L I B RARY

OF

PR ACTI C AL E L E C TR I C ITY

'

V OL U ME 1 1
 PART I

BY

F
TE R RELL C R OFT
C O N S U L T I N G E N G I NE E R . D I R E C T I N G E N G I NE E R ,
TE R R E L L CRO T E N GI NE E R I N G CO M P A NY .

SE CO ND ED I TI O N
T WE L F T H I M PR E S SI O N

M c GR AW -
H ILL B O O K C OM PAN
NE W Y OR K : 3 7 0 SEV E NT H AV E NUE
Y ,
IN C .

L O ND O N : 6 8 B O UV E R IE ST .. E C 4
. .
 E E E
PR FAC TO S C OND E DI T I ON

ug v
Th e u y
oppor

Hy
t ni t u
c c or de d by t h e P blish er for a
h as b e e n a

u y
th or o h R e ision of t h e t e xt

v k
.e nc e aft e r a c ar e ful st d

uu
,

th er e of and refer en c e t o t h e m an le tt ers w h ic h h a e b ee n v g

m ade
y
r e c e i e d fr om r e ad er s of t h e b oo

yg
a n m b e r of m inor c h an es
,

uv
Wh ic h are int ende d t o c l arif c e r t ain Ob sc r e point s h a e b e en
Al l t po r aph ic al err or s Whic h c o l d b e loc at e d h a e
, v v
k u g
.
,

b e e n c orr e ct e d It is h ope d th at th ese Re isions Will r ender

v
.

t h e b oo b e tt e r adapt e d t o it s p r pose N0 m at erial c h an e s

.

h a e b e en m ade in it s sc ope or c ont ent s .

TE RR ELL CR OFT .

UNIV E R SITY C ITY ,

ST L O UI S M o,
.
,

J ul y, 1920 .
 PR E E FA C T O F IR ST E D I T IO N

v y
Se
trici ty
en

Som e
g
e ars

of u g y
in t h e m akin
t he
,
is t h e
m at e rial w as w ritte n d
re or d
c for Pr actical Ele c
r in t he e ars

v k H u y uy
.

fr om 1 9 1 0 t o 1 9 1 3 for t h e Am er ican E lectrici ans Handbook, b ut

’

it de el oped t h at t h e t ext t h s pr e par e d w as not s it ab l e for

a

vy v
h an db oo .

vu u
e n e,

be e n in c or porat e d in t h e
c
u it w as
pr e se n
s ore d aw a

t o
t
l m e
te m por aril an d h as
Sin c e J n e 19 16 a

k
.
, ,
’
er c onsiderable por tion O f t h e a t h or s t im e and eff or t h as

b ee n

yg
de ot e d t o t hi s w or

u fi u
Pr actica l E lectricity w as w ritt e n for
.

c ert ain de nite p r poses

y
.

Prim aril it s obj e ct is t o pr e sent t h e f n dam e nt al fact s and t h eo

g yu g u yqu k g
,

ries r el atin t o e le ct ric it and it s pr ese nt day applic at ions in a -

st r ai h t — for w ar d e asil nde rst ood w ay for st d b y any m an of

-

k g u u k
, ,

littl e m at h e m at ic al t r ainin w h o desir es t o ac ir e a w or in

y
,

now le d e Of t h e s bj e ct If a m an n derst ands arit h m e tic h e

k y y g u v uy g u v u
.

sh oul d b e ab l e t o ge t t h e m e at out O f t hi s b oo Se c ondaril t h e

.
,

b oo w as desi ne d for ni e rsit r ad at es w h o de sire a m e di m

u
wh e r e b t e h
y VVit h m ini m m e ffor t r e ie w r e fresh and re
'

n ~
ca

g W u
, , ,

c onst r ct in line w it h m oder n th e or and pr actic e t h eir c on c e pts

y
ne c essar gy u
of e le ct ric an d m a ne tic ph e n om e na hil e it h as not b ee n fo nd
.

t o use t h e hi h e r m at h em at ics, t h e st at e m ent s an d e x

‘

p l an a t
y
io n s a r

Th er e is th e or
e t

v
e

yc

y
h n

y
“
i c
p
a

r
ll
a ctua cc r ate

ic a l t h e o r in
.

t h e b o o k b e c a se o n e

u k u u vu u
, ,

c annot r et ain and c annot effe cti el appl his pr actic al infor
m at ion nless h e n d e r st ands t h e it al prin c iples w hic h m st

gv g v y
,

w h et h e r h e n ow s it or not n de r lie s c h infor m ation In ex

u v
.
,

p l ain in t h e t h eo ries f am i li a r a n al o i es h a e b ee n e m p l o e d

g u
,

w h e r e er possible M ch e xpe nse an d exert ion h a e b een ex

u v v u qu y u
.

p e n d e d in p r e p a r in t h e ill s t r a t io n s I n s o fa r a s f e a sib l e t h e

y
.
,

p i ct r e s h a e b ee n s o m a d e a s t o te ll t h eir o w n st o ries N u m

u
.

eric al e xam ple s h a e b ee n se d fr e e nt l b e c a se it is onl

y u
,

by t h e sol t ion Of c onc re t e pr obl em s t h at one can Ob t ain a r e al

appr e c iation of any ph sic al s b j e ct .

VI
 PREFACE V ii

Now as

g
t o t h e m e th od of tre atm e nt : Sinc e as is explaine d
in t h e O pe nin c h apte r electrici ty is the stay of w hich ever ything
'
,

v g y u
,

—
“

arou nd us —
m atter i s made c onsider able space h as b ee n
,

de ot e d t o e xplainin in a sem i pop l ar w ay t h e relation be -

u
, ,

t w een m att er an d ele ctricit Expe rie nc e h as sh ow n th at if t h e

y
.

st de n t O b t ains a pr oper c on c e ption O f th is r elat ion t h e ide as

g u y y
,

assoc iat e d w it h t h e pr act ic al applic ations of ele ct ric it can b e

raspe d m c h m or e e asil

u quy y v fi u y g
.

Al so t h e m oder n e le ctron th e or h as been e xamined and h as

be e n se d fre e nt l as a e hi c le w h er e b e xplanations of t hin s

yu v quu g
,

w hi c h or dinar il appe ar t o b e dif c l t of c om pre h e nsion by t h e

r e ader ar e re adil n derst ood After t his e stion of w h at ele c

v
.
,

t ricit y is h as b ee n c o ere d e ac h of t h e s cc ee di n fift y t w o -

g u g
,

se ct ions t r e at s O f som e im por t ant sub di ision of t h e ele ct ric or -

u v
m a ne tic ph e n om e na

g g u g
Th s in t h e O penin se ctions t h e b asic
.

ide as c on c e pt s and ni ts are de elope d

u
,

Th en m a ne tism e le c
,

W vg y u z
.
, ,

t ro-m a ne tism t h e m a ne tic cir cuit s and t h eir ses are disc sse d
'

g g g
,
.

h er e e r d esir ab le t h e ele ctr on t h eor h as b e e n tili ed in

v v vg
,

e xpl ain in t h e se t hin s Follow in are se ct ions tre atin of t h e

.
,

de elopm e nt of t h e ele ctr om oti e for c es by t h e diffe r ent m e th ods

g u u uu g
and aft er t hi s m at erial c om e s t h at h a in t o do w ith t h e differ
e nt for m s O f ele ct r om a ne t ic in d ction and in d ct an c e Now

g v y
.

t h e re ader is in position t o n derst and di r e ct c rr ent e nerat ors -

g ,

g v y
t h e se ctions r elatin g u
and m ot ors w hi c h ar e t h er efore

u qug g
,

t o al t ernatin g i en att e ntion Finall c om e

,

c rr e nts and al ternatin

.

u v
,

v
c rre nt e ipm ent b oth Sin l e ph ase and pol ph ase -

In arr an in t h e se ctions t h e e nde a or h as b een t o h a e t h eir

.

v g
or der s c h t h at t h e de elopm ent Of t h e differ ent ide as is conse cu

t i e and lo ic al
u u k
k g v
.

