MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

BACHELORS OF SOCIAL WORK

DETERMINANTS OF HOW RURAL DEVELOPMENT HAS CONTRIBUTED TO

HUMAN ANIMAL CONFLICT CASES IN GAME MANAGEMENT AREAS

A CASE STUDY OF LUANGWA DISTRICT

SUPERVISOR: MR NIXON CHISONGA

BY

GETRUDE MUCHIMBA

A Thesis Presented to the School of Development Studies Graduate of Mulungushi University in

partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Bachelors in Social Work.
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

31st May, 2024.

Mulungushi University,

School of Social Sciences

Department of Social Development Studies

Main Campus

P.O Box 80415

Kabwe.

Dear Sir/Madam

REF: SUBMITION OF FINAL YEAR THESIS

With reference to the above subject, I write to submit my thesis titled: “Determinants of how
Rural Development has contributed to Human-animal Conflict cases in Game
Management Areas, a case study of Luangwa District”. This is part of a University
requirement as partial fulfilment of the requirement of a Bachelor’s degree in Social Work.

The thesis aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the interaction between rural
development initiatives and wildlife behaviour, and how these interactions impact both the local
communities and wildlife conservation efforts in Luangwa District, Lusaka Province of Zambia.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Mr Nixon Chisonga, for his
invaluable guidance and support throughout this research project. I also extend my appreciation
to the faculty members of staff of the department of Social development studies for their support

It’s my sincere hope that this thesis satisfies and meets the requirements of the University.

Yours Faithfully,

Getrude Muchimba
Student No. 202103082
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis study could not have been accomplished without input of some key people. I would
like to express my best gratitude to my research supervisor Mr Nixon Chisonga for his excellent
guidance and individual suggestions for the success of this work. The help provide by staff at
Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and municipal Council Luangwa, was greatly appreciated.
Besides, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my immediate work supervisor
Provincial Registrar Mrs Lillian Musanje for always being supportive. I am also grateful to
individual respondents from within Luangwa District. Lastly but not the least my gratitude goes
to my friends and my lovely family for their encouragement and support from the very beginning
till the end of the study. Thank you
DECLERATION

I confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own

Where information has been derived from other source,

No part of this information has been submitted to any other university

Name: Getrude Muchimba

Signed………………………………

Date…………………………………

Supervisor Mr. Nixon Chisonga

Signed……………………………………

Date……………………………………
DEDICATION
I dedicate this field project to my Heavenly Father “God Almighty” who has always been my
greatest source of inspiration. I also dedicate this work to my late Father and to my lovely
Mother who is always there for me and encouraged me all the way and made sure that I make
it through to the end despite few challenges faced. To my Siblings Beauty, Mavis, Gloria,
Marshal and Milimo thank you for being supportive in your own special ways. Thank you, God
bless you all.
ABSTRACT/ SUMMARY

Human Animal conflict poses significant challenge in game management areas where rural
development intersects with Wildlife habitats. This study investigates the determinants
contributing to human-animal conflict in game management areas “Luangwa District “and the
study has been undertaken between 2023/2024 in four selected villages and the boma residents.
Luangwa district is geographically located in the Luangwa south National park. The study
objectives were;to identify key causes drivers of rural development in game management areas,
to assess the impact of human animal conflict on the local communities, to enhance on possible
mitigation measures and strategies in addressing challenges arising from human animal conflict
Data was collected through survey questionnaires and interviews with the local communities,
wildlife authorities, and conservation experts in Luangwa district, council staffs in the planning
section in selected game management areas.

Findings highlight the complex interplay of social-economic factors, land use changes, and
wildlife behaviour in shaping conflict dynamics. Understanding these determinants is crucial for
developing effective mitigation measures and promoting sustainable coexistence between
humans and wildlife.

The researcher used descriptive method and data were collected using questionnaires and
interviews. The study used a sample of 100 out of which 90 questionnaire were filled and
returned.

In conclusion, the student concluded that the theoretical knowledge and skills acquired during
lectures at the University were very helpful during the execution of work in the field. Survey
questionnaires and interviews were some of the techniques the student applied during the data
collection process.

Note: For community members who could not read and write, their questionnaires were filled in
as they were being interviewed by the student.
Table of Contents

Contents Pages

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………..

Declaration……………………………………………………………………………

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….

Abstract Summary……………………………………………………………………

Table of Content……………………………………………………………………….

List of Tables …………………………………………………………………………

Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………….

1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................
1.1. Background to the Study..........................................................................................
1.2. Statement of the problem...........................................................................................
1.3. Research Objectives....................................................................................................
1.3.1. General objective.....................................................................................................
1.3.2. Specific objectives...................................................................................................
1.4. General Research Question.........................................................................................
1.5. Specific Research Questions.......................................................................................
1.6. Scope of the study…………………………………………………………………...
1.7. Rationale of the Study.................................................................................................
2.0 Literature Review..........................................................................................................
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................
2.2. Human Animal Conflict concept and definition............................................................
2.3. Causes and Impact of Human Animal conflict..............................................................
2.4. Human Animal Conflict and Rural development in Africa............................................
2.5. Human Animal Conflict and Rural development in Zambia.........................................
2.6. Human Animal Conflict and rural development correlation.........................................
2.7. Knowledge gap identifield.............................................................................................
2.8. Mitigation strategies of human Animal Conflict in relation to rural development …..
3.0 Research Methodology..................................................................................................
3.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................
3.2. Research Design............................................................................................................
3.3 Data Collection Instrument............................................................................................
3.4. Approach to the Study……………………………………………………………….
3.5. Population……………………………………………………………………………
3.6. Sample Size..................................................................................................................
3.7. Sampling Procedure......................................................................................................
3.8. Data Collection Tool.....................................................................................................
3.9. Ethical Considerations...................................................................................................
4.0 Report Writing…………...............................................................................................
4.1 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………
4.2 Discussion and Interpretation of Results…………………………………………….
5.0 Conclusion/Recommendation……………………………………………………….
5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..
5.2 Recommendation……………………………………………………………………
References.......................................................................................................................
Appendix 1 Questionnaire Form........................................................................................
List of Tables

Table 1-Gender and Age of Respondents…………………………………………..

Table 2-Marital status and Occupation of Respondents ……………………………

Table 3-Duration of stay in Luangwa and occurrences of human Animal Conflict…

Table 4-Levels of Rural Development in Luangwa……………………………….....

Table 5-Identified key drivers of Rural Development and highest impact…………..

Table 6-Identified causes of Human-animal conflict in Luangwa ………………......

Table 7-Identified effects/impact of Human-animal in Luangwa district …………...

