Ma[or organs Many glands
exlsL ln Lhe body LhaL secreLeendocrlne hormones Among Lhese are Lhe
hypoLhalamusplLulLary Lhyrold pancreas and adrenal glands9
8eproducLlve sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe reproducLlve sysLem lsLo manufacLure cells LhaL allow reproducLlon n
Lhe male sperm arecreaLed Lo lnsemlnaLe egg cells produced ln Lhe female Ma[or organs
emale ovarles ovlducLs uLerus vaglna andmammary glandsMale LesLes semlnal veslcles
and penls
10 LymphaLlc/nervous sysLem
@he maln role of Lhe lmmune sysLemls Lo desLroy and remove lnvadlng mlcrobes and vlruses
from Lhebody @he lymphaLlc sysLem also removes faL and excess flulds fromLhe
bloodMa[or organs Lymph lymph nodes and vessels whlLe blood cells @and 8 cells
L|ectr|c|ty
SLaLlc lecLrlclLySLaLlc elecLrlclLy ls elecLrlclLy LhaL ls noL movlng
Laws of SLaLlc lecLrlclLy
p p o s l L e c h a r g e s a L L r a c L L l k e c h a r g e s r e p e l 21
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe C har g ed and unc har g e d ob[ ec L s
aL L r a c L CurrenL (ynamlc) lecLrlclLy CurrenL (dynamlc) elecLrlclLy ls elecLrlclLyLhaL ls
movlng @he elecLrons move around ln a seL paLh (clrculL)lecLrlcal ClrculLs An elecLrlcal
clrculL ls a compleLe conducLlng paLhwayfor Lhe flow of elecLrlclLy from one Lermlnal of an
elecLrlcal cell/baLLeryback Lo Lhe oLher Lermlnal
arLs of a ClrculL
C energy source wher e L he el ecLrl cl Ly l s gener aL ed e g baL Ler y Cl r cul L
conLrol s swl L ches us ed L o open and cl ose Lhe cl rcul L Wl res conducLor s
LhaL Lransf er Lhe curr enL beL ween each componenL of Lhe clrculL 8esl sLor s
maLerl al s L haL resl sL L he currenL f l ow e g l l ghL bul bs appllances Me as ur l ng
dev l c es ammeL er s a nd v ol L meL er s us es or Cl rcul L breakers saf eLy
f eaLure whl ch s Lops L he f l ow of elecLrlclLy when clrculLs overheaL
lecLrlcal Symbols
ComponenL Symbolry Cell2 ry cellsMoLorLlghL bulbSwlLch (open )SwlLch
(closed)Wlre8eslsLorvarlable reslsLorvolLmeLerAmmeLer
Serles ClrculL
l ec L r ons hav e onl y one pa L h L o f ol l ow pen s wl L c h el ec L r l c l L y
dl s c onnec L s clrculL ls lncompleLe C l os ed s wl L c h el ec L r l c l L y l s
c onnec L ed clrculL ls compleLe22
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe ne appl l ance breaks down
whol e cl rcul L sL ops wor kl ng A p p l l a n c e s s h a r e e l e c L r l c l L y
arallel ClrculL
l ec L r ons hav e L wo or mor e pa L hs L o f ol l ow a c h p a L h h a s l L s
o wn s wl L c h When one appl l ance l n one paLh breaks down al l oLher
appl l ances l noLher paLhs sLlll work Appl l a nc es do n oL s har e
el ec L r l c l L y lecLrlc CurrenL @he slze of elecLrlc currenL depends on how many elecLrons
pass a polnL lna clrculL every second More elecLrons mean a larger currenL whlle
fewerelecLrons mean a smaller currenL
AmmeLer
evl ce us ed L o measur e Lhe sl ze of an el ecLrl c cur renL l a c e d l n
s e r l e s
Amperes
@he unl L l n whl ch Lhe sl ze of an el ecLrl c cur renL l s measur ed A n o L h e r
n a m e f o r e l e c L r l c c u r r e n L S y m b o l orce (volLage)orce ls
needed Lo make elecLrlclLy move orce pushes elecLrons ln aclrculL Lo make Lhem move
@he name for a force or pressure LhaL pusheselecLrons ls volLage or elecLromoLlve force
(M)
volLmeLer
ev l c e us ed L o meas ur e L h e s L r eng L h of L he M l a c e d l n
p a r a l l e l
volLs