It is t h e int e ntion of t h e a t h or and t h e p blish er t o m a e

qu y y u
this w or a per m anent thin
as fr e e ntl gvTh at is w e pr opose t o re ise it
.

as c on ditions pe r m it or de m an d and t o e nl ar e it
,

as b e c om e s ne c essar

gv u
e nlar e m e n t s g.
k g v
Th e a th or h O pes t h at h e m ay h a e t h e
.

c ooperation of t h e re aders in w or in out t h ese r e isions and

It w ill b e t h e r e at est assistan c e if t h e r e aders
can ad ise t h e a th or O f ( 1 ) typogr aphical er r or s (2 ) things w hich ,

they do not un derstand th at ar e now in the book for w hich the ea:

p la n a ti ons sh ou ld be m a d e sim p le r ( )
3 thi ngs w hi ch sh ould be a dded

ugg u v
,

to the book and (4 ) things w hich ar e now in the book and which
,

should be elim inated All s

. estions w hic h ar e t h s r e c ei e d
v P R EF A C E

u yu u v
i ii

is
be c are f l l

uv vu
r at e d w h e n t h e f t r e e ditions ar e iss e d

se d as a t ext ,
t he te ac h er can,
u W
pr e se r e d and w ill, if possible , be incor po
h er e t h e ol m e
if h e
.

so desIr eS,
vu
aff or d m ost
eff e cti e and al ab l e coOpe r at ion .

TE R R E L L C R O F T .

3 3 AM HE R ST AV E N U E , UNIV E R SI T Y C I TY ,
SAIN T LO UI S, M I SSO URI ,
Septem ber, 1 9 1 7 .
 A C KNO WL D GM NT S E E
u y yvy k
If a k g
c om plete list Of ac now led m ent s w ere gi e n it w o ld
inc l de pract ic all e er b oo now in print in En lish on ele c
vg u ,

u g u
, ,

t rical t h e or and practic e Pr actical E k ctricity is b ased on ele c

vu y u v v u
.

t rical infor m ation w hic h h as b een obt aine d d rin t h e a th or s

’

life tim e in e e r c on c ei ab le w ay
p
vy
le t e t h e a t h
v
or w o ld
k h a e t o m
Th s if t h e list w e r e c om
e nt ion t h e n a
.

m e of n e arl
,

uk y
k v
,

e er person w h om h e h as e er h e ar d t al on ele ctric al s b j e ct s

y g u ugg k v
or t o w h om h e h as t al e d

and e nl ar e d pon in t h e b oo
Ide as w hi c h h a e b ee n w or e d out
.
,

h a e c om e fr om all sor ts of so r c es u
u u y v yg v
.
,

M an Of t h ese s e stions c am e fr om t h e pr ofe ssor s and in~

ug vg
’
st r uct or s in t h e a t h or s st den t da s Ot h e r s w h o h a e i e n

g y uy v y
.

t h o h t s for de elopm ent c om prise linem en w irem en d nam o

u u
, ,

t enders pr actisin ele ct ric al e n ine er s law ers st de n ts in

uu gv
, , ,

sc h ools w h e r e t h e a t h or h as l e ct r e d an d or dinar e er day -

fi k g
,

e
p p o l e w h om t h e a t h o r h a s m e t in c onn e ct io n w it h his e n in ee r

ing pr actic e
ug u g y k
A n m b er Of spe c i c ac n ow l ed m ents h a e b e en
.

m ade in footnot e form t h r o h o t t h e b oo

u u W g
.

C onsider able of t h e m at erial ori inall appe are d as art ic les

or disc ssions by t h e a t h or in t h e foll ow in pe riodic als : The
J ovi an, E lectrical Review and ester n Electrici an, The National
E lectrical C on tr actor , P ower , E veryda y E ngineering, Pr actica l

L Wv
E ng ineer , The P ow er

kg y fi
Helm r eich
Plant an d E lectrica l Age
ctrical depar tm en t Of
w h o is h e ad Of t he el e
.

u u
. .
,

t h e D a id Ran en J r Sc h ool of M e c h anic al Tr ades in Saint

v u ugg v
.
, ,

Lo is r e ad t h e alle an d nal pr oofs He loc ate d a n m b er of

v
, .

e rr ors and m ade al ab l e s e st ions for im pr o e m e nt s

— addi

i n —
t o s or re isions in t h e t ext w hich w ere in SO far as possible

g u u g
, , ,

follow e d .

Am on th e c on c erns w hi c h c ooperate d in s pplyin te xt data

an d m at erial for ill str ations are t h e Allis Chalm er s M anufactur -

i ng C ompany, The Gener al E lectric C om pany, The We stingh ou se

E lectr icM anufacturing C om pany The Wester n E lectric

pany and the Wagner Electri c M anu acturing Com pany
,

f .
C om
 P AG E

PR E F AC E .

AC K N O WLE D G M E NT S

SE C T IO N 1

M ATT E R AN D TH E E L E C TR O N T HE O R Y

SE C T IO N 2

M AGNE TI SM
SE C T I O N 3

F U ND AM E NT AL I D E AS C O N C E R NI N G E L E C TR I C IT Y .

SE C T I O N 4

C U R R E NT S OF E L E C TR I C IT Y

SE C T I O N 5

E L E C T R O M O TIV E F O R C E , C U R R E NT , R E SI ST AN C E
’
AN D OH M S

SE C TIO N 6

WO R K , PO WE R , E N E R G Y , T O R Q
UE AND E FF I C IE NC Y
SE C T IO N 7

T H E GE NE R ATI O N OF E L E C TR I C AL E NE R GY

SE C T IO N 8

E L E C T R I C C IR C UI T S

SE C T IO N 9

E L E C T R O M AGNE TI SM

SE C T IO N 1 0

TH E M AGNE TI C C IR C UIT
SE C TIO N 1 1

M AGNE TI C L E AK AGE
SE C TIO N 1 2

C AL C U L ATIO N M AGNE T WI NDI NGS

'

OF .

SE C T IO N 1 3

APPLI C ATI ONS OF ELE CTRO M AGNE T S

xii C ON TE N TS

SE C T IO N 1 4

M AG N E T I C T R AC TI O N AN D L I FT I N G M AGN E T S
SE C TI O N 1 5

HY ST E RE SI S
SE C T I O N 1 6

C O NT AC T E L E C T R O M O T IV E F O R C E S

SE C T IO N 1 7

T HE PR I N C I PL E S OF PR I M AR Y C E L L S .

SE C T IO N 18

T Y P E S AN D C O N NE C TI O N S OF PR I M AR Y C E L L S .