Table 8-Relationship of population growth, agricultural expansion and infrastructure

development and wildlife conflict…………………………………………………………………

Table 9-Mitigation strategies through human behavior activities and strategies to be intensified
by ZAWA to mitigate wildlife conflict ………………………………………………
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CDF-Constituency Development Fund

GMAs-Game management areas

HWC- Human Wildlife Conflict

NGOs-Non-governmental Organisations

ZAWA-Zambia Wildlife Authority

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Human animal conflict results from a clash of humans and wild animals’ habitation. Human –
world life conflict is a universal problem and it vary according to geography, land use patterns,
human behaviour, the habitat and behaviour of wildlife species or individual animals within the
species (WWF, 2005).

This tension mainly affects a population that is marked within the boundary of a national park.
Human world life conflict is a universal problem and it vary according to geography, land use
patterns, human behaviour, the habitat and behaviour of wildlife species or individual animals
within the species. This tension mainly affects a population that is marked within the boundary
of a national park. These conflicts typically occur when wild animals overlap with human
settlements or activities or vice versa. Human animal conflict is a worldwide problem and has
been on the increase in the past recent years and communities situated in game management area
have been mostly affected. (WWF, 2005).

The rapid animal population growth and the need on the emphasis to develop and change the
face of rural areas has greatly contributed to these conflicts. This chapter will provide a
background to the study by looking at how rural development has influenced human animal
conflict in game management areas, the statement of the problem that will guide this research as
well as the research objectives, research questions and the significance of the study will be
presented.

1.1.Background to the Study

Luangwa district is situated in the Luangwa south National park which is one of the biggest
parks in Zambia and it is one of the oldest district in Lusaka province Zambia and it is also a
rural developing area which is geographically located in the game management area. In the past
years development has been has been taking place rapidly and this has seen the rise and increase
of the human animal tension.
This problem has been ongoing for decades, and yet still more efforts need to be implemented
and come up with a lasting sustainable measures to end and manage this problem. The main
causes of this challenge is the rural development which has led to a raise in human population
which has expanded its habitation in animal corridor areas and affects habitants and behaviours
of animals. Growing population leading to high demand of land, resulting to land encroachment
for agricultural, health posts, schools and waste management. Nevertheless, Wildlife is a very
important natural resource that has continued to contribute to the social economic development
through tourism and a source employment to the local people who work generally in the game
managenmt under the wildlife authority.

Human-wildlife Conflict is defined as any interaction between humans and wildlife that results
in negative impacts on social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of Wildlife
populations, or on the environment (WWF, 2005). It affects both wild animal and human being
and also economy. Human-wildlife conflict causes various negative results both in human and
wildlife. The major outcomes of human-wildlife conflicts are crop damage, livestock
depredation, damage to human property and collapse of wildlife population (Woodroffe, 2005).

Casemangement areas are designated geographical regions where wildlife conservation and
controlled hunting coexist. These areas play a critical role in balancing conservation with
community livelihoods. They often overlap with rural or tribal communities that rely on land
for their sustenance. Most rural communities like Luangwa depend on agriculture as a means of
survival and in some cases some farming activities has led to some land encroachment in the
park and fish as it is has two water sources the Luangwa and Zambezi river which also the
animals depend on the same water bodies for their survival.

Rural development encompasses various socio-economic and infrastructure improvements in

rural areas.it can lead to human population growth, land-use changes, and economic shifts,
impacting the dynamics of human-animal conflicts, infrastructure development, and resource
extraction may influence these conflicts. (Redpath, 2013).

Furthermore the main purpose of conducting this research is to review how local authorities who
are delegated in rural planning to work together with the wildlife authorities in providing
guidance in identifying areas for human habitation to help avoid building infrasture and the local
people invading animal corridor areas. In a nut shell the research aims to comprehensively
analyse the determinants factors behind human animal conflict with the context of rural
development and seek to provide valuable insights for developing targeted strategies and
possible policies that can mitigate these such conflicts.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Luangwa District is a game management area and facing a serious challenge of Increased Human
animal conflict affecting its population. As a result of this growing tension between humans and
wildlife, more needs to be done in Luangwa as a number of human lives have continued to be
lost, farming crops for small scale farmers and small household gardening have been destroyed,
livestock has also been attacked just to mention a few. If not managed well this can lead to
hunger and pause a serious threat on food security within the district. On the other, despite
Governments efforts and main stake holders in working towards finding better mitigating
strategies to this vice. There is still need to understand and investigate further on the main
causes of human conflict in Luangwa District and come up with more efficiently and sustainable
mitigating strategies that promote co-existence of wild life and human life.

1.3 Research Objective

1.3.1 General Objectives

To examine how rural development has contributed to increased human animal conflict incidents
in game management area, Luangwa district in particular.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

i. To identify key causes drivers of rural development in game management areas.

ii. To assess the impact of human animal conflict on the local communities
iii. To enhance on possible mitigation measures and strategies in addressing challenges
arising from human animal conflict
1.4 Research questions
1.4.1 .General research question
What are the determinants of rural development of how rural development has contributed to
increased having mitigation strategies in dealing with human animal conflict, preserving
biodiversity, and supporting sustainable rural development in Luangwa district.
 1.4.2. Specific Research questions

i. To what extent do factors like population growth, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure
development correlate with increasing human animal conflict in game management areas,
Luangwa
ii. What are the perceptions of local communities towards the impact on human animal conflict
in game management areas, Luangwa
iii. What are the existing strategies and practices employed by authorities to manage and
mitigate human animal conflict in rural development projects within game management
areas
1.5 Significance of the study
Human animal has had quite a negative effect on the local community of Luangwa district and
great a threat to human life. The findings of this research aims to find out more on the
determinants and factors contributing to these conflicts. Understanding these contributing factors
is vital for Human animal conflict in game management area (Luangwa)
1.6 Scope of the study

The study will be conducted in Luangwa district. On the subject matter determinants of rural
development has contributed to human animal conflict in game management areas.

Location (rural/urban): Luangwa is Located in the Rural area of Lusaka Province

Geographical boundaries: Located in the eastern part of Lusaka Province covering an

approximate area of 3,886 square kilometers bordering with Rufunsa in the north, Mozambique
in the east, Zimbabwe in the south and Kafue in the west.

Distance from Lusaka: 387km

Distance from Luangwa Bridge turn off: 90km

Wheather
In addition, Luangwa district is characterised of very high temperatures and poor rainy pattern as
it is in the valley and it is believed to be the lowest point in Zambia and it has the confluence
area where the Luangwa and Zambezi River meet.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Human-animal conflict is a complex issue that arises when human activities and the presence of
wildlife overlap, particularly in rural areas with game management areas (GMAs). This literature
review aims to explore the determinants of how rural development has contributed to human-
animal conflict cases, focusing on Luangwa District as a case study. The review will incorporate
insights and studies that have been done around the topic from various sources, including
Zambian articles, various books, reports, and a worldwide perspective.

2.2. Concept and definition of Human animal conflict

Human-Wildlife Conflict is any interaction between wildlife and humans which causes harm,
whether it is to the human, the wild animal, or property (Property includes buildings, equipment,
livestock and pets, crops fields or fences. Conflicts between wildlife and humans cost many
lives, both human and wildlife, threatens livelihoods, and jeopardize long-term conservation
goals such as securing protected areas and building constituencies in support of biodiversity
conservation.