un l L l n w h l c h L h e M l s m e a s u r e d S y m b o l
v 8eslsLance8eslsLance ls a measure of Lhe elecLrlcal conducLlvlLy of Lhe
conducLorMaLerlals LhaL are noL very good conducLors of elecLrlclLy are sald Lo
offerreslsLance Lo currenL flow @he symbol for reslsLance ls 8
hms
unl L l n whl ch Lhe amounL of resl s Lance l s measur ed S y m b o l
U hms Law hms l aw shows LhaL curr enL vol Lage and resl sL ance are al l
rel aL ed 23
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe M a L h e m a L l c a l l y 8 v / f
you l ncr eas e Lhe vol Lage Lhe curr enL wl l l al so auLomaLl cal l y l ncreaseaL Lhe
same raLe Lhus Lhe reslsLance remalns Lhe same
ClrculL Serles
o
n a clrculL serles Lhe elecLrons have only one paLh Lo follow LheswlLch ls closed whlch
makes Lhe clrculL compleLe
r
AdvanLages of clrculL serles
All volLages are added up LogeLher
r
lsadvanLages of clrculL serles
@wo lamps are only half s brlghL as one lamp becauseLhe elecLrons use Lhelr energy Lo llghL
Lhe lamp you canmake Lhem brlghL by lncreaslng Lhe volLages and youcan only Lurn off
boLh lamps LogeLher f one lampbreaks Lhe oLher breaks Looarallel Serles
o
@he llghL globes are shlnlng and Lhey are brlghL @here are 2 paLhsfor Lhe elecLrons Lo follow
f one lamp ls damaged Lhe oLher wlllconLlnue Lo funcLlon because Lhey don'L share Lhe
same paLh of elecLrons
r
AdvanLages of parallel serles
8rlghLness of Lhe globes does noL change @he lamps areequally as brlghL each lamp can be
Lurned on and off wlLhouLaffecLlng anoLher lamp
r
lsadvanLages of parallel serles
arallel serles are hard Lo seL
nvlronmenLal mpacLs of produclng elecLrlclLy@ypes of nergy
o
nonrenewable energy sources LhaL wlll evenLually run ouL
o
8enewable energy sources LhaL won'L run ouL because Lhey areconLlnually belng replaced
lobal Warmlng
24
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
lobal warmlng refers Lo Lhe average lncrease ln Lhe earLh'sLemperaLure as a resulL of a
bulld up of greenhouse gases g @hese chemlcals cause changes ln Lhe cllmaLe
r
Co2
r
MeLhane
r
nlLrous oxlde
o
@hese changes have some effecLs on earLh by maklng lL warmer
o
A warmer earLh may lead Lo changes ln ralnfall paLLerns a rlse lnsea levels and a wlde
range of lmpacLs on Lhe envlronmenL andhumans
lecLrlclLy roducLlon
o
Modern Lechnology uses large amounLs of elecLrlcal power @hls lsnormally generaLed aL
power planLs whlch converL some oLher klndof energy lnLo elecLrlcal power
o
@here are several ways Lo produce elecLrlclLy Lhey are
r
ossll uels Lhe burnlng of fossll fuels releases energy whlch hasbeen sLored as chemlcal
energy @he burnlng of fossll fuels affecLsLhe aLmosphere problems such as Lhe greenhouse
effecL acld ralnand smog
r
nuclear ower lL's fuelled by uranlum lL has problems wlLhdlsposlng radloacLlve wasLe lefL
by Lhe flsslon process AccldenLsChernobyl uSS8 ln 1896
r
@ldal power @ldes occur because of Lhe gravlLy of Lhe sun moonand planeLs waLer can be
Lrapped behlnd a dam aL hlgh Llde andused Lo drlve a Lurblne when lL's ouL
r
8lomass ls any maLLer derlved from blologlcal sources such as planLsanlmals (WAS@)
r
Wlnd power ls one of Lhe mosL promlslng of Lhe renewable energyLechnologles for
generaLlng elecLrlclLy
r
eoLhermal power rocks deep down ln Lhe ground can be used Lochange waLer lnLo sLeam
whlch can be used Lo generaLe elecLrlclLy
r
Solar ower Solar energy ls Lransformed lnLo elecLrlcal energy lnsolar cells and panels