SE C T IO N 1 9

E L E C TR O L Y SI S

SE C T IO N 2 0

ST O R AG E B ATTE R I E S

SE C T IO N 2 1

E L E C T R O M AGNE T I C I N D U C TI O N

SE C T I O N 22

M UT U AL I ND UC TI O N

SE C T IO N 2 3

SE L F IN D U C TI O N 1

SE C T I O N 2 4

IND U C T AN C E

SE C T IO N 2 5

SE L F I ND U C T AN C E

SE C T IO N 2 6

M U T U AL I N D U C T AN C E .

SE C T IO N 2 7

E N E R GY ST O R E D I N T HE M AGN E T I C FIE L D
SE C TI O N 2 8

E DD Y C U R R E NT S

( For In d e x Se e E n d of Ne xt Volum e )
.
 P RACTICAL E L E C TRI C IT Y
SE C T ION 1

H YM ATTER AND THE ELE C TR O N T

W v y
EO R

M 1

v y
.

g
ade , at g u y
El e ctricity Is th e Stufi of
le ast thi s is t h e doctrine w hi c h is now
hich E er t hing Tangibl e I s
e ner all ac

u
ce pt e d

v u
.

g v y u y
t hi n t h at w e see and feel aro nd us is
Th at is, e er

m ade up of min t e par t icl es or c or p scles Of ne ati e ele ctric it

uu v y v
“
w h ic h h a e b ee n nam e d ele ct r ons and Of Sim ilarl m in te -

v v g guv uv
f r t h e r on Art 4
“
ele ctr on th eory
v
n c le i of posit i e ele ct ric it

g
Th e se ar e desc rib e d in de t ail
All experim ental e idenc e is in fa or Of t his
,
.

NO alid ar m e nt s h a e b e en r aise d a ainst

.

uy g
.

it . Th e sc ie ntist s w h o h a e i e n t h e Sit at ion t h e m ost se ar c h

ing st d n ow r e ar d t hi s princ ipl e as t h e c orr e ct one Hence .
,

to obtain an u nderstanding of the conditions afi ecting and the pr ob ,

able r easons for and explan ations of electrical phenomena it will be ,

ne cessary to get r ight dow n to the bottom of things and lear n somethi ng

v M g y gg — Whi c h is t h e t e c h nic al nam e

“
concer ning the stru ctur e 0 m atter
for e e ryt hin t h at is t an ib le

u ug k
.

2
“
att e r
”
is an t hi n — e xc e pt t h e
“
te t h er de fi ne d b elow

y g
.
,

(Ar t 35) w hic h occ pie s spac e S b st anc e s are difi er ent inds of

g
. .

m att e r An t hi n w h ic h h as w e i h t and dim e nsions is m att er

gv g g u g u gk
. .

In e ner al t h e exist e nc e Of m att er m ay b e de t e ct e d b y t h e

,

Se nse s — b y se ein fe elin t astin and sm ell in Som e inds

yg y uy v g
.
,

—
,

O f m att er ar e in isibl e for e xam pl e p r e air ill minatin gas

y
,

an d O x en
— b ut Sinc e t h e occ p spac e an d h a e w e i h t

tt h w th w t c
t h e ar e m att er .

ww t ttw
EXAM PL E S

c h t
of ma
b ook , t h e
er ar e s o n in Fig 1 O e r fam il iar e xam ples : Air,
.

t c th
.

b ody, a b uil din g, a ast e b aske , a oppe r

tt t t th tt
a e r, bu e r, a um an

ire , a ne spaper , a lo om o iv e , a fish , a sui Of lo e s, are all m ade up of

“
ma e r,
”
h a is, ey are ma er .

uk 3 .

g
b il t , is, in
Th e C onstruction of
a e neral
M att e r , t h at
w ay, now fair l y u
u uy g u — u
is, h ow it is m ade
w ell nder s ood t
up or
I t is

y
.

nownth at m att er is not a c ontin o s h om o ene o s stru ct r e ,

.

On t h e contrar it is c om pose d of m riads of disc r et e dist in ct

 P RAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ ART . 3

or
th em
se par at e
— m at erial par ticles w it h

vy y
In fact it is now g e ne r all y u nonm at erial spac es b e t w e e n
-

acc e pt e d t h at m att er is m ade

u uv
.

up O f er t icl e s c alle d m ol e c l e s (Ar t

sm all par . T h er e ar e

as m an different kinds Of m ol e c l e s in t h e ni erse as th ere ar e

Tog Bal loon

—Som e familiar
Clot h e spin

tt Salt C e llar

ku u u
FI G . 1 . exam pl es of ma er.

diffe r e n t in ds of s
—
t lim itless n m ber
b st an c es an al m os

y u v
.

Th e se m ol e c les ar e m ade up of sm al ler par tic le s c all e d at om s

( A r t .

v O nl ab o t 80 d
disc o e r e d b ut exper im ent al e idenc e
iffe r e n t k i
*
n d s o f a t o m
t ends t o indic at e th at
th ere are st 92 differ ent kinds of
v
s h a e b e en

ju
vy u at om s—no m or e n o l ess

ar e m ade up of t h e er
At om s
m ch
, .

yy g g p v
sm aller

r ob a b l
el e ct r ons

p a r t i c l e s
(w hi c h ar e
o f n e a t i e
,

v v yy k
.

el e ct ric it ) and of c h ar es of posi

t i e el e ct ricit Th e r e is it is

ju k
.
,

b elie e d onl one ind Of el e c ,

t

ct
—
t r on all e l e ctr ons ar e st ali e

w t u
.

tc
F G
I 2 — I m ag in a y pi u of
T h
r
e d i st in ct ion re
b e t w ee n t h e se

t
. .

ol ul ( i nl g d t h r ee sor t s of m att er c onstit ent s

gou ang im es Eacil m oF a
I ec s a e a yr r e l

t h u
s l 6 0t e
d h t i f c h ill b
“

om p i a n a om
r se s f oxy g n a n d a nO
t e p p
r o er
e
es o e a w e

w t c t c c v
t w o a om of y d og n
s r di sc sse d l at e r
e .
.

EX AM PL

cE

w
— A
t drop of
nu m b e r of m ol e ul es oftt
c h t thh c t th t v c wch t h
.

ct c
a er

a e r ( Fig c c
om prise s an al m os in on ei ably gre at

T h e a r a iv e for e w hi h is alle d .

t chth t ct c tt ct ct ct t v ct cc t h
o e sion b in ds ese m ol e ul e s oge er E e ry m ole ul e of a er com .

r ise s 2 a om s O f ydroge n g as a n d 1 a o m f x
o o y gen gas — w hi are el d
p
oge er by som e el e ri al a ra iv e a ion t o form t h e m ol e ul e . T en

ea of t h e a om s is com pose d of el e r ons and posi i e el e ri i y .

Rob ert S . M illik an R A DIAT IO N

. AN D AT O M IC STR UC T URE . Sc ie nce . Apr 6 , 1 9 1 7 . p 3 2 2
. . .
 M ATTE R AND THE ELE C TRON THE OR Y 3

u v y v
. SE C . 1]

p us c l e
4

fiu y
of
.

n eg v
at i eyel e ct u v
An El e ctr on is
ric it
— v
y y
te but er acti e par ticle or cor
so dim in ti e t h at it is
a min
e r
, ,

It Is possibl
'

ug ,
j k
dif c l t t o appr e c iat e h ow infiniteS

v H gv yim ally sm all one r e all is

t h e sm al lest O b e ct now n t o sc ie nc e
,
For m erl
it w as t h o h t t h at t h e at om w as t h e sm allest indi isib le rain
.
.

y u u ugg v
of m att er b ut now t h e el e ct r on h ol ds t h is dist inct ion
,

it is h ar dl acc r at e t o st at e t h at an el e ctr on is c om pose d of

ow e e r .
,

is pr ob abl y
m att e r b e c a se as s ,
est e d ab o e and as w il l b e Sh ow n m att e r

m ade up of ele ctr ons

y
, ,

v y
.
, ,

4A Th e D istinguish ing Property of Ele ctr ons is th at Th e

u u u
.