There are many dimensions to the whole issue of Human Wildlife Conflict, which can chiefly be
understood in two broad categories viz., wildlife and habitat dimensions and human dimensions
(Barua et al. 2013). The wildlife and habitat dimensions are natural geographical features of
animal habitat, increase in wildlife number, migratory pattern of animals, occurrence of
stray/isolated animal population, shrinkage/degradation of habitat and corridors, diminution of
habitat quality. Human dimensions include cultivation up to boundary of forests, cropping
pattern and intensity, higher road density, railway lines and canals in wildlife habitats,
development of human habitat space and urban infrastructure, large human presence in animal
dominated landscapes, life style pattern, retaliatory response from people, unscientific restraint
measures, lack of awareness and inadequacy of frontline staff (Ogra, 2008).

2.3. Causes and Impact of human Animal Conflict

The main cause of human-wildlife conflict worldwide is the competition between growing
human populations and wildlife for the same declining living spaces and resource (Madden,
2008). The transformation of forests, savannah and other ecosystem in to agrarian areas or urban
6 agglomerates as a consequence of the increasing demands for land, food production, energy
and raw materials has leads to dramatic decrease in wildlife habitat(Sillero-Zubiri and
Switzer,2001).

The major causes of human-wild animals conflict could be attributed to many factors ranging
from wild animals population increase to human population increase (Edward and Frank,
2012).More peoples means more cultivated land and hence a greater interface between people
and wildlife. The world population is predicted to grow by over 50% in the next fifty years, from
six billion in 2000 to over nine billion in 2050 and the increment in both wild life and human
population create competitions in fixed resources which leads to conflict.(Sillero-Zubiri and
Switzer,2001).

Wildlife-human conflicts are a serious obstacle to wildlife conservation and the livelihoods of
people worldwide and are becoming more prevalent as human population increases, development
expands, and these ultimately cause conflict with wildlife. The key reasons for human-animal
conflict are encroachment of human being in wildlife habitat for development purpose &
survival purpose as well as allowing livestock for grazing purpose in the forest area, forest fire.
This conflict leads to loss to both human & animal. The result of this conflict is severe which
result into the loss to crops of farmers and decline in wildlife conservation as well as human life
(Distefano, 2008).

Man-animal conflict often takes place when wild animals cause damage to agricultural crop and
property, killing of livestock and human beings. Human population growth, land use
transformation, species loss of habitat, eco-tourism, too much access to reserves, increase in
livestock population bordering the forest, depletion of natural prey base. Although a lot of
studies have been done worldwide but such studies are limited in India. Recent studies in Aravali
(Dutta et al., 2014) about effects of mining and its effects have shown negative impacts on bio-
diversity and climate change as well (Kaur et al., 2014). On the part of wild animals, the
sufferance finds expression through retaliatory response from the affected people or the accidents
leading to injury or death of the animals (Woodroffe et al. 2005).

2.4. Human animal Conflict and rural development in Africa

Namibia's Zambezi region is rich in biodiversity and has an extensive history of HWC (Mulonga
et al., 2003). Three national parks (Bwabwata, Mudumu, and Nkasa-Rupara) and 15 CBC
initiatives, called community conservancies, cover large portions of the region. Numerous
wildlife corridors cross the Zambezi region making it a conservation hotspot (Naidoo et al.,
2018). According to 2020 game counts, the main species in the Zambezi region are impalas
(Aepyceros melampus), zebras (Equus quagga), elephants (Loxodonta Africana), and warthogs
(Phacochoerus Africans) (NACSO, 2020). Other potential conflict animals are hippos
(Hippopotamus amphibious) and baboons (Papio ursinus). Apart from zebras, all of these
animals can potentially cause conflicts as they can either raid crops, prey on livestock, or pose a
direct threat to humans.

The consequences of human-wildlife conflicts are crop destruction, livestock predation, human
death and injuries are sometimes recorded. For example in Cameroon wildlife species
responsible for human deaths and injuries include elephants, buffalo, lions and hippopotamus
(Lamarque et al., 2009).Human-wild animals’ conflicts were happened when the actions of
humans or wild animals have an adverse impact upon the other. It recognized that humans have
profoundly impacted wildlife and the environment in many ways, through habitat loss, pollution,
introduction and spread of exotic and invasive species, overexploitation, and climate change.
Human-wildlife conflicts vary according to geography, land use patterns, human behavior, and
the habitat and behavior of wildlife species or individual animals within the species (IUCN,
2005).

2.5 .Human animal conflict and rural development in Zambia.

Human-animal conflict is a serious issue that affects the lives and livelihoods of people and
wildlife in many parts of the world, especially in Africa. Zambia is one of the countries that faces
this challenge, as it has a rich biodiversity and a large rural population that depends on natural
resources for survival.

One of the sources that provides an overview of human-animal conflict in Zambia is a report by
(Chomba et al. 2012)1, which analyses the patterns, causes, consequences and mitigation
measures of this problem. The report identifies elephants, crocodiles, hippos, lions and buffaloes
as the main animals that cause conflict with humans, resulting in crop damage, livestock
depredation, human injury and death. The report also discusses the socio-economic and
ecological factors that contribute to human-animal conflict, such as population growth, land use
change, habitat fragmentation, climate change and poaching. The report suggests some possible
solutions, such as improving law enforcement, enhancing community participation, promoting
alternative livelihoods and developing compensation schemes.

Another source that focuses on the role of game management areas (GMAs) in wildlife
conservation and rural development in Zambia is a study by (Aurélie et al. (2009), which
examines the traditional stewardship and governance of two GMAs: Nkala and Namwala. The
study explores the socio-economic characteristics, institutional arrangements and wildlife
management practices of the communities living in these areas. The study finds that the
communities have a strong sense of ownership and responsibility for wildlife resources, but they
also face challenges such as inadequate benefits from tourism, lack of technical support and
conflicts with other stakeholders. The study recommends strengthening the capacity and
accountability of local institutions, improving the distribution and transparency of revenues from
wildlife utilisation and enhancing the collaboration and coordination among different actors

2.6. Human Animal Conflict and Rural development Correlation

Development of people is always welcome but not at the cost of negative ecological aspect in the
ecosystem. Development activities causes more interference in forest and also the privacy of
wildlife. And these ultimately cause conflict with wildlife. It is humans who have taken over the
forest covers to build houses and cities, and not the animals who have took over our area. We
need to respect their space, and not kill them for no reason whatsoever. The expansion of rural
development often results in land use changes, including deforestation, agriculture, and
infrastructure development. These changes can lead to habitat fragmentation, disrupting wildlife
corridors and forcing animals into closer proximity to human settlements (Redpath et al, 2013)
 Rapid changes in land use patterns, including agricultural expansion, infrastructure
development, and human settlement encroachment, can disrupt traditional wildlife migration
routes and exacerbate human-animal conflict (Madden, 2004). Understanding the spatial
dynamics of land use changes is critical for managing conflict.

