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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
SOCIOLOGY

Lecture – 145
INDUSTRIALISATION AND
URBANISATION IN INDIA (Part - 2)
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INDUSTRIALISATION AND URBANISATION IN INDIA (Part - 2)

INFORMAL SECTOR

The unorganized sector constitutes an integral part of the economy that operates outside
the purview of government taxation and monitoring. This sector is characterized by being
informal and lacks the structured organization seen in the formal sector.

Key features of the unorganized sector include the absence of social security provisions,
limited organizational structure, a diverse range of activities, and easy entry and exit
compared to the formal sector.

Work within this sector is labour-intensive and typically involves tasks that require basic
skills.

The relationship between employers and employees is often informal, often unwritten,
and frequently devoid of proper rights and regulations. Consequently, workers within this
sector are often unaware of their rights due to isolation and instability, leading to
difficulties in organizing and exerting negotiation power.

Furthermore, a high degree of isolation among workers is prevalent within the

unorganized sector. This isolation, coupled with the lack of proper organization, hampers
the sector's ability to collectively bargain for better working conditions and rights.

Categories In India’s Informal Sector

❖ Agriculture (maximum)

❖ self-employed (vendors, small shop owners)

❖ Labourers (construction/household)

❖ child labour

Globalization and Its Impact:

Globalization refers to the increased interconnectivity and integration of economies,

cultures, and societies across the world. It has brought both opportunities and challenges,
leading to various effects on different aspects of countries and their economies. Sarath
Davala's study highlighted the impact of globalization on the informal sector. His findings
revealed a significant increase in the informal sector, showcasing the complex relationship
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between globalization and informal work arrangements. ( In his study found that the
informal sector was 91% in 1991,94% in 2005 and 96% in 2014)

Reasons For The Increase In the Informal Sector:

❖ Contractual and Construction Labor: The expansion of contractual and construction

labour opportunities in the informal sector has contributed to its growth.

❖ Downsizing in Organized Industry: Downsizing and restructuring in organized

industries have led to job losses, pushing individuals into the informal sector.

❖ Increased Living Costs: The rising cost of living can make formal sector jobs
insufficient to meet expenses, leading individuals to seek additional work in the
informal sector.

❖ Inflation and Economic Burden: Inflationary pressures can burden families

economically, driving them towards informal sector work to supplement income.

❖ Women's Participation: Necessity often forces women to participate in the informal

sector to support their families.

❖ MSME Growth: The growth of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) in the
informal sector has contributed to its expansion.

❖ Agrarian Population: Despite modernization, a substantial part of India's population is

still engaged in agriculture, contributing to the informal labour force.

The intricate web of factors mentioned above, combined with the opportunities and
challenges that globalization presents, has led to the expansion of the informal sector.
While globalization can create avenues for economic growth, it also poses questions about
job security, worker rights, and the overall balance between formal and informal work
arrangements.

CHILD LABOUR
Child labour, as defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO), refers to work
that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular
schools, and is mentally, physically, socially, or morally harmful. It encompasses a wide
range of activities that exploit children and prevent them from enjoying a healthy
upbringing.
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The ILO sets specific criteria to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable forms of
child labour:

1. Minimum Age: The ILO establishes a minimum age for work that is consistent with the
minimum age for completing compulsory education and not younger than the age for
admission to employment. This ensures that children are provided with an adequate
education before entering the workforce.

2. Hazardous Work: The ILO identifies hazardous work that is likely to harm the health,
safety, or morals of children due to its nature or the circumstances in which it is
carried out. Such work is considered unacceptable for anyone below the age of 18.

3. Light Work: For children aged 13 to 15, light work that doesn't interfere with their
schooling or harm their health or development is considered acceptable. However, it
should be limited in terms of hours and nature.

4. Worst Forms of Child Labour: The ILO defines the "worst forms of child labour" as
work that is hazardous, morally harmful, or detrimental to a child's development.
This includes slavery, trafficking, forced labour, and using children in armed conflict.

The ILO advocates for the elimination of child labour by promoting policies and
actions that prioritize education, protect children's rights, and create a safe and
conducive environment for their development.

"Child labour perpetuates poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, population growth, and

other social problems." - Kailash Satyarthi

Causes Of Child Labour

❖ Poverty (Oscar Lewis - Culture of Poverty): Poverty acts as a driving force,

compelling families to rely on child labour for additional income.

❖ Underemployment of Parents: When parents are underemployed, children are often

engaged in labour to contribute to the family's financial needs.

❖ Weak Vocational Education of Parents and Students: Inadequate vocational education

for both parents and students can hinder skill development, pushing children towards
labour instead of education.
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❖ Poor Availability of Educational Infrastructure: Lack of access to quality education

facilities forces children into labour, particularly in areas with limited educational
resources.

❖ Illiterate Family and Parents: Illiterate parents may not fully comprehend the
importance of education, leading to a higher likelihood of child labour.

❖ Dysfunctional Family: A dysfunctional family environment can contribute to child

labour as children may be forced to work due to family issues.