Te nd t o R epel O ne A noth e r w ith R e lati e l Enorm ous For ce s

for c e y
and will t h s r e pel e ac h ot h er

u .

gg y
nl ess r est r aine d by som e c o nt e r

v g uu
Ele ctr ons alw a s se par ate as far as possible aw a fr om
one anoth er nl ess t h er e is som e r est r ainin for c e pr e e nt in s c h

se par at ion Th e t w o im port ant t hin s t o r e m em b er ab o t

.

FI G .
I-Condit ions Nor mal

3 .
— How displ a c ct c
ed el e r ons ause el e ct t t c tt ct
r os a i a ra ion .

el ectr ons ar e , t h en : ( 1 ) Th ey are almost inconceivably sm all .

(2 ) They
ct c ctct c th h t ct
tend to exer t pow er u lfrepellin g f or ces on one another .

NOT E — Pr a i ally

th t t t c ct w t t
all el e ri al p en om en a can

ht w th t c
be sa isfa orily ex

h ch th tt ct
l i d b
’

p a n e on t h e asis O f t h e e l e r on e ory It c an b e s o n a it is prob .

c tt t tt
ab l e a an ex e ss of ele r ons at res on t h e gob l e of Fig ause s .

i h t h e silk an dk e r ief t o a r a

th t c t v ct w th c ct
”
t h e gob le , af e r b ein g rubb ed “

c h t t t ctct c c t wc
t h e w ad of o on Try his e xpe rim en yourself . Fur e rm ore it is .

b elie v e d a a flow or on inuous m o em en of e l e r ons i in a ondu or

k ab le

ct c t c t ct t th
ons i u e s an e l e ri urr e n (Art . 3 60 ) h e reb y all Of the r em ar

pe nom ena depi

t t ct cc t c ct tc
e d In Fig 4 m ay b e pr odu ed
. .

NO TE — Th e l o k e d up in norm al

t t
“ ”
e le rons a om s ann o e xer ese

ct c t c t
gre a r e pellin g for es b e ause , In a n orm al a om , t h e re pel lin g e ffe due t o
t h e ne ga i e el e ri i y O f t h e e le rons 18 exa tly ne u
v r aliz e d b y t h e posi iv e

vg
e le ri iy of t h e nu l eu s of t h e a om .

t he
5 .

z v
sa
A11 El ectr ons Ar e Alike ,
me Si e , ha e t he sam e
so it is b elie
m ass
ed ;

( wei h t ) and y
t h at is
e m b od
,
all are O f

t he
4 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

qu y y vy vu y
. 6

sam e

yvy k an

v
ctr icit
tit

u
Th e
O f ele h a e be e n de ri e d fr om
.

m an difi er ent inds of m att er (fr om m an diffe r e nt s b st an c e s)

Mvg g
,

b ut in e er c ase t h eir pr oper tie s h a e b e e n fo nd t o b e ide nt ic al .

6 Th e eth od s of D e ri in or Isolatin El e ctr on s c annot b e

y k
.

de sc r ib e d in de t ail h e r e Nor .

m all in m att e r of m ost in ds

u y
, ,

som e O f t h e e l e ct r ons ar e h el d

u v
e ,
r

u b o n d in t h e at om s w hic h t h e
r

c om pose b y pow erf l r est r ain

v u u
,

ing for c e s due t o t h e att r acti e

” “
e ffe ct of t h e p os i t i e n c l e s

O f t h e at om w hi c h w ill b e c on

v
,

side r e d l at er Al so t h er e are SO .
, ,

it is b elie e d ele ctr ons in som e ,

at om s w h ic h can b e se par at e d

v Hu v g v
,

fr om t h eir at om s w it h c om par a
t i e e ase ow e er t h er e ar e

gv g g
.
,

m e t h ods O f ne t r aliz in or o e r
c om in t h e restr ainin for c es

y
.

This h a in b een done t h e el e c

k u
,

t r ons w ill sh oot aw a fr om th eir

at om s l i e b l le t s out of a m a

vu g v c h ine gun exc e pt th at t h e el e c

t r ons t r a el at far r eat er el oc i
—
t ies S ch st r eam s t orr e nts
,

v
.

of el e ct r ons ar e c all e d cathode

r ays Th e b eh a ior and p p

r o er

y uy
.

t ies oi el e ctr ons m ay b e de t e r

m ine d b y e xpe r im e nt al l s t d

ct th
ing t h ese st r e am s .

EX AM P L E S — Ele

t wh
rons are us pr o

t t ht ct tt
j e ct e d from m any ob e ct sj fi

part icu
l arly fr om som e of the m e als— en

v iol e

ht t whc ch c c
ul r a- l ig r ays ar e pe r m i ed

t o im pinge on th e ob e j or if it is

t h t
ea e d t o in an des e n e . If a gl ass

h w c hw thh t t h ctw c t th ctc

ub e , from i t h e air h as b e e n
al m os ex aus e d , be arr an ge d as

v ol

c th ct w h t ct t c th c t c t t
s o in Fig 5, an d a
n . ig age from an in d u ion oil or o e r sou r e be
im presse d a r oss DE , i t h e pol ar i ie s as S o n , a s r e am of e l e rons
ill b e pr oj e

c t ct t c
( a ode r ays) e d fr om t h e a ode C as in d i a e d in t h e d ia

gr am . E le r ons ar e s o O ff Spon ane ously by er ain kinds Of m a t er,

w hi h are e r m ed radioa iv e sub s an es.
 ct th t ch
6 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART . 10

w ht
(2

t h
gram s) of pure ele r ons and t o form em in o t w o e ual sph er es,

th h ct thct w h q ea

ch tht w thh t wc th t c h tw t
e ig in g 1 gr am , Fig 6 T en , if ese t w o sp eres of e l e r ons e re . . el d

t
ab ou in .
( 1 cm ) . apar diagr amm e d in t h e pi ur e,
,
as ey w oul d re pe l

ea o er it a for e of h ree un dre d an d en y million , million , m illion ,

m il lion ons, a is i a for e of ons

y yu qu
X 10 34
dynes) .

Q
a ccu u y u qu y
10 .

r a el
Th e
t
uantit of El e ctri c it
c o l om b ( Ar t 1 22 ) is t h e com
det er m ine d Th e
u
of an El ec tr on

y j
h as b e e n it e

g yu u qu y u
. .

m onl y se d nit of ant it or am o n t O f el e ct r ic it ust as t h e ,

qu y qu ( )
all on is t h e c om m onl se d nit Of ant it or am o nt of
22
al
*
ctr on Of ele ct ri c i t
li ids O ne ele to W
u u
18 e
TO
.

y y
Of a co l om b . T h at is, 1 co l om b Of

el e ct ric it t fi v e m illi on m illion milli on

c ont ains appr oxim a el , ,

el e ct r on s

u
.

1 1 Th e Am ount of El e ctric ity

v y vy
.