Human factors include human occupation of natural landscapes including conversion to

agriculture. Human occupation may sequentially work in two opposing directions. First, rising
human occupation of land can increase (Human Wildlife Conflict) HWC risk due to the
reduction of natural habitats (Gaynor et al., 2018). Second, habitat reduction due to higher
pressure on natural landscapes reduces animal abundance and ultimately diminishes wildlife
populations. In addition population growth in rural regions can intensify completion for land and
resources, escalating the potential for human –wildlife conflict (Nyhus et al, 2016)

Livelihood Strategies: Communities living in GMAs often rely on agriculture, livestock rearing,
and natural resource extraction for their livelihoods. The nature of these activities may attract
wildlife, leading to increased conflict incidents. Promoting sustainable livelihood options and
alternative income sources can reduce dependency on resources prone to wildlife conflicts.
Besides, encouraging community involvement in wildlife management and conservation efforts
has been proposed as a way to address human –animal conflicts. Successful community –based
conservation initiatives can lead to more sustainable coexistence (Barnes et al, 2017)

Human-wildlife interaction is part of human history since the early hunter-gatherer societies, and
can have positive (as a food resource) or negative (through competition and animal–human
predation) consequences to the lives and livelihoods of rural people (Mithen, 1999). HWC refers
to such interactions, when they have negative impacts on humans or animals or both (Conover,
2001). These negative interactions can be threefold and include competing interests (1) for food,
feed, and other resources from the natural, uncultivated environment; (2) for cultivated
environments, such as crops or livestock; or (3) through interactions between wildlife and
humans and their material property. Following this definition of HWC, such competition and
conflict either leads to economic loss, injury, or fatalities to humans or to reduction in wildlife
numbers, potentially culminating in extinction (Nyhus, 2016).

Livestock is both an important source of income and an asset to rural households, particularly to
the poor (Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2011). Livestock is also more resilient to climatic shocks
compared to crop production in several dry rural areas (Thomson et al., 2013), highlighting its
potential role as a safety net. Simultaneously, livestock can be susceptible to predatory species as
well as diseases, such as foot and mouth disease, transmitted by wildlife to domesticated
livestock Cattle are especially vulnerable to both, as in many rural areas they are commonly kept
in open systems without fences, making them vulnerable to predation and infection. Crops are
also vulnerable to depredation, especially by elephants (Drake et al., 2020). Prevention and
deterrence strategies are usually based on creating fear or altering movements through the use of
deterrents, such as fencing (Mumby and Plotnik, 2018).

Community-based conservation initiatives, where local communities actively participate in

decision-making processes and benefit sharing, have shown promising results in mitigating
human-animal conflict (Naughton-Treves et al., 2007). Engaging communities as stakeholders
can enhance their willingness to coexist with wildlife, contributing to conflict reduction. In
addition, engaging local communities can benefit from conservation through revenue sharing and
employment oppoprtunities.Hazzah et al, 2003)

2.7. Knowledge gap identified

This literature review has highlighted the key determinants of how rural development has
contributed to human-animal conflict cases in game management areas. The review emphasized
the importance of understanding the dynamics of human-animal conflict, the role of game
management areas, and the need for sustainable rural development strategies. By incorporating
insights from Zambian articles, reports, and a worldwide perspective, this review provides a
comprehensive understanding of the topic. The main and most important thing to be done in
order to try and avoid rural development influencing human animal conflict in game
management areas in this case Luangwa district. There is urgent need for the planning authority
to work closely with the wildlife authority when identifying areas of development .This can help
to avoid developing of infrastructure in animal corridor areas which is the major cause of this
conflict.

2.8. Mitigation strategies of Human animal conflict in relation to rural development

Policy and regulation-Strengthening policies and regulations related to land use and wildlife
management is essential (Redpath et al, 2013
Installing electrical fencing around farmlands can deter wildlife from encroaching on crops.
(Ogada et al, 2003,)

Community-based conservation initiatives, where local communities actively participate in

decision-making processes and benefit sharing, have shown promising results in mitigating
human-animal conflict. Besides, engaging communities as stakeholders can enhance their
willingness to coexist with wildlife, contributing to conflict reduction. In addition, Engaging
local communities can benefit from conservation through revenue sharing and employment
opportunities. (Hazzah et al, 2014)

Education and awareness programmes this involve educating local communities about wildlife
behaviour and conservation can foster coexistence (Madden, 2004)

Wildlife corridors-establishing wildlife corridors can help animals move between protected
areas, reducing the need to venture into human settlements and prevent developing infrastructure
in animal corridors areas. (LaRue et al, 2010)

3.0. Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction

This chapter outlines the research design that were employed, the target group, sample size and
sampling method. It will also describe the methods that were used in collecting data and how this
data was analyzed. Further, this section will look at the data collection tool that were used and
the research ethics that were considered when carrying out this research.

3.2. Research Design

In an effort to finding out determinants of how rural development has contributed to increased
human animal conflict cases in game management area “Luangwa district” the respondents were
required to give full detailed information and this was achieved by using a combined method of
qualitative and quantitative. This allowed the researcher to gather a broader and more
comprehensive understanding of a research problem, as it enabled the respondents to fully give
their full expression views on the topic

3.3 Data collection Instruments.

Data collection instruments are tools or methods used to gather or collect information for
research analysis. (Smith, 2019) states “primary data refers to the original data collected directly
from sources through methods such as surveys, interviews and observations. It is data that has
not been previously collected, processed, or interpreted by others Primary data holds significant
relevance as it allows researchers to address specific research questions tailor data collection to
their study’s needs, and obtain firsthand information.” Primary data was collected from within
Luangwa district from both male and female residents.

According to White (2005) secondary data are important to the study as they provided an insight
about the topic, be it from past studies and current studies that have been done. In addition, under
secondary data analysis the literature review was carried out in order to avoid duplication of
other scholars work and to situate the research in the appropriate context. The major sources of
these secondary data are books, reports and journals as well as internet based information.

3.4. Approach to the Study.

Research designs are structural frame work of various research methods and techniques that a
researcher can use during a research study. In this case under study both qualitative and
quantitative or mixed method were used reason being qualitative was suitable as interviews were
used to get views and perceptions about human animal conflict in relation to rural development
from key stake holders, Luangwa residents and community leaders.

Besides quantitate methods were used because Survey/questionnaire were used for data
collection and the need to indicate numbers of occurrence cases of the human animal conflict this
is the main reason why a mixed method of qualitative and quantitative approach was suitable.