nergy fflclency
23
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
cologlcal susLalnablllLy means LhaL Lhe needs of Lhe presenL populaLlon can be meL wlLhouL
endangerlng Lhe ablllLy of fuLuregeneraLlons Lo meeL Lhelr needs
o
on'L use elecLrlc blankeL when noL needed r replace lL wlLh acouple of warm blankeLs Lo
keep you warm
o
@ake showers lnsLead of baLhs
o
Wash only full load of cloLhes and use hoL waLer only for dlrLycloLhes
o
@ry Lo avold openlng Lhe refrlgeraLor and freezer Lo browse becauseeach Llme we do cold
alr escapes and Lhe energy cosLs lncrease
o
use Lhe mlcrowave lnsLead of an oven for cooklng meals Lo saveenergy
o
pen your curLalns ln wlnLer so llghL wlll come ln and warm yourroom
o
unplug all elecLronlc devlces LhaL are noL ln use eg vsLelevlslons mlcrowave eLc
because Lhey sLlll use energy whenLhey're plugged ln even Lhough Lhey're swlLched off
olluLlonolluLlon ls Lhe spolllng or polsonlng of Lhe envlronmenL Lhrough humanacLlvlLy
-
olluLlon
ls usually a resulL of conLamlnaLlon by unwanLedsubsLances
-
ndusLrlallsaLlon
ln Lhe lasL 130 years has had a ma[or lmpacL on alrand waLer quallLy and produced large
quanLlLles of Loxlc wasLes26
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
Alr olluLlon
Ma[or olluLanLs
o
Smoke dusL sulphur dloxlde carbon monoxlde and lead
o
Low concenLraLlons may harm llvlng organlsms lncludlng humansand hlgh concenLraLlons
may klll Lhem
WaLer olluLlon
Ma[or polluLanLs
o
ndusLrlal wasLes oll and pesLlcldes may be Loxlc Lo llvlngorganlsms Lhe addlLlon of sewage
and runoff from ferLlllsed sollsreduced Lhe oxygen level and Lhe number of organlsms
whlch canbe supporLed
o
Suspended sollds washed lnLo waLerways as a resulL of soll eroslonreduce llghL levels and
may cause sllLlng changlng an aquaLlcecosysLem compleLely
umplng wasLes
Ma[or polluLanLs
o
WasLe maLerlals from urban and lndusLrlal areas may be deposlLedunLreaLed and ln bulk ln
oLher ecosysLems Sewage Loxlc meLalsand wasLe from lndusLry and Lonnes of household
garbage aredlsposed of everyday on Lo Lhe land or lnLo Lhe waLer
o
Some of Lhese maLerlals may be Loxlc Lo llvlng Lhlngs
o
lasLlc may be nonblodegradableSlmple Machlnes
Slmple Machlnes
27
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
A machlne ls a devlce LhaL makes a physlcal Lask easler lL canchange speed make force
sLronger or change dlrecLlon used lnevery day llfe
o
A machlne can change a weak force lnLo a sLrong force
o
@he number of Llmes a machlne mulLlplles a force ls called lLsmechanlcal advanLage
o
A machlne dlvldes a blg [ob lnLo smaller easler [obs
o
@he smaller [obs are spread ouL over a longer dlsLance
@ypes of slmple machlnes and examples
-
Lever a slmple machlne LhaL ls uses Lhe Lurnlng effecL of aforce Lo make a Lask easler g
Can opener sclssors Longsspanners hammers brooms Lennls rackeL
-
ncllned planes
-
Wheels
-
ulleys
-
Axles
-
ears
AdvanLages
o
Makes a physlcal Lask easler
o
elps us Lo do our [obs buL lL sLlll needs Lhe same force
o
Machlnes dlvlde work lnLo smaller work
lsadvanLages
o
A machlne does noL mulLlply a force wlLhouL charglng a prlce
o
When a machlne mulLlplles a force lL also lncreases Lhe efforLdlsLance
o
@here ls a deflnlLe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe efforL dlsLance and LhereslsLance dlsLance
8ev eads (newLon's laws)1 newLon' s l r sL l aw n8@ A
ner Ll a l s an ob[ ecL' s r esl s L ance Lo change l n moLl on dependl ng onlLs mass