T h at Is th e N m b e r of El e ctr on s — in
— -o

c tw ct
c

(W "U
th e U ni e r se Is C onstant and Un ar

y u v
FI G 6 T mu u at t h ” M L —
ing °
El e ct ric its
t h en can b e neith er
e e
_

?
'

v fo b
si e n el ons r e e ee e r .
, ,

c r e at e d nor de str o e d Ele ctr ons can

uyu g k
.
,

as is sh ow n l at er ( Ar t b e set in m ot ion and c a se d t o m o e .

fr om one l oc at ion t o anoth er t h s pr od c in w h at ar e now n as ,

el e ct r ic ph e nom en a B ut el e ct ric it — e l e ct r ons — c an b e n eit h er

.

NO TE th
m ade nor er adic at e d

c t cct c t is
.

v iden t tth t ct tc t ct ct th t t i y— e l e r ons — can n ot b e

t h t t t
.
-
It er efor e e a el e ri

tht tth t ct c t tt t c tt t cth ctt c

” ”
e rm
“
se ur e d , pr odu ed e d, spi e of t h e fa a the
“
or gen er a in
ge n e r a ion of el e iy is fr e que n ly use d
ri W en t h e s a em en is
”
.

t wh ch ct c t tw c ct t th
w a is re ally
“
m ade a el e ri i y is gene r a ed b y a b a e ry or dyn am o
—
.

m ean is a t e h b a e ry or dyn a m m
o fo es so e of his e e
r l ri i y e le
— ve A ba

wh ch t t t wt
r ons i is alre ady in e xis en ce , to m o . t e ry or dyn am o d oes
n ot ge n e r at e e l e ri
i y in t h e ir es onn e e d t o it any m ore an a pum p,
i is im pelling a s r e am of w a e r in a pipe , gen era es t h e a er .

v u g An Atom is t h e sm all e st par ticl e int o

u w hi c h m att e r
’

12 can be

g k uy
.

— ’
di ide d b y c h e m ic al se par at ion it is t h e c h e m ist s nit of m att e r

uu
.

Until ab o t t h e b e innin of t h e pr esent c e nt r t h e at om w as

t h e m ost m in

vuy
t e b it of m att e r now n t o scie n c e It w as t h e n
c onsider e d t h e ltim at e in di isibl e nit O f m att e r B ut now it v u y .

is as pr e io sl
,
int im at e d re as onabl
atom s ar e m ade up of t h e er
w ell e st ablish e d t h at
m c h sm all er e le ct r ons vy u
,

g
u
.

13 How Atom s Ar e Built up fr om El e ctr ons is ii t h e e ne r

.
—

ally ac ce pt e d c on c e pt ion is c orr e ct

‘
— ill st r ate d in an appr oxim at e
‘
F l e mi n g , T H E E L E CT R O NI C T H E O R Y OF E L E C T R I C IT Y . P opu la r Sc ie nc e M ont h l y M ay
, ,

2
 M ATTE R AND THE ELE C TRON THE OR Y 7

in Fi gus 7
u v
andu u 8Ij h e positi e n c le s is
r

y qu y v u u
. .

e pict res . It Sh oul d be nder st ood t h at

t ti e diagram s b e c a se
ar e m er el al i a

u
,

de t aile d below an ele ctron is m an th o sand t im es sm aller

,

an t h e at om of whic h it forms a par t It w o l d b e im possibl e .

I Hyd roge n
IElectron)

— Ill us tt tc c ct t
ll Al om Cont aining 51 Elec t r ons
‘ '

u
FI G . 7 . ra in g d iagr am m a i all y t h e pr ob ab l e onst r u ion of an a om .

t o dr aw t o
vy
c t w ith it s c onstit e nt ele ct r ons
s al e an a om

vy ky
It is
belie ed t h at an atom is sim il ar in a w ay t o an ul t r a-min t e
“ ”
u .

u
sol ar s ste m An atom , er li el , com prise s from one to a
.

n m ber of el e ctr ons w hic h ar e interl oc ked a nd r e ol in at in vvg

FI G . 8 .
— D iagr am in di ct t
a in g
t w
som e g r ou pin g s ( ch
hi m ay b e possib l e ) of e l e C o

vv u g u gu u u
r ons in t o a om s .

c onc ei ably reat speeds in re l ar c ir c l ar or bits aro nd t h e

.

g u
,

p osit i e n c l e s—in s om e w h at t h e sam e m ann e r as t h at in

u
ar o nd in t h e ir or b it s Th s it is appar e nt t h at e ne r
.

169 ) is associat e d wit h and l oc e d up in e e r at om

uk
w hi c h t h e ei h t satellites of t h e pl ane t Sat r n ( Fig 9 ) r ot at e

(A r t
vy .
.

gy .
 t c t t c tc ctw th t t ct c t t
8 P RAC TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T . 14

N
wh ch
c tt c h tw
O TE .
— An
*
a om

v olv e
ct
onsis s of a nu

t ch c t
leus h ar ge d
ive
i posi i ve e le ri i y

th t ct c ch t c t
ar oun d i re in fix t orbi s n e ga ele pl an e
r on s, as s ab ou

wh ch w
a e n ral sun . T e re are exa ly n in e y tw o
-
e m i al e l e m e n s, an d the

ct wh ch t c
esse n ial diffe re n e be een em is in t h e ele ri al ar ge O f t h e n u l e us

hth t tt t ct c t t c
( i d iffe rs al ays by t h e sam e am oun fr om on e e l em e n t o t h e n ex in
the serie s ) an d in t h e n um b e r of e l e r on s i re v olve ab ou t h e nu l e us .

Hydroge n , t h e lig

c tc h w th w
es el em en ,
h as only on e e l e ri al e l e m en in it s n u l eu s,
vies

t tc t tht t tt ht
an d u ranium , th e ea ,
h as n in e y tw o
-
. Th e orb i s dr aw n e ar er t o

e avier

h t tt ct
t h e nu l e us, as it is an d
m or e po e rful , b ut ey al ays re m ain at

Wh en
c t th t c th ch
th e sam e dis an e s for t h e sam e sub s an e . an a om r adia es lig
j um ps from

cth hc t c t t h
or ea an e l e r on on e orb i t o t h e n ex , so a r adia ion is a

ct h h w th t
serie s O f li l e expl osion s an d n ot a on inu ous pr o e ss . Of is su rprisin gly

om pli a e d a om , Pr ofe ssor M illik an says a it is r e all y mu Sim pl e r

an p ysi is s v
a e for ye ars b een e xpe in g . T ey a v e l on g kn o n a

Tl t a n
Sa t ur n .

M"
l

on 76.4 00 M1
'
D’“ 3000 “

o c c -O -v é
'

tt t t
t wwh t t t th t thct c c t h t
FI G . 9 .
— The pl ane Sa ur n an d it s sa e l li e s.

t th t t th t ct
a om s e r e n ot sim pl e , b ut ey h ad no m eans of as e r ain in g in w a w ay

cth ct th t t t ch
an d to a e x en e ir s ru u r e w as om pl e x .

NO TE — It is

ch ch th t
. esse n ial a th e re ade r un de rs an d a el e r ons ar e n ot

k e d solidly in eir a om s An

th h ct cc
pa . a om is, in a ge ne ral w ay, as m u l ar ge r
an an e l e

tht t w c ttt c wh ch c cc tt t cc
r on as t h e au di orium of a good -
siz e d ur or e a re is
O liv e r L odge r says : Ele r on s o upy t h e
’
l ar ge r an th e e ad O f a
-
pin .

c ct t
o er ise e m p y re g ion O f Spa e i w e all t h e a om in t h e sam e se n se
h a a few s a e re d b ut arm e d sol die rs can o upy a e rri ory— o upyin g it

y W
b y for eful a iv i y, not b y b odily b ul k
”
.