3.5 Population

“The Updated Luangwa population is 38,345 after a successful 2022 August to September
country wide Census.” Luangwa has mainly two chiefdoms with Mburuma being the biggest
with about 72 villages and Mphuka only has 25 villages and the most affected chiefdom with the
human Animal conflict. The population under investigation comprises of communities and
villages within the chiefdom of chief Mphuka. According to the Zambia Wildlife Authority
“Luangwa” reports, the following are typical identified animal corridor areas; Mphuka, ludaka,
chiendeende, Mandombe, Janeiro, kamoba, Amoro, Nyaukwindi and Kakaro, Kavalamanja and
Chikumbi

Most of these villages have communities residing in animal corridor areas and are affected by
intersection of rural development and human animal conflict. “As of the third quarter of 2023
Luangwa districts has recorded about eighty one (81) cases human animal conflict cases which
were reported to (ZAWA) this cases includes crop damage, loss of human life, attacks and
injuries on the locals.”

In addition, some identified intersection areas of rural development and possibility of increase in
human animal conflict includes; Mphuka village where Child fund a non-governmental
Organisation has constructed a modern youth skill center, Mandombe area which has almost
three villages around; Kakaro, kapyanyika and chiendeende village, is the area were the main
district hospital has been constructed and a new filling station .Moreover, the Zambian
government

Under ministry of infrasture is currently, constructing about 200 housing units for displaced
flood victims, and hence increase case of human animal conflict. Since these development
structures are rightly in the typical animal corridor arear. The boma area is also affected as this is
where the two rivers flow through the Zambezi and Luangwa where both humans and animals
depend on for water.

3.6 Sample Size

The target population of this study consisted of four rural villages, namely Kakaro, Chiendeende,
kapyanyika and Hotela village, of which the sample size 100 was taken the sample also included
and focused on; few locals from the affected communities in the boma, community, traditional
and civic leaders, officers from (ZAWA) and Luangwa municipal council. The target population
focused in Chief Mphuka chiefdom which is highly affected with the Human animal conflict.

3.7 Sampling Technique

Simple random sampling was used to undertake the study. The structured questionnaire was
administered to targeted respondents within Luangwa district at random manner based on first
come first serve basis.
3.8 Data collection tool

Interviews

In depth Interviews and survey Questionnaires were one of the data collection tool used in
collecting data from the target group. Interviews were conducted in order to help part of the
target group in the local communities with high illiteracy levels, in answering questions on the
questionnaire. And in order to establish in depth information and the impact of human wildlife
conflict and rural development. Especially those in selected villages within Luangwa district and
are living within the animal corrido areas.

Survey Questionnaire

The researcher also conducted surveys/questionnaires to gather quantitative data on perceptions,

attitudes, and experiences of local communities regarding rural development and human animal
conflict, the questionnaire was self-administered and also had specific and divided into sections
for easy classification during data analysis.

The questionnaire were used to acquire information on the various aspects of the study about
different variables with questions being closed ended. The questionnaire was carried out between
February and March, 2024 among Luangwa residents, strictly within Chief Mphuka as it is the
most affected chiefdom with Human-animal conflict.

The study was able to get 90 respondents out 100 questionnaires distributed. The rest of the
respondents did not return the questionnaire citing forgetfulness and lack of time. Nevertheless,
the achieved responses rate was considered credible enough to provide the basis for arriving to
the conclusions of the student.

3.9 Ethical Consideration

Ethical consideration research study entails values, principles that ensure the protection of
participants, rights, well-being, and the integrity of the research process is upheld. It also help to
ensuring that the conduct of researchers is good even as they conduct the study. (Smith, 2015)
“Ethical consideration plays a crucial role in research, ensuring the rights and dignity of
participants is upheld.”

In order to ensure that respondents felt more respected comfortable and secured as they
participated in the research, names of respondents were not indicated anywhere by the
researcher. The researcher made sure that the responses including any sensitive information from
respondents were confidential and used exclusively for the purpose of this study. Lastly, consent
was obtained from the respondents before the questionnaires were assigned.(Curry ,2010) asserts
that ethical considerations entails that a researcher should observe the right to participation of
subjects and participants should never be forced at any given point in time to participate in a
study

4.0 Data Analysis

The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and responses compared using SPSS 16.1
version computer software. The finding presented in table, figure and pie charts to enhance
compression and interpretation.

4.1 Discussion and Interpretation of results.

Background information of Respondents.

Table 1. What is your gender * What is your age at last birthday cross tabulation

Count

What is your age at last birthday

20-30 years 31-40 years 41-50 years 51 and above Total

What is your gender Male 26 15 9 7 57

Female 21 6 4 2 33

Total 47 21 13 9 90
Despite being randomly selected, the majority of 63.3 % male respondents participated more in
the study as compared to 33 % female.
It is important to note that, the majority of the Luangwa population is mainly comprised of the
youths and this influenced in having a high number of respondents of about 52.2 % were aged
between 20 to 30 years and the least participated respondents were only 10 % aged between 51
years and above and from a study population sample of 100.It is also important to note that a
higher number of the youths are atleast now in school and could understand better on the issues
of rural development and human animal conflict between than the elderly whom are the majority
of high illiteracy levels.

Table 2. What is your marital status * What is your Occupation cross tabulation

Count

What is your Occupation

Wildlife Local Community Formally

Farmer Conservationist member Employed Total

What is your marital status Single 5 6 27 14 52

Married 2 2 6 25 35

Widowed 0 0 1 2 3

Total 7 8 34 41 90

From the findings and the sample size used in the study ,the majority of the Luangwa population
are single young men and women of about 57.8% and the married respondents were about 38.9
% and the least widowed which is at 3.3 %.

From few selected affected villages the study also focused the boma residents which influenced
in having a high number about 41 formally employed local community members of which most
of these are civil servants who have settled in Luangwa and a few working for Non –
governmental Organisation. And seconded by 34 affected community members but not in any
formally employment. In order not to be very biased a few local farmers and wildlife
conservationist were also selected just to balance on opinion and experiences.
 Table 3. How long have you lived in Luangwa * How often do you observe human-animal conflict cases
cross tabulation

Count

How often do you observe human-animal conflict cases

More
Rarely Occasionally Frequently Frequently Total

How long have you lived Less than 1 year 0 2 0 1 3

in Luangwa
1---5 years 3 10 4 3 20

6---10 years 0 7 5 3 15

More than 10 years 2 10 7 33 52

Total 5 29 16 40 90

The study was able to collect valid data and information from the human animal conflict cases
and experiences relating to rural development in Luangwa district. As a high number of the
respondents have lived and experienced this vice for more than 10 year. The information
collected was not from without but based on practical experiences the respondents have
witnessed, in their long stay in the district and vice versa for those that responded but have only
live in Luangwa for less than one to five years.

The majority of the respondents who have lived longer in the district as well affirmed that the
cases of human animal conflict are experienced most frequently. Conflicting between humans
and animals is almost on a daily basis in one way or the other.