@he greaLer Lhe mass Lhe greaLer Lhe lnerLla28
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
An ob[ecL wlll remaln aL resL or wlll noL change lLs speed dlrecLlonunless lL ls acLed upon by
an ouLslde unbalanced force
2
newLon's second law
es crl bes how much mass of an ob[ ecL af f ecL s Lhe way LhaL l L moveswhen
acLed upon by one or more forces
r
orce ls a push or pull or a LwlsL acLlng on an ob[ecLorces can make Lhlngs change shape
dlrecLlon andspeed @he effecL LhaL a force has on an ob[ecL dependson lLs mass and Lhe slze
of Lhe force or ces can be a conL acL for ce eg f rl cLl onal s LreL chl ng al r
resl s L ance
-
nonconLacL force eg conLacLgravlLaLlonalmagneLlc Lhe forces LhaL acL beLween ob[ecLs
LhaL donoL Louch each oLher are called nonconLacL forces @ h e 6 L y p e s o f
o r c e s
o
ravlLy or welghL always acLlng sLralghL downwards
o
8eacLlon force from a surface usually acLlng sLralghLupwards
o
@hrusL or push or pull due Lo an englne or rockeL speedlngsomeLhlng up
o
rag or alr reslsLance or frlcLlon whlch ls slowlng Lhe Lhlngdown
o
LlfL due Lo an aero plane wlng
o
@enslon ln a force or cable
orce mass x acceleraLlon Lhere's a relaLlonshlp beLween mass and force because lf Lhe
force goes up Lhe mass goes up3 newLon's @hlrd law

or every acLlon Lhere ls an equal and opposlLe reacLlonMass and welghL
Mass l s L he measure of Lhe amounL of maLL er l n an ob[ ecL @he unl L used Lo
descrlbe mass ls kllograms @he l arger an ob[ ecL' s mass Lhe mor e f or ce l s
needed L o sLar L l L movl ngand Lo sLop lL movlng
o
Mass force / acceleraLlon @he mor e f orce l s needed Lo change l L s dl r ecLl on
when l L l s movl ng @he l arger l s Lhe f or ce of aLLr acLl on l L exerLs on
anoLher ob[ ecL @he force of aL Lr acLl on beL ween ob[ ecLs or masses l s
cal l ed gr avl LaLl onal force or gravlLy ravl L aLl onal f or ces hol d Lhe earLh l n
orbl L around Lhe sun and L hemoon around Lhe earLh @he gravlLaLlonal force on an
ob[ecL ls called lLswelghL W e l g h L
o
s Lhe downward force of gravlLy (n)
o
s a measured ln newLons llke all oLher forces
o
WelghL (n) mass (kg) x acceleraLlon due Lo gravlLy (n/kg)wm x g29
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
AcceleraLlon and deceleraLlon
o
AcceleraLlon ls a measure of Lhe raLe aL whlch lL changes speed orwhen an ob[ecL moves ln
a sLralghL llne
o
@o calculaLe Lhe acceleraLlon average acceleraLlon Change lnspeed@lme Laken
o
@he more Lhe frlcLlon Lhe less Lhe acceleraLlon
o
2 Lhlngs LhaL affecL acceleraLlon Mass forces (frlcLlon)
o
eceleraLlon ls Lhe decrease ln speed
Speed/Llme and dlsLance relaLlonshlp
o
Speed lsLance/Llme
o
lsLance speed x Llme
o
@lme lsLance/speed
@heory of laLe LecLonlcs/SLraLlgraphyur conLlnenL
o
@he conLlnenLs LhaL exlsL Loday developed from one glanL conLlnenLcalled angaea
o
@he edges of LecLonlc plaLes are slLes of lnLense geologlcal acLlvlLysuch as earLhquakes
volcanoes and mounLaln formaLlon
@he Lheory of laLe LecLonlcs
o
@he Lheory of global dynamlcs ln whlch Lhe crusL ls broken up lnLoplaLes LhaL move over Lhe
manLle @he marglns of Lhe plaLes areslLes of conslderable geologlc acLlvlLy
o
@he plaLes move around very slowly on Lop of Lhe manLle
o
ConLlnenLs rlde on a number of Lhe plaLes
o
@he lnLeracLlons beLween plaLes aL Lhelr boundarles resulLs lnearLhquakes volcanoes
foldlng and faulLlng
o
arLhquakes and volcanoes erupLlons occur aL weak polnLs ln LheearLhs crusL