Atom m ay b e
. W
1 4 Th e R e ason
u h y It s El e ctr on s Te nd t o Sta
th s : Unde r nor m al c on ditions t h e ele c
e xpl aine d
ith in an

v v u u u u
,

—
t o s are m aint aine d w it h in th e ir at om s in th e ir orbit s b y
r n —

vy
R ob t S M ill ik
er R
u .N N
vy g u u
t h e attr acti e for c e of t h e posit i e n cl e s

A M S U U
an ,
Th s it is ass m e d
t h at in e er at om t h er e m st b e a positi el c h ar e d n cl e s
S i n
“

Ap 6 1 9 1 7
A D I AT I O A D TO IC TR CT RE ,
.

c e ce , r. . .
.

f MO D E R N V I E WS OF M ATT E R , p 1 1.
.
 1] M A TTE R AND THE EL E C TRON THE OR Y

v gg v u g u qu u gz
SE C . 9

Th e positi e c h ar e of t h e n c l e s j ust e als, h e nc e ne tr ali es

uu
norm al a om t v y
t h e t ot al of t h e ne ati e c h ar e s of t h e el e ctr ons c om posin t h e
Th er efore e er
“

a om ,
t whi c h h as its norm al

v g v u z
.

s al
— c om ple m ent of electrons exhibit s no indic ation of ele ct ri ,

fi cat ion Th e positi e and ne ati e ele ctric itie s in it ne t rali e

v v u u v
.

one anot h e r

k v y g u u
.

‘
“
It is b elie e d th at t h e posit i e n c le s can not b e r em o e d

v u
from an at om
h as e e r b ee n isolat e d
.

v y
SO far as is now n no positi el c h ar e d n cl e s
—
Ele ctrons h a e b een se par at e d isol at e d

u u ug g v y
.

—from at oms h ndre ds of tim es and by m an differe nt m eth ods .

Th e n cle s m ay b e t h o h t of as a c h ar e of positi e ele ctric it

— vv
c on c entrate d at a point at t h e c ent e r of t h e at om ar ound w hi ch
—
t h e ele ctrons r e str aine d in t h e ir orbit s b y it r e ol e
, ,

v ugg
.

By t h e applic ation of sui t abl e ele ctric or ot h e r for c es it is possi

ble t o de t ac h ele ctr ons fr om atoms As ab o e s e st e d an

vu fiu z g g u y u y
.

at om w it h it s nor m al c om pl e m ent O f ele ct rons doe s not e xh ib it

any e ide n c e of ext e r nal el e ct ri c at ion b e c a se any s c h t e ndenc

v u u u
“ ”
is c o nt e rb al anc e d by a ne tr ali in a e n c , Oft e n r eferre d t o

u
“ ”
as a p os it i e n c l e s t h e exact nat r e of whi c h is not
,

nde r st ood

u g y v
.

1 5 El ectrons Form Th e m selv e s intoDiffere nt Kind s of Atom s

u vv v y
. .

— Abo t ei h t ”
(80) differe nt sorts of ele m e nts or at om s h a e
“

v y y
th s far bee n disc o ere d b ut it is belie ed t h at th er e ar e nine t t w o

u g
It is b elie e d t h at t h e differ ent kin ds of at om s ar onl

c om prise t h e m — t
v u u u
h y
ere is onl k
in t h e n m b er and in t h e arr an em ent of t h e el e ctr ons w hic h

g one in d of el e ct r on —and in t h e s

ch ar e on t h e posit i e n cl e s

u g
an at om of c arb on and one of C oppe r is due pr in c ipall y
Th s t h e difi er ence b e t w ee n
to a
.

differ enc e in t h e n m b er and in t h e arr an e m ent Of t h e const it

ne nt el e ct r ons

z g y
E ac h of t h e 92 differ ent ele m e nt s h as pr ob abl

ug gug g
.
, ,

at om s of diffe r e nt Si e s and w ei h t s and e ac h Of t h e 9 2 h as it s

ow n pr ono n c e d and dist in

ist ics
,

. In Fi
g s . 7
,

uand y 8
but not t o sc ale , ar r an em e nt s t h at m ay r e pr ese nt t h e
g
ish in pr opert ies or c h ar act e r
ar e dia r am m e d , e nor m o sl e nlar

const it u
ed ,

ch c t
EX AM PL E S of som e
t t t
tions of som e of t h e differ ent sor t s of at om s
c c h t
.

wht t v h t wh h
of t h e diffe ren el e m en s are iron, arb on, oppe r, ydro
lorine , in ungs e n and oxygen A lum p of pure iron is b uil
‘

gen , z , . up
olly of ir on a om s ; a ol um e of yd roge n is b uil up olly of ydrogen
a om s, e t c .

of Atom , as d oes also t h e vu v g

Num b e r of El ectr ons in an Atom Varie s with th e Kind
1 6 Th e
al e of t h e posit i e c h ar e Of it s
10 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 17

u u v g y
.

n c le t h at is t h e h e a ier at om s Or elem e nts c om pr ise m an

s,

u
,

m or e el e ctr ons t h an do t h e li h t e r ones In fact it is pr ob ab le

u g g
.

t h at t h e n m b er Of el e ctr ons in an el e m e nt is pr opor tional t o

kv y u g v y k v
t h e n m b e r r e pr e se nt in t h e at om i c w e i h t of t h e ele m e nt
follow s t h at som e inds of at om s or el e m e n t s ar e h e a ie r t h an
It .

ug
ot h e r s .

uu v g ky
B ut in e er o n c e (or r am ) of e e r in d Of m att e r
t h e r e is ab o t t h e sam e n m b e r of el e ctr ons t h e re b ein li el
( 6 X 1 0 per r am ) ab o t se e nt e e n million m illion m illion
23 *
,

v y u v yk
, , ,

m illion t h at is , , e l e ct r ons in

h t c ht h ht t w
e er o n c e of e e r in d Of m att e r

tt h thwh cht th t t t th ctth

.

E XAM PL E — us, t h e a om i w eig of k

T T ydrogen , t h e lig es no n

h cw th t tcw cwht ht t c t c t ct ct
e l e m en ,
is ab ou t 1, an d it is pr ob ab l e a e r e is b ut 1 r o a in g e l e r on

in an a om of y dr oge n . V an adium , i is ab ou 5 1 im es e a ie r an v
lik ely

t ct t t
yd rogen h as an a om i e ig of ab ou 51 an d on ains 2 3 el e r ons .

hth t cccw ht t t t ct t c
Zin i an a om i e ig of prob ab ly on ains 30 ele r ons .

NO T E .
I — Th e “
num b e r of n e ga ive el e ron s in an a om is e q u al t o ab ou
alf t h e a om i e ig of the a om . Th e a om s ar e b uil up on e from t h e
o er by t h e su essi e addiv ion of on e an d th e sam e el e r on t o t h e nu l eus .
”

vy
17

g
.

g W
side r at ion of anal o ies u
Th e Siz e of an At om

u g g v y ciat e d b y t h e con
hile it is t r e t h at an at om is a e r
can b e b e st appr e

u g
.
,

er sm all fr a m e n t of m att e r it is s pe r i antic as c om par e d -

w it h t h e Siz e O f it s c onst it e nt e le ct r ons L od e st at e s **

t h at : .

