Prof. Dr.

Nihad Daidzic, ATP, CFII, MEI W&B FAR25 Tutorial

Minnesota State University, Mankato

Department of Aviation

W&B problems for FAR/CS 25 airplanes tutorial

Weight and Balance (W&B) computations are essential step in ensuring that the aircraft (in this
case FAR/CS 25 Transport-category airplanes) is properly loaded with its Center of Mass (CM)
or Center of Weight/Gravity (CG) in the proper range. Stability, control and performance of
aircraft all depend on the proper loading (not to exceed maximum weight and that CG is within
allowable limits). Theoretically, the CG location should be defined in 3D space, i.e., longitudinal,
lateral, and vertical position. For most airplanes only the longitudinal CG location computations
are required, while for helicopters both, the longitudinal and the lateral CG location is important.
For Gyroplanes, the location of CG along all three axis is important for proper loading and control.

Proper W&B computations assures static balance of forces and moments (net forces and moments
are zero). That requires that all forces acting on aircraft are in balance as well as that all moments
are in balance. For a general 3D static problem, this requires the solution of six equation, two for
each axis – longitudinal, lateral, and vertical:

F
i
x ,i 0 F
i
y ,i 0 F
i
z ,i 0 M
i
x ,i 0 M
i
y ,i 0 M
i
z ,i 0 (1)

The moment of force is defined as a product of force multiplied by the arm perpendicular on the
direction of force:

M F  F d  F  d  sin 
  F , d  (2)

If the airplane is static (not translating and rotating around any axis), then the moments are zero
for any arbitrary point along respected axis and the sum of all forces is zero too.

As an example for transport-category airplane W&B computations, we will use FAR 25 medium-
range jet transport (similar to A320 or B737-800 types). The following certified limiting weights
are given:

1. Maximum (Structural) Taxi/Ramp Weight (MRW)

2. Maximum (Structural) Takeoff Weight (MSTOW)
3. Maximum (Structural) Zero-Fuel Weight, (MZFW)
4. Maximum (Structural) Landing Weight (MSLW)

Few other Structural limitations are given as well as allowable CG and/or %MAC range. Typically
EW (Empty Weight) and BOW (Basic Operating Weight including flight and cabin crew, required
fluids without usable fuel, food, etc.) are given by manufacturers and with associated CGs/CMs.

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Prof. Dr. Nihad Daidzic, ATP, CFII, MEI W&B FAR25 Tutorial

Now complete loading table similarly as is done for FAR23 airplanes. That includes payload
including passengers, cargo, luggage, and mission fuel. However, there will be many more
passenger rows (one or two or more aisles) and seats (first-class, business-class, economy-class)
in FAR/CS 25 airplanes. Individual passengers are NOT weighted in FAR 121 operations, but
standard summer and winter weights are used in most cases with provisions for carry-on luggage.
Wing fuel tanks must be filled first and used last if the center tanks(s) is available (including for
starting and taxiing).

Note that published arm-lengths are used as typical distances of weight centroids from the
established datum. Manufacturer defines datum (perhaps somewhat arbitrary) for each aircraft
M&M. Ultimately, it really does not matter where the airplane’s designated datum is as long as all
the arms are given in relationship to it. In the static case, the sum of all moments must be zero for
any point along axes.

Sometimes weight had to be shifted to another longitudinal location. Sometimes, due to

performance limitations weight has to be reduced on short notice just before takeoff. Normally,
luggage/gear and associated fuel requirement would be the first to reduce provided enough
destination fuel exists at lighter weights. However, sometimes removing luggage and fuel is not
an option and the passengers must be removed as well. Occasionally, weight can be added if the
structural and performance limits allow it.