❖ Corruption: Corrupt practices can enable the exploitation of child labour, as some
individuals may exploit children for financial gain.

❖ Failure of Orphan System: A failing orphan system can expose vulnerable children to
child labour, leaving them without proper care or protection.

❖ Failure of Law to Protect Children: Inadequate enforcement of child protection laws

can allow child labour to persist without proper consequences.

Impact of Child Labour:

❖ Child labour can lead to limited interaction with peers and reduced exposure to
healthy social environments, affecting their overall socialization process.

❖ Child labour can result in emotional distress, behavioural issues, and cognitive
impairments due to the stress and demands of work at a young age.

❖ Child labour restricts the time and energy children have for playing, learning, and
socializing, hampering the development of a well-rounded personality.

❖ Engaging in work under hazardous conditions exposes children to health risks that
can impair their physical and mental development

❖ Child labour hinders the development of human capital, leading to a less skilled and
less educated workforce in the future.

❖ The negative impact on child development can lead to a demographic burden as

children grow into adults with limited skills and capacities.

❖ The prevalence of child labour contributes to the informalization of the economic

sector, perpetuating low-skilled, exploitative labour practices.
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❖ Child labour, especially in urban areas, can result in increased involvement in criminal
activities due to lack of proper education and guidance.

The consequences of child labour have far-reaching implications for the affected children,
their families, and society as a whole. Addressing child labour is not only crucial for the
well-being of the children involved but also for the overall development and progre ss of
society.

Impact of Globalization on Child Labour:

Positive:

❖ Increased Reporting Due to Increased Awareness:

Globalization has facilitated the spread of information and awareness about child
labour issues, leading to increased reporting and visibility of cases

❖ Influence of Global Conventions on Indian Society:

Global conventions and agreements related to child rights have had a significant
influence on Indian society, leading to improved awareness and efforts to address
child labour.

❖ Global Movement Against Products Made by Children:

Global campaigns against products made by child labourers have prompted

consumers to be more conscious of their purchases, discouraging the demand for such
products.

❖ Augmentation of Global Movements with Local Movements:

Globalization has enabled the integration of local efforts and movements against child
labour with larger global initiatives, resulting in a more cohesive and impactful
approach.

❖ Increased Funds to Combat Child Labour:

Global awareness has led to increased funding for programs and initiatives aimed at
combating child labour, providing resources for effective interventions.

❖ Increased Participation and Influence of Global NGOs:

Globalization has allowed non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to collaborate

across borders, leveraging their expertise to combat child labour on a broader scale.
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Negative:

❖ Increased Profit Orientation and Competitiveness:

Globalization's focus on competitiveness and profit maximization can lead to unethical

practices, including the exploitation of child labour to reduce production costs.

❖ Increased Avenues for Employing Child Labour:

Globalization can create new opportunities for businesses to employ child labour,
particularly in industries seeking low-cost labour to remain competitive.

❖ Urbanization and Migration:

The process of urbanization and rural-to-urban migration can expose children to

exploitative labour conditions in urban centres.

❖ Increased Living Costs and Inflation:

As globalization drives economic growth and development, it can also contribute to

increased living costs and inflation, prompting families to send their children to work
to supplement income.

❖ The emergence of New Forms of Child Labour:

Globalization has led to the emergence of new forms of child labour, such as child
trafficking, child pornography, and other exploitative practices.

Some Solutions to Tackle Child Labour:

❖ Education and Awareness: Promote access to quality education for all children,
emphasizing its importance to families.

❖ Enforcement of Laws: Strengthen and strictly enforce laws against child labour to
deter employers and individuals from engaging in exploitative practices.

❖ Poverty Alleviation: Implement poverty reduction strategies to address the root

causes of child labour and improve families’ economic conditions.

❖ Skills Training and Vocational Education: vocational training and skill development
programs to parents and older children to improve their employability and income
potential

❖ Social Protection Programs: Establish social safety nets that provide financial support
and assistance to families in need, reducing their reliance on child labour.
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❖ Support for Families.

❖ Promotion of Formal Employment: Encourage the creation of formal employment

opportunities for adults, reducing the demand for child labour.

❖ Corporate Responsibility: Hold companies accountable for their supply chains to

ensure they do not engage in or support child labour practices

❖ Community Mobilization:

❖ Global Cooperation:

❖ Support for Vulnerable Groups:

❖ Awareness Campaigns:

❖ Empower Children:

❖ Government Policies:

Combating child labour requires a comprehensive and collaborative effort from

governments, organizations, communities, and individuals to create a safer, more just
environment for children to grow and thrive.

SLUMS AND DEPRIVATION IN URBAN AREAS:

Slums are contiguous settlements characterized by inadequate housing and a lack of basic
services. According to the City Alliance plan, they constitute the neglected segments of
cities where housing conditions are notably subpar. The Census of 2011 defines slums as
residential areas that are unsuitable for human habitation due to their state of
dilapidation. Remarkably, around 65% of Indian cities are accompanied by adjoining
slums.