o
@he uraslan and Lhe norLh Amerlcan plaLes are spreadlng
@he movemenL of earLh
o
@here are 3 maln locaLlons of plaLe acLlvlLles30
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe1ConsLrucLlve boundarles when Lwo
plaLes move awayfrom each oLher Lhey leave a gap ouL Lhrough whlchmagma from Lhe
arLh's manLle oozes2esLrucLl ve boundarles someLlmes plaLes push agalnsLeach
oLher and one ls forced down under Lhe oLher @heold ocean crusL ls belng dragged back
lnLo Lhe manLle @hls ls called subducL lon3nLraplaLe hoL spoLs someLlmes a narrow
secLlon of magma burns Lhrough Lhe crusL creaLlng a hoL spoL @hlssecLlon remalns
sLaLlonary whlle Lhe plaLe moves over lL
@he Lheory of ConLlnenLal drlfL
o
@he Lheory LhaL Lhe conLlnenLs have moved lnrelaLlon Lo one anoLher
SLraLlgraphy@he sLudy or orlglns composlLlon and developmenL of rock sLraLa
@he ear Lh l s made up of a cenL r al cor e s urrounded by Lhe manLl e andan
ouLer layer called Lhe crusL
osslls
o
8emalns of planLs and anlmals
o
@hey are usually found ln sedlmenLary rocks
o
@hey are lmporLanL because Lhey Lell us whaLhappened mllllons of years ago
o
@hey help us Lo learn more abouL Lhe earLh's hlsLoryand cllmaLe geology and envlronmenL
o
MosL fosslls are excavaLed from sedlmenLary rocks
ow are fosslls preserved?
1When planLs and anlmals dle Lhey generally roL or are eaLen away @hls happens
qulckly ln a maLLer of days or monLhs2@he hardesL parLs (wood LeeLh and bone) are
Lhe lasL Lo decay3f Lhey become burled ln sedlmenL such as gravel sand sllL
andespeclally mud Lhey are mosL llkely Lo be fosslllsed4osslllsaLlon ofLen lnvolves
shell bone and wood belng slowlyreplaced by mlnerals31
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
voluLlon due Lo naLural selecLlon
o
@he Lheory of naLural selecLlon proposes LhaL lL ls Lhe envlronmenLLhaL selecLs favourable
varlaLlons and ellmlnaLes harmful ones
voluLlon
o
voluLlon can only Lake place lf Lhe llvlng Lhlngs ln a populaLlon arenoL all Lhe same
@he 4 baslc sLeps of evoluLlon
1@here are varlaLlons ln Lhe genes carrled by lndlvlduals2nvlronmenLal
pressures selecL some lndlvlduals and re[ecL oLhers3@he besL adapLed lndlvlduals
have Lhe gene LhaL allows Lhem Losurvlve Lhe envlronmenLal pressures4 enes ar e
passed on L o many generaLl ons
Charles arwln's @heory on voluLlon
32
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe n any popul aLl on Lhere are
varl aLl ons al l L he members of one s pecl es are noL ldenLlcal n any generaLl on
Lher e ar e of f sprl ng LhaL do noL reach maLurl Ly andreproduce Lhe characLerlsLlcs
of Lhese organlsms are removed from LhepopulaLlon @hose or ganl sms L haL survl ve
and reproduce are wel l adapLed Lo LhaL envlronmenL Lhey have favourable
varlaLlons avour abl e varl aLl ons are pass ed on Lo of f sprl ng Lhey become
mor eand more common ln Lhe populaLlon
8loLlc and abloLlc feaLures of Lhe envlronmenLcosysLem
o
Lcosystem
ls any envlronmenL llvlng organlsms LhaL lnLeracL wlLheach oLher and wlLh Lhe nonllvlng
parLs of Lhe envlronmenL
o
cosysLems are largely selfsusLalnlng because maLerlals andenergy are exchanged beLween
Lhe organlsms and LhelrenvlronmenL
o
nergy from sunllghL enLers Lhe sysLem Lhrough phoLosynLhesls lnplanLs and Lhen flows
Lhrough oLher llvlng organlsms vla food webs
o
nvlronmenLs have
Ab|ot|c
and
8|ot|c
feaLures
o
@he hablLaL of an organlsm ls Lhe place where lL llves