The CG is computed as the ratio of the total moment divided by the total weight:

M i M 0
CG0   (3)
Wi W0

Let us say that in our problem, the original CG is 650 inches, total weight/mass is 70,000 kg
(154,000 lb). The original total moment is then:

M 0  CG0 W0  650  70, 000  45,500, 000 kg-inch

The MAC and %MAC is given by the equation:

CG  LEMAC
MAC  TEMAC  LEMAC % MAC   100%
MAC

If the manufacturer defined LEMAC=625 inch and TEMAC=755 inch, then MAC=130 inch.
Hence, we have for original loading:

650  625
MAC  130 % MAC   100%  20%
125

Let us also assume that max fwd and max aft %MACs are:

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Prof. Dr. Nihad Daidzic, ATP, CFII, MEI W&B FAR25 Tutorial

min  %MAC   10% max  %MAC   40%

Let us now solve three important W&B problems:

1. Weight shift
2. Weight change (add or subtract)
3. Combination of weight shift and change

While the new tabular calculations could be performed, it is much faster, elegant, and efficient to
use the following general W&B equation (can be easily derived):

M 0  M M0
CGnew  CGold  CG  CGold  CG0  (4)
W0  W W0

In a weight shift problems there is no change in the total weight, but the moment is changed by
some amount based on shifting weight from one station (arm) to another station (another arm). In
a weight change problems (adding or removing weight), both total weight and the total moment
are changed. In weight shift-change problems, we have a combination of above two problems.

1. In a weight shift problem, let us assume that before takeoff, 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) had to be
moved from the forward cargo (STA 500 inch) compartment to aft cargo compartment (STA
800 inch) and in the same time 500 kg moved from the aft cargo compartment STA 700 to
forward cargo compartment STA 700. Moving load to the back results in increased moment
and moving it forward decreases the moment There is no net change in weight and ΔW=0. The
total moment change is therefore:

M   W j    STA  j   1000  (800  500)  500  (700  400)  150, 000 kg-inch
j

The moment is increased by weight shifting rearward/back (ΔM > 0), and decreased by weight
shifting forward (ΔM < 0).

The weight shift problem now has the solution for the new CG:

M 0  M M 0  M 45,500,000  150,000
CGnew     652.14 inch
W0  W W0 70, 000

The change in CG is:

CG  CGnew  CG0  652.14  650.00  2.14 inch

The new %MAC and change in %MAC is

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Prof. Dr. Nihad Daidzic, ATP, CFII, MEI W&B FAR25 Tutorial

652.14  625
% MAC  100%  21.71%   % MAC   1.71%
125

The new CG is still within acceptable limits. In fact, a more rearward CG is beneficial in cruise
flight as it creates less trim drag and results in slight cruise airspeed increase and/or less fuel
consumption for the same airspeed.

2. In a weight change problems we will assume that performance computations shortly before
scheduled flight require RTOW (Regulated Takeoff Weight) or MATOW not to exceed 67,500
kg (148,500 lb) for given runway (TODA, TORA, ASDA) and atmospheric conditions (wind,
temperature, pressure, humidity). Hence, captain and dispatcher have decided to remove 2,500
kg in cargo mass/weight including luggage. For example, 500 kg will be removed from the aft
cargo compartment (STA 800 inch) and 2,000 kg from the fwd cargo compartment (STA 500
inch). The moment change due to removed mass/weight (ΔW < 0) is of course negative:

M   W j  STAj   2000  (500  0)  500  (800  0)  1, 400, 00 kg-inch

j

If weight is added it would be positive moment contribution (ΔM > 0). Hence, the new CG is now:

M 0  M 45,500,000  1, 400,000 44,100,000

CGnew     653.33 inch
W0  W 70,000  2,500 67,500

The new %MAC is:

653.33  625
% MAC  100%  22.66%   % MAC   2.66%
125

Clearly, the new CG has moved significantly aft as expected. After the actual TOW/TOM is
computed, it is fairly straightforward to calculate landing weight/mass (LW) and see if airplane
will meet structural and performance limits at landing field for given runway, surface, atmospheric
conditions, etc.

3. A combination of weight/mass shift and weight/mass change is left for individual exercise.

Important note: Weight/mass may have to be reduced further for many performance reasons
including minimum still-air climb gradient, near and far-field obstacle clearance, OEI drift-down,
ETOPS, landing climbs (discontinued approach and aborted landing), etc.

THE END of W&B FAR25 Tutorial

February 2019 (ver. 1.1)
Dr. Nihad E. Daidzic

© (2019) Dr. Nihad E. Daidzic, All rights reserved 4