“
If an el e ct r on is r e pr ese nt e d b y a sph e r e an in c h in diam e t e r

u
,

t h e diam e t e r of an at om on t h e sam e sc al e is a mil e an d a h alf

z g y v yv g
.

Th e spac e s b e t w ee n t h e el e ctr ons ar e e n or m o s as c om par e d

u u
w it h t h e ir si e — as r e at rel at i el as ar e t h e spac e s b e t w ee n t h e

p l an e t s in t h e sol ar s s t e m A n a e r a e at om is ab o t a t h o
.

san d mil lion t h of an in c h in diam e t e r t h at is it h as a di am e t e r Of ,

an el e

u gv g v
ct r on as i e n ab o e and not e th at t h e at om is ab o t a u
t h o sand t im e s l ar e r in diam e t e r t h an an ele ctr on Th e 92

y
diff ere nt at om s Of t h e 9 2 diffe re nt el e m e nt s ar e pr ob ab l all of
.

y
k
som e w h at b ut of n ot widel

M
now n as t o t h e ir r el at i e Si e s v z
differ e nt diam et er s b ut littl e is now

yy My v
,

yv
g q v g
.

1 8 At om s in att e r Ar e Al w a s on th e o e — th e are oscil

g v uu v u u g g g
.

l at in and ui e r in c onst antl —

And t h e c annot e e n in a .

ood ac —
m tr a el far w it h o t b m pin int o ne i h b orin
C r e h or e , PHI L M A G . .

k
TC om st oc and T r ol and , T H E NAT UR E O F M ATT E R AN D E L E C T R IC IT Y .

. k
1 R ob e r t S M illi an , R AD I AT I O N A N D AT O M I C ST R UC TUR E , Science, Apr 6 .
, 19 17 .

L od g e , M O D E R N V I E WS OF M ATT E R , pp 7 an d 9
. .

H L odg e , M O DE RN V I E w s OF E L E C T R I C IT Y , p 42 9 . .
SE C 1] M A TTE R AND THE ELE C TRON THE OR Y 11

y v y
.

ms
u u
tim ate d t h at in t h e or dinar air e er
It h as bee n *
t
a o . es

at om c ollides w it h anoth er ab o t six t h o sand million t im es

v ug v u u u
c o d t im p é
u g
An atom can not
’

p e r se n es r

m o e t h r o h e e n t h e m in test dist anc e w it h o t c oll idin

w it h an oth er

u qu
It sh o l d b e
b e twe e n at om s m ay b e e
.

y
n derst ood t h at t h e dist an c es

y k g gy
al t o m an

an atom yet s c h a dist anc e is strictl

tim es t h e diam e t er of
spe a in exc ee din l

y
, ,

sm all

ugu u y y y y
.

19 . It Has Not Be en D efi nite l E stablish e d Th at Atom s Ar e

Sph e rical in Sh ape , al th o h th e ar e pr ob ab l appr oxim a e l t
sph e r i al

tion u W W g
and
c . Thi s for m is
c om p t at ion
s all assum e d t o fac ilit at e e xpl ana

v u yMv
.

20 Th e Ph e nom e na
. hich e C all Li h t Is, Th e re Is R e ason
to Be lie c e d b y El e ctr ons as Th e
e, Prod o e in Th e ir
Atom s
W
—
ju gg u
Th is doctr ine is acc e pt e d as t h e c orr e ct one b y t h ose
h o are in t h e b e st position t o d e
y u
As t h e el e ctr ons shift

v v u gk g g
.

fr om one or b it t o t h e n e xt at pr odi io s spe e ds t h e pr od c e

V ibr at ions or w a es in t h e rat h e r (se e foll ow in par a r aph for
(E ther )

v .

qu y y u k
Th e se te t h er w a es c onst it t e w h at is n own as li h t
If t h e te t h er w a es ar e of l ow fr e en c t h e ar e t h e n n ow n
.

v
as r adiant h e at

w a es o
v qu v v
Th e diffe re nt c ol ors ar e pr od c e d b y te th e r

u
.

f diffe r e nt fr e e nc ies t h at is b y w a e s w hic h h a e dif

g u
,

fe re nt r ate s of ib r ation Thi s sit ation is e xpl aine d at som e

M
.

’
l e n t h in t h e a th or s PR A C TI C AL E L E CTR I C ILL U M I NAT I O N

g
.

2 1 Atom s of M atte r M ay C om bine t o Form ol e cul e s — A

k
.

m ol e c ul e m ay as in dic at e d in t h e foll ow in e xam ple c om prise

k g vv vgg g
, ,

1 2 or m or e at oms of t h e sam e in d or it m ay c om prise 2 or m ore

,

at om s of diff er e nt in ds In any e e nt it is b elie e d t h at w h e n

gu u
.
,

atom s c om b ine or arr an e t h e m s el es in t o an a r e at ion or

u g u u
r o p O f at om s w hi c h w e c all a m ol e c ul e t h e

g
,

z nb al anc e d el e ct r ic

for c e s of t h e c ons t it e nt at om s Of t h e r o p ar e so ne t r ali e d b y

,

g u uu u u u y v y
r o p or m ol e c l e b e c om e s s all g
t h e el e ctr om a ne tic int e r act ion Of t h e m e m b e r at om s t h at t h e
a r el at i el st abl e arr an e

u y y u gu y
, ,

m e nt It Sh o l d b e n de rst ood t h at t h e m e m b e r at om s Of t h e
.

m ol e c l e do not pr ob abl nor m all t o c h e ach oth e r T h e

, , .

ar e se par ate d b ut are h el d in t h e ir posit ions in t h e ro p by th e

EX hAM PLE t h
for c es j ust r e fe rr e d t o

c hc —T
.

tth c .

us t w o a om s of
H2
yd r oge n (H) w ill om b ine t o form a

t cc
m ole ul e ( Fig . 1 0) of ydr oge n, . T w o a om s of oxyge n ( 0 ) m ay com
b ine t o form a m ol e ul e of oxygen, 0 2 O . e r e xam pl es are giv e n im m edi
a el y foll ow ing t h e su ee din g par agr aph .

L od g e , M O D E RN V IE WS OF E L E C TR I CITY , p 429 . .
12 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 22

u
.

22

y
can not u.

v u be u
A M ol e c ul e is t h e sm alle st por tion Of any
s th er w it h o t it s
b di ide d f r p p
r o e r
bst anc e w hic h
t i
s

e s b e in de
u g
str o e d

g u
st an c e u gu
.

gg g
It is t h e sm all est c om ple t e an d n or m al nit Of any sub

ku v
A m ol e c l e is an a r e ation Of at om s w hi c h ar e b o nd u
u u
.

t o e th er int o one ro p b y som e in d of an el e ctric attr action .

Th e n m be r of at om s in a m ol e c l e arie s w it h t h e s b st anc e

u u u uv u y
.