Identified causes/key drivers of rural development in Luangwa District

Table 4. How would you rate rural development in Luangwa

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Low 47 52.2 52.2 52.2

Moderate- 29 32.2 32.2 84.4

High 12 13.3 13.3 97.8

Very High 2 2.2 2.2 100.0

Total 90 100.0 100.0

On average rural development in the district is quite low and to some extent moderate, all in all
as Luangwa is a growing district transitioning from rural to urban, development has been
progressive thou at a low pace.
 Table 5. Can you name any identified key drivers of rural development * From the identified key drivers
which one has high impact on rural development cross tabulation

Count

From the identified key drivers which one has high impact
on rural development

Infrastructure
Development
(Schools,
Hospitals & Agriculture Rural Implementatio
roads) Activities electrification n of CDF Total

Can you name any Infrastructure

identified key drivers of Development (Schools, 43 1 3 5 52
rural development Hospitals & roads )

Agriculture Activities 1 2 0 0 3

Rural electrification 3 0 7 5 15

Implementation of CDF 0 0 0 20 20

Total 47 3 10 30 90

Rural development in Luangwa is progressive as the district is transitioning from rural to urban
setup. The population increase which has also contributed to the demand for more social services
such as education and health has spear headed to more need of infrastructure development.
Building of schools, hospitals and sub health centres and roads have been identified as key
drivers with the highest reported impact on rural development, as this received the highest
responses of 52 and a substantial impact across various categories.

Rural electrification and implementation and increased CDF financial allocation and
implementation are also seen as significant drivers, with moderate to high reported impacts.
Luangwa district was in 2020 for the first time connected to the national grid and the government
has continued rural electrification programmes to ensure most residents have access to power
and this has enhanced rural development which has social and economically benefitted the
residents.

“The Zambian government with the aim of decentralisation and bringing services closer to the
people. The constituency Development Funds (CDF) which is a government budget allocation to
finance various development projects such as schools, health clinics and water supply systems
was has increased for 2024 from the current k28.3 million to k30.million during the
implementation period “as a result this has greatly contributed to rural development in Luangwa
district.

Agriculture activities, despite being an important aspect of rural development, is perceived to

have relatively lower impact, this may be because agriculture activities are currently being
carried out for subsistence and not commercial farming. Luangwa Residents mainly do
gardening mainly for household consumption only.

All in all, this interpretation suggest that respondents are of the view that investing in
infrastructure development,particulary in schools,hospitals,and roads, is perceived as the most
impactful strategy for driving rural development in Luangwa District.

Assessing the impact of human animal conflict on the Luangwa Local Communities

Table 6. What are some identified causes of human-conflict in Luangwa District

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Inadequate educational

13 14.4 14.4 14.4
awareness on coexistence

High levels of Poaching 8 8.9 8.9 23.3

Land encroachment in
36 40.0 40.0 63.3
animal corridors

Agriculture Activities 33 36.7 36.7 100.0

Total 90 100.0 100.0

Significant portion of respondents (14.4 %) attribute human –animal conflict to insufficient

educational awareness regarding coexistence with wildlife. This suggest that there is need for
Zambia Wildlife Authority in Luangwa district to improve and intensify community educational
awareness programms.Bearing in mind that Luangwa district is in a game area, education
awareness would help residents learn to live with animals and not always view animals as a
threat to human life.
Besides, a smaller but notable percentage (8.9 %) of respondents point out to a high levels of
poaching as a contributing factor to human –animal conflict. Poaching can disrupt ecosystems
and wildlife behavior, exacerbating conflict with local communities. (ZAWA has confirmed that
poaching activities are the main reason animals leave the park and get closer to the community
and cause animals to see human beings as enemies.
The majority (40.0 %) of respondents highlight land encroachment in animal corridors as
primary cause of conflict. This refers to human activities such as settlement expansion and
agriculture that disrupts wildlife migration routes and access to essential resources.
Infrastructures such as schools, housing and hospitals in Luangwa, have mainly been constructed
along the animal corridor hence, increase in the conflict.
About (36.7 %) of respondents attributed that human-animal conflict to agriculture
activites.Luangwa is a rural district and most village household depend on subsistence farming
for survival and in unfortunate circumstances animals damage crops and this results to conflicts
over land use between local farmers and wildlife. Especially that these garden activities are
conducted by the river banks were animals also use the same water.
Generally, the findings suggest that a combination of factors contribute to human –animal
conflict in Luangwa District, with land encroachment in animal corridors and agriculture
activities being the most frequently cited causes, collectively accounting for (76 %) of responses.
Inadequate educational awareness on coexistence and poaching are also identified as important
contributors, underscoring the complexity of human-animal conflict and the need for
multifaceted approaches to mitigate these issues.

Table 7. What are some identified effects of human-animal conflict in Luangwa

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Loss of Human Life 34 37.8 37.8 37.8

Crop damages by animals 23 25.6 25.6 63.3

High levels of poverty 21 23.3 23.3 86.7

Displacement of wild animals 12 13.3 13.3 100.0

Total 90 100.0 100.0

The study indicated that loss of human life is a significant consequence of human-animal conflict
in Luangwa district, accounting for the highest proportion (37.8 %) of reported impact. A lot of
Community members have been victims of either death or injury from the animals. Being a rural
area, local people mostly access the bush for charcoal or firewood and rivers for water use and
these are the same spots animals are found, hence the high risk of humans being killed or
attacked by wild animals. The high percentage of incidents resulting in loss of human life
underscores the serious nature of human-animal conflict in Luangwa, posing a direct risk to
human safety.

Gardening is one major activity for survival for the local people of Luangwa, though it’s been
very challenging due to animals invading these same gardens and destroying crops. Crop damage
by animals are second most reported impact, with (25.6%) of incidents reported. Crop damage
has resulted to hunger and a great threat to food security for households in the district.

The data highlights that human-animal conflict exacerbates poverty levels in the district, making
it an item of social-economic issue. Some local small farmers who depend on farming activities
for their economic activity suffer setbacks due to crop damages and fail to raise money to sustain
their households as a result, poverty levels remain high in the district. The data clearly shows that
human-animal conflict contributes siginifaclly to poverty levels and slows economic growth, in
Luangwa, with (23.3%) of incidents indicating this impact.
The study revealed that the impact of displacement of wild animals due to human animal conflict
accounting for 13.3% of incidents reported. Displacement of wild animals disrupts natural
ecosystem and can further escalate conflicts as animals seek alternative habitats.
Table 8. To what extent do factors like population growth, agricultural
expansion, and infrastructure development show a relationship with
increasing human animal conflict

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid Low 8 8.9 8.9 8.9

Very low 3 3.3 3.3 12.2

Medium 23 25.6 25.6 37.8

High 56 62.2 62.2 100.0

Total 90 100.0 100.0

The majority of human-animal conflict incidents (62.2%) are linked to and suggest a clear
relationship between high levels of population growth, agriculture expansion, and infrastructure
development. All these demand for land which has lend to high levels of land encroachment in
animal corridors, hence increasing the conflict with animals.