From a sociological perspective, slums are sub-standard, haphazard housing systems that
visibly represent the inequalities prevailing in society. These settlements form distinct
social spaces, each with its unique way of life. This distinctive culture within slums
significantly influences the behaviour of its inhabitants. Low sanitation standards,
increased incidents of deviant behaviour, higher crime rates, elevated delinquency rates,
and a surge in domestic violence are some of the impacts directly tied to the slum
culture.
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According to Trilok Singh: slums put pressure on urban infrastructure system. It is an

inherent sense of relative and absolute deprivation.

Causes of Slums formation:

❖ Rural-Urban Migration:

The influx of rural migrants into urban areas, seeking better opportunities, strains
existing housing and infrastructure resources, often leading to the formation of slums.

❖ Poor Housing Planning:

Inadequate urban planning and housing policies can fail to provide sufficient
affordable housing, contributing to the growth of slums.

❖ Low Availability of Urban Land:

A scarcity of available urban land leads to overcrowding and the establishment of

informal settlements.

❖ Regulatory Constraints:

Regulatory barriers and bureaucratic hurdles can hinder the development of legal
housing options, forcing people into informal settlements.

❖ Increased Informalization:

The rise of informal economies and employment opportunities can draw migrants to
urban areas, further intensifying the growth of slums.

❖ Natural Disasters:

Natural disasters can displace communities, leading to the creation of makeshift

settlements that often evolve into slums.

❖ Land Capture by Immigrants:

Immigrants may occupy land without legal rights, contributing to the expansion of
informal settlements.

❖ Unplanned Urbanization:

The lack of planned urban development, as noted by PB Ramachandrum, contributes

to the formation of unplanned settlements and slums.
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❖ Declining Agriculture and Modernity:

Some believe that slums arise from declining agricultural opportunities and the rapid
expansion of modern urban life.

❖ Capitalism (Marxist Perspective):

According to the Marxist viewpoint, capitalism's impact on labor markets and

economic disparities plays a significant role in the emergence of slums.

Functionalism's Perspective on Slums:

From a functionalist perspective,

❖ Slums can also fulfil certain needs within urban contexts:

❖ Providing space for small industries (even if illegal).

❖ Offering a cheap labour supply for nearby industries.

❖ Housing low-income groups.

❖ Facilitating cultural exposure and urban socialization for incoming populations.

❖ Providing a place for anonymity.

❖ Nurturing a sense of community and indigenous leadership within the informal

settlement.

Slums serve as a stark reminder of the social and economic disparities that exist within
urban centres, with their distinct characteristics shaping the lives and behaviours of those
living within their confines.

Approaches To Slum Eradication:

❖ Marxist Perspective: According to the Marxist viewpoint, slums are a conscious

creation of the dominant class. The solution proposed involves providing similar
housing for the entire population, aiming to eliminate the disparities that perpetuate
slums.

❖ Social Workers' Approach: Social workers propose the demolition of slums and the
redevelopment of those areas into apartment complexes as a means to alleviate the
housing crisis.

Note : Kalpana Sharma's Study on Dharavi, Mumbai: must read the findings.
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❖ Modernization Theory: The modernization theory suggests that slums are temporary

and will naturally disappear as modernization progresses. Slum dwellers are expected

to transition into landowners as modernization reaches its peak.

❖ Supreme Court Perspective: The Supreme Court emphasizes improving the quality of

life and opportunities for slum dwellers.

It advocates for policies that are slum dwellers-oriented rather than slum-oriented,

to enhance their choices and chances.

Considering Slums as Social Spaces: Viewing slums as social spaces acknowledges their

significance in urban landscapes and the unique cultures that emerge within them.

Other sociological perspectives on slums:

Ashish Bose : According to Ashish Bose, slums are deprived human settlements that are

vulnerable demographically, socially, environmentally, and economically.

MS Bhor : MS Bhor states that the growth of slums is complementary to urban growth

and highlights how the expansion of slums reflects the exploitation of the marginalized by

the dominant class.

Devdas Pillai and A. R. Desai: In their book "Slum and Urbanization," Pillai and Desai

emphasize that the proliferation of slums serves as an indicator of deprivation and

signifies a failure of the welfare state. They advocate for a radical solution, suggesting the

nationalization of urban land resources and their equitable distribution as a means to

address the challenges presented by slums.

Geeta Diwan Verma: In "Slums in India," Geeta Diwan Verma underscores that slums

point towards the apathy of the larger society. She highlights that slums are not just a

material concern but also a moral issue, reflecting a broader societal attitude.

Usha Patnaik: Usha Patnaik's perspective on slums involves recognizing their polarizing

nature. Patnaik notes that while slums can be places of increased exploitation, prejudice,

and crime against women, they also offer opportunities for women to exert influence and
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dominance within the slum culture. This, in turn, sets slum culture apart from

mainstream society by affording women more freedom in terms of their economic roles

and space.

These viewpoints highlight the multidimensional nature of slums and their implications
for social, economic, and moral aspects of urban society.

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