o
@he sLudy of Lhe relaLlonshlps llvlng organlsms have wlLh each oLherand wlLh Lhelr
envlronmenL ls called
eco|ogy
o
In an ecosystem there |s no reuse of energy |t |s e|therused by a ||v|ng th|ng or |ost as heat
8ecause of th|s acont|nua| |nput of energy |s needed to keep ||v|ng systemsfunct|on|ng
AbloLlc and bloLlc feaLures
-
AbloLlc means nonllvlng Lhey lnclude physlcal andchemlcal facLors such as Lhe
LemperaLure ralnfall Lype of soll and Lhe sallnlLy of Lhe waLer
-
8loLlc means llvlng lL lncludes all Lhe llvlng organlsms howmany Lypes Lhere are Lhelr
numbers dlsLrlbuLlon andlnLeracLlons33
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
Cyc|es of nature
@he waLer cycle
o
WaLer ln Lhe aLmosphere falls Lo Lhe earLh's surface as raln or snow
o
WaLer falllng on land wlll evaporaLe back lnLo Lhe aLmosphere dralnlnLo Lhe oceans vla
lakes or rlvers or become Lrapped far below Lhesurface ln arLeslan baslns
o
WaLer ln Lhe oceans and ln all bodles of waLer on land such asponds lakes and rlvers
evaporaLe lnLo Lhe aLmosphere compleLlngLhe cycle
@he carbonoxygen cycle
o
Carbon dloxlde ls absorbed from alr by land planLs durlngphoLosynLhesls and lncorporaLed
lnLo planL compounds xygen lsreleased back lnLo Lhe alr by planLs
o
8esplraLlon by llvlng organlsms uses oxygen and reLurns somecarbon dloxlde Lo Lhe
aLmosphere
o
When llvlng Lhlngs dle Lhelr bodles are broken down bydecomposers and more carbon
dloxlde ls released
o
A large amounL of carbon ls sLored ln coal oll and naLural gasdeposlLs
o
8urnlng Lhese fuels reLurns carbon dloxlde Lo Lhe aLmosphere
o
volcanoes also emlL carbon dloxlde when Lhey erupL34
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
o
Carbon cycles very qulckly Lhough ecosysLems
hoLosynLhesls
-
hoLosynLhesls lsLhe process by whlch planLcells capLure energyfrom sunllghL and use lL Lo
comblne carbon dloxlde and waLer Lomake sugars and oxygen
-
All llvlng Lhlngs depend on phoLosynLhesls
-
@he compounds planLs make durlng phoLosynLhesls provldenuLrlenLs and energy Lo
organlsms LhaL consume planLs
8esplraLlon
-
8esplraLlon ls Lhe process by whlch cells obLaln energy
-
n resplraLlon organlc molecules parLlcularly sugars are brokendown Lo produce carbon
dloxlde and waLer and energy ls released
8elaLlonshlp beLween resplraLlon and phoLosynLhesls
-
8esplraLlon and phoLosynLhesls mlghL appear Lo be almosL Lhereverse of each oLher
-
@hls ls noL Lrue Lhe sequence ln one ls noL Lhe reverse ln Lhe oLher33
?ear 10 Sclence ?early noLes /School CerLlflcaLe
-
@he processes Lhemselves are relaLed because energy from Lhe sunls lncorporaLed lnLo Lhe
producLs of phoLosynLhesls
nergy flow Lhrough a naLural ecosysLemood chalns
-
@he flow of energy from one llvlng Lhlng Lo anoLher can be showndlagrammaLlcally ln a food
chaln
reen planL
r
planLeaLer
r
anlmaleaLer
o
ood chalns begln wlLh planLs (producers) lanL eaLers areherblvores Anlmal eaLers are
carnlvores Anlmals LhaL eaL boLh planLs and anlmals are omnlvores erblvorescarnlvores
and omnlvores are all consumers
o
Scavengers are consumers LhaL eaL dead anlmals
o
ecomposers have an lmporLanL role Lo play Lhey make LhemaLerlals produced by
decomposlLlon avallable Lo planLsood webs
-
ood webs are a serles of lnLeracLlng food chalns llnk up Lo form afood web
r
L ls a complex seL of lnLeracLlng food chalns wlLhln anecosysLem
r
@he feedlng level of an organlsm ls someLlmes called lLs Lrophlc level
36