This indicates that population, agriculture expansion, and infrastructure development increase to
higher levels, there is a corresponding increase in the frequency and impact of human animal-
conflict in Luangwa district. This however, underscores the importance of considering
sustainable development practices and conflict mitigation strategies to manage and reduce
human-animal conflict in Luangwa, as rapid growth and development is progressive and
ongoing.
Enhancing Mitigation measures, Strategies and Recommendations in addressing challenges
arising from human animal conflict in Luangwa District.
Table 9. How are you preventing yourself from become a victim of human animal conflict * What
measures can ZAWA put in place in order to mitigate human-animal conflict Cross tabulation

Count

What measures can ZAWA put in place in order to

mitigate human-animal conflict

ZAWA to
work closely More ZAWA to Animals
with education engage with should be
Luangwa awareness in traditional provided with
municipal schools leaders and alternative
council &communitie other main water
planning unit s stakeholders sources Total

How are you Staying Indoors at

6 11 7 3 27
preventing yourself night
from become a victim
Encourage learners to
of human animal 0 2 3 1 6
move in groups
conflict
Fencing the crop fields
1 2 4 1 8
with wire fence

Avoiding moving in
13 16 16 4 49
corridor areas

Total 20 31 30 9 90

Mitigating strategies in dealing with the impact of human-animal conflict is not only a ones man
show but requires concerted efforts from both the local communities in Luangwa and the
relevant authority (ZAWA).Community members have a huge responsibility to protecting
themselves from being victims and manage human-animal conflict.
The most frequent preventive measure or action taken by individuals was to avoid moving in
well-marked animal corridors, where encounters with animals are more likely to happen and a
total number of 49 respondents responded to this action.
Staying indoors at night, when animals are more active, was also a commonly used safety
measure used by atleast 27 respondents.

8 respondents reported using the fencing of crop fields as a protective measure. Local farmers,
protecting crop fields with fences would help minimize crop damage by animals, hence reducing
conflict between farmers and animals and reduce risk of food insecurity. It is also important to
note that given a choice all small scale farmers would want to fence their crops to prevent crop
damage from animals but unfortunately most of them cannot afford the cost.
Another strategy to reduce vulnerability is to have school going children move together in
groups, and this was the lowest with 6 respondents, this can help deter potential wildlife
encounter. Considering the fact that some schools in Luangwa district have been constructed
within and near the animal corridor such that when animals are migrating learners are usually
disturb and in some circumstances even miss classes
Further on, the relevant authority ZAWA has been working towards managing human-animal
conflict in Luangwa district, however there is still need to intensify on already existing measures
so that this vive can be managed.
Thirty-one (31) respondents recommended increasing education awareness initiatives in schools
and communities to address human animal conflict. There is need for ZAWA to continue
emphasing community education and awareness in communities and schools to promote safer
behaviours such as the importance of co-existence of humans and animals, teaching the local s
on how to relate and live with animals and increase awareness about human-animal conflict
mitigation strategies. This approach emphasizes the importance of proactive outreach and
knowledge dissemination to address the root cause of conflicts.
Thirty (30) respondents suggested that ZAWA should engage with traditional leaders and key
stake holders to tackle human-animal conflict. This include working closely with his royal
highness chief Mphuka, headmen ,government line ministries and Luangwa child fund agency an
NGO which has been working tireless helping vulnerable local farmers fence their fields.
Engaging with traditional leaders and key stake holders is seen as crucial in gaining local support
and cooperation for mitigating human animal conflict. Traditional leaders often have influence
and authority within communities, making them important allies in efforts to conservation.
Going forward, Partnernering with stake holders within the district can lead to more effective
implementation of strategies and the development of culturally relevant solutions.

20 respondents suggested that ZAWA should work closely with Luangwa municipal council
planning unit to help mitigate human-animal conflict and effectively manage rural development.
Collaborating closely with the Luangwa Municipal planning unit is essential integrating wildlife
management consideration into local governance and development planning. Council are legal
custodians of land and plan for development in Luangwa. This partnership can facilitate the
incorporation and consideration of wildlife conservation priorities into land-use plans,
infrastructure development projects, and community initiatives. By working together ZAWA and
the council planning unit can identify and address potential areas of conflict, implementation of
wildlife friendly practices, and ensure sustainable land management practices that benefit both
communities and wildlife.
Nine (9) respondents suggested that animals should be provided alternative water sources and
not only depend on the two main rivers; Luangwa and Zambezi Rivers which animals and the
people depend on for water. Luangwa being a valley and have a poor rain pattern. As a result in
most cases animals have less access to water and they are forced to get closer to the rivers were
also humans have settled, hence causing conflict. Alternative water sources such as constructing
water dams in the game reserve can prevent animals get closer to the river sides where
communities have also settled.

5.0 Conclusion/Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion

The study focused in determining how rural development has contributed to human animal
conflict cases in game management areas to be precise “Luangwa district.” This vice revealed a
complex of interplay factors.

Human animal conflict is a worldwide problem that affects various communities that live within
game management areas. It refers to a direct negative interaction between humans and animals.
This tension often results from human activities of Infrastructure development as a result of
human population increase which has led to land encroach upon wild life, leading to increased
contact between humans and animals. As a result of Wild life population increases a lot animals
has caused a lot of damage to agricultural crops and humans have in unfortunate circumstance
lost lives. Besides, Human population activities have also negatively lead to a decline of wildlife
conservation.

Further on, addressing the challenge of human animal conflict involves finding sustainable and
attainable solutions that balance the needs of both human communities and wildlife conservation.
This may include implementing measures to mitigate crop damage, securing livestock,
establishing wildlife corridors and ensure that no major developmental infrasture are constructed
in these marked areas.

Obviously human life is precious and wildlife also contributes to the well-being of humans, in
such a way that wildlife is one of the main contributing factors to social and economic
development to the Zambian communities and country at large through tourism which has
created employment for the local people and contributed to the growth of the economy through
tourism activities. It is for this reason that it is important to finding long lasting solutions in
mitigating human animal conflict and managing rural development. The findings underscore the
need for a holistic approach to rural development that considers the coexistence of communities
and Wildlife

5.2 Recommendation

In an effort to manage rural development and human animal conflict cases in game management
areas community education and awareness programmes are key. The wildlife Authority which is
in this case Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) needs to intensify educational programs to raise
awareness about the importance of wildlife conservation and methods to mitigate conflicts in
game management areas within Luangwa district. Knowledge is power and it can help transform
local communities as informed communities are more likely to adopt practices that reduce
negative interaction and hence promote coexistence between human and animals.

The main possible solution to managing conflict and promoting rural development is improving
on infrastructure planning. Integrate Wildlife friendly infrastructure planning into rural
development projects. This may involve designing structures and settlements that minimize
human animal conflict risks. In this case the Luangwa town council who are planners of
Luangwa districts must work closely with (ZAWA) who are in charge of Wildlife and skillfully
understand animals’ better. This will be helpful in such a way that development of infrasture in
animal corridor areas can be managed and hence reduce these conflicts.

Promoting Research and Monitoring is one of the best mitigation measure, as research helps in
finding solutions to various social problems such human animal conflict. Like this study it has
helped to identify the root causes of these conflicts and sought to bring out possible solutions.
The government should establish ongoing monitoring and research programmes to assess the
impact of rural development on human animal conflict, as this will help adapt best strategies of
managing such conflict.

In addition the Zambian government can also enhance on policy integration that ensures that
polices that addressing rural development and Wildlife conservation are integrated and coherent.
It would even be better to learn from other countries who have succeed in managing human
animal conflict through policy implementation. Besides, cross-sectoral collaboration is very
important for achieving balanced and sustainable outcomes.
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Appendices
Appendix I: Questionnaire

Questionnaire no

QUESTIONNAIRE

TOPIC: Determinants of how rural development has contributed to human animal conflict in
game management areas. “Luangwa District”

Dear Respondent,

Please be informed that you have been randomly selected to participate in the study. I
would be grateful if you could kindly assist me by responding truthfully to the questions
in relevant sections of the questionnaire. Please be assured that your responses will be
treated with the highest degree of confidentiality and the information you give would be
used purely for academic purposes only.

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Do not write your name on the questionnaire

2. Answer all questions except where it does not apply to you.
3. Tick the answers you are required to do so. [√ ]

Thanking you in anticipation of your cooperation.

SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION

1) What is your sex?

1) Male ( )
2) Female ( )
2) What was your age at last birthday?
1) 20 --- 30 ( )
2) 31 ---40 ( )
3) 41 --- 50 ( )
4) And above ( )
3) What is your marital status?
1) Single ( )
2) Married ( )
3) Divorced ( )
4) Widowed ( )
4) What is your Occupation?
1) Farmer ( )
2) Wildlife Conservationist ( )
3) Local Community member ( )
4) Formally Employed ( )
5) How long have you lived in Luangwa
1) Less than 1 year ( )
2) 1---5 years ( )
3) 6---10 years ( )
4) More than 10 years ( )
6) How often do you observe incidents of human –animal conflict in your area?

1) Rarely ( )

2) Occasionally ( )

3) Frequently ( )

4) More Frequently ( )
 KNOWLEDGE ABOUT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN ANIMAL CONFLICT
SECTION B: DETERMINANTS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT (DRD)
7) How would you rate the level of rural development in game management areas of
Luangwa District?

1) Low

2) Moderate

3) High

4) Very High

8) Do you know what rural development is?

1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

9) If yes, how did you learn about rural development?

1) Television ( )

2) Reading Books ( )

3) School ( )

4) Radio ( )

10) In your view, Are you able to identify any key drivers of rural development in Luangwa`s Game
Management Areas?
1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

11) If yes, what do you think are some of these identified key drivers?

1) Infrastructure Development

(Schools, Hospitals & roads) ( )

2) Agriculture Activities ( )

3) Rural electrification ( )

4) Implementation of CDF ( )

12) From the identified key drivers which ones do you think has the low impact and
high impact on rural development.

1) Infrastructure Development

(Schools, Hospitals & roads) ( )

2) Agriculture Activities ( )
3) Rural electrification ( )

4) Implementation of CDF ( )

SECTION C: IMPACT OF HUMAN -ANIMAL CONFLICT ON LOCAL COMMUNITIUES. (IHAC)

13) Do you know or understand anything on Human-animal conflict?

1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

14) If yes what is Human Animal conflict

1) Tension that arises between human & animals ( )

2) Clash of human activies & natural behavior of animals ( )

3) Human beings killing animals ( )

4) Animals injuring Human beings ( )

15) Do you know any identified causes of human –animal conflict affecting Luangwa
district as a game management area.
1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

16) If yes what are some of these identified causes of human animal conflict affecting
Luangwa distictrict.

1) Inadequate educational awareness on coexistence ( )

2) High levels of Poaching ( )

3) Land encroachment in animal corridors ( )

4) Agriculture Activities ( )

17) What are some of these identified effects of human animal conflict affecting
Luangwa distictrict?

1) Loss of Human Life ( )

2) Crop damages by animals ( )

3) High levels of poverty ( )

4) Displacement of wild animals ( )

18) What are your perceptions of the impact of human –animal conflict on communities
in Luangwa as a game management area?
1) No willingness of coexistence from the community ( )

2) Threat to food security ( )

3) Human Injurie/Death ( )

4) Animal migrations disturb learners schooling near corridor areas ( )

19) Are you aware of any existing strategies employed by ZAWA authorities to manage
and mitigate human-animal conflict within Luangwa district as a game management
area?

1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

20) If yes, please highlight these strategies employed by ZAWA authorities to manage
and mitigate human-animal conflict within Luangwa district as a game management
area?
1) Community education awareness ( )

2) Installation of modern animal movement monitoring system ( )

3) Establishment of Wildlife camps in prone areas ( )

4) Engagement of key stakeholders ( )

SECTION D: CORRELATION BETWEEN RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN ANIMAL CONFLICT.

(CRDHAC)
21) Do you think rural development is the main contributing factor to increased human –animal
conflict cases in Luangwa District as a game management area?

1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

22) To what extent do factors like population growth, agricultural expansion, and
infrastructure development show a relationship with increasing human animal conflict
on Luangwa communities within the game management area?

1) Low ( )

2) Very low ( )

3) Medium ( )

4) High ( )
23) How has the human animal conflict contributed to the decrease of Agricultural activities and
expansion in Luangwa district as a game management area?
1) Demand of land for settlement ( )

2) Demand of land for infrasture development ( )

3) High levels of crop destruction by Animals ( )

4) Lack of compersention by ZAWA to local farmers ( )

24) Have you in anyway been affected by the Human Animal conflict in Luangwa District?
1) Yes ( )

2) No ( )

25) And if yes, please explain how it affected you

1) Witnessed Loss of human lives within communities ( )

2) Children missing classes because of Elephants ( )

3) Crop damages resulting to hunger ( )

4) It Slows Economic activities ( )

26) How are you currently preventing yourself from become a victim of human animal
conflict.
1) Staying Indoors at night ( )

2) Encourage learners to move in groups ( )

3) Fencing the crop fields with wire fence ( )

4) Avoiding moving in corridor areas ( )

SECTION E: RECOMMENDATIONS

27) What would you recommend to be done by ZAWA as a relevant authority working
in mitigating these challenges of rural development human animal conflict?
1) ZAWA to work closely with Luangwa municipal council planning unit ( )

2) More education awareness in schools & communities ( )

3) ZAWA to engage with traditional leaders and other main stakeholders ( )

4) Animals should be provided with alternative water sources ( )