In a m ol e cul e Of c om m on sal t t h e r e ar e 2 at om s ; in a m ol e c l e

(
uggg
t h e w hi t e

kv y y
O f an e gg )u
O f al m t h er e ar e ab o t 1 00 at om s an d in a m ol e c l e of al b m in

t h e r e ar e a b o t at o m s A s pr e i o sl

u y
.

s e st e d diffe r e nt in ds an d c om b inat ions of at om s c an b e ar

k
r an e d in an e n dl e ss

k u u
— diff e r ent in ds of m att e r
ar ie t O f w a s t o for m diffe r e n t s b st an c e s

T h e re ar e in t h e ni erse as m an uv
k
.

diffe r e nt in ds Of m ol e c l e s as t h e r e ar e diffe r e nt kin ds of sub

st an c e s

uu y uk
or
“

s all
e l e m e nt s
.

k ug u
” —
k
All ar e m ade Up fr om ab o t 9 2 diffe r e nt inds of at om s
an d fr om one

ass m e d in m a in
ind O f el e ct r on Al th o h it is
c om p t ations t h at m ol e c ul e s ar e
, ,
. ug
t ch tc t c
sph e r ic al it is n ow n t h at s c h is n ot t h e c ase
*
.

t tt h c c
E XAM P L E — An . a om of t h e gas l orin e an d an a om O f

th
the
t t
se m i-pl as

An
i

c t w tc tt
me al sodium m ay uni e and pr odu e a m ol e ul e of om m on sal . a om

th t c ct
of oxyge n , a gas , an d 2 a om s of ydr ogen , a gas, uni e an d the resul t is a m ole
k

th h t w t w th ct w
ule O f a er (Fig . Th e diagr am s of Fig 2 s oul d . not be a en t oo
li e rally be ause it is n ot pr ob abl e a m ol e ul e s ar e a ual ly b u il u p as

ere s o n . Ho e ver ,
is pi ure il l e n ab l e on e t o form a gene r al ide a

H g y
of t h e si u a ion .

23
Th at is,v . Th e
y ol din Pow e r of an At om Is C all e d It s Val e nc
al e n c e is t h at pr ope r t O f any e l e m e nt b y ir t e vu .

of

uk v fi u g
w hic h one Of it s
c om b ination t o for m a m ol e
t
a om s can

c l e a c e r t ain de nit e n m b e r of oth er at om s At om s of diffe r e nt

h ol d in ,

v
, .

inds h a e t h e pow e r Of h ol din in c om b ination diffe r e nt num

b e r s Of at om s An el e m e nt an at om of w hic h can ne er h ol d
.
,

m or e t h an 1 oth e r at om in c om b in at ion is c all e d a u nivalent el e

u
,

m e nt and it s at oms m ay b e c alle d uni t at om s An el e m e n t an .

,

at om of w hi c h can h ol d in c om b in at ion 2 nit at om s is a bivalent

e l e m e nt One t h at can h ol d 3 is trivalent

—
.

4 is q uadrivalent and so on
One t h at can h old

u
hil e m ost el e m e nt s h a e al e n Wu .

vv
y u
.

c ies of one O f t h e fo r cl asse s j st r e cit e d t h e r e ar e c e r t ain ot h er ,

of t h e el e m e nt s w h ic h c an h ol d as m an as 7 nit at om s in

t ch th c
c om b inat ion .

t h
EX AM PL E S — Hyd rogen
a om of

ENC .
ydroge n
B R IT .
.

, V ol .
wc ill
XV III
om b in e

,
( H) is

p 65 6
. .
w th t ch
i
v
uni alen

an a om of
as is also

lorine
l orine
and form
(C l)
a
,
us an

m ole ul e
 14 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 26

th ch tw
.

t ch c
and t h e t en ousan d m ilh ont h of an In (be een In . an d

1
Th e v
a e r age diam e e rs in in es Of t h e m ol e ul es of

som e of t h e gases ar e :
*

1
Hydrogen X 10 8
cm . X 10 8
m

C arb on

t
m onoxide X cm . X in .

Ni r oge n X cm . X in .

X cm . X in .

Oxygen X cm . X in .

C arb on

c c c c t t
1
di0 X1d 9 3 33 X cm 1 31 X in

th t tw
Th e
twnum b e r of

t
m ole ul es in a ub i in h ’
of air r at ordin ary e m pe r a u res

c
an d pr e ssu r es is b e e e n Sixt ee n b il lion b illion an d Six e e n mill ion m illion
X

c c ch ht th h ttw t t t h th ct
bill ion ( a is b e ee n 1 6 X 1 0 18
and 16 10 21
or
000 and Th e nu m b e r of m ol e ules in a

c
ubi in of y dr ogen is at fr ee z ing em per a u r e an d or din ary- a m osp e ri

t ch h th t c c c
pressur e ab ou re e un dr e d an d en y million m ill ion million ( a

c ch
is 3 2 1 19
0 or 3 20, T o appr e iat e t h e m e anin g Of

t tw c t c th
h is en orm ous num b e r it s oul d be r e aliz e d a if all t h e m ol e ul es in a ubi

t v c t ch t t t t t ct th th
in O f air w e re pl a e d Side by side in a r ow , sm all as e a on e is, t h e r ow

w ould ex e nd n e arly i e t h e dis an e fr om t h e e ar to the sun .

Wi h a ery deli a e m easuring ins rum en , a v aria ion in l en g of on e

h tht th c t c c t c t c ct th t c t th
1
nt h 1” of an in in a me al b ar m ay b e d e e ed. In is

h t t h th c th ch c c t thth
s or l e ng ab ou 1 00 m ol e ul es oul d b e pl a e d in a r ow l ose oge er .

Wi a good m i r os ope ab ou t h e sm all es ob j e a can be see n is one

av in g a dia m e er of a

tchw cht t cct h th wh ch w h

un d r e d ousan d of an in . In a sm al l b ox is
siz e , six e e n m illion m ol e ul e s can b e pa k e d l ose oge er .

ly spe akin g , m ass)

c h w th t
Th e sm all es e ig (or s ri i can b e e ig e d on a

v ery A m illion

t ct ch c
good e m i al b al an e is on e- un dre d of a m il ligram .

m il lion m ol e ul es of ydrogen oul d e r e for e be j us

M u
de e ab l e on su a b alan e .

u 26 . M ol e cular Structure of att e r is s c h t h at no t w o m ole

Th e
c l e s ar e in per m anent c ont act w it h one anoth er An incon
g
vy u y u qu v g
.

ce iv abl y sm all spac e se par at e s e ac h m ol e c ul e fr om it s ne i h b or s

y
.

E er m ol e c l e is at or dinar t e m pe r at r es i e rin and O S

u u
, ,

cill at ing t o an d fr o — —
m an m ill ion t im es a se c on d in it s sm all

k y
,

r e st rict e d Spac e b e t w e e n it s fell ow s It b o nds an d r e b o nds .

b ac and for th b e t w e en t h e m If a b od is w ar m e d it s m ole .

,

E N C B RIT
. V ol XV I II , p 656
.
, . . .

t Fl e m ing . E L E C T R O N I C T HE O R Y OF E L E C T R IC IT Y , p 6 . .
SE C 1] M AT TE R AND THE EL E C TRON THE OR Y 15

v vy uy y uy j
.

c ul e s ibr at e m or e acti el

g
Th e po nd h ar de r on t h e ad ac e nt
m ol e c ul es and th er eb p sh t h e m aw a
.

This m a es t h e b od k gy
y
.

Th ust h e e xpansion Of t hin s as

"

b e c om e l ar er as it is w ar m e d . “

t h e ar e h e at e d m ay b e expl aine d , .

h tt c wc c
FI G 1 1 . .

ch
w ch t
FI G 10 — I m agin ary gr e at l y e nl ar g e d
-
vi e of m ol e ul e s of a g as, su as

t
. .
,

oxy g e n , w e r e in two m ol e ul e
a om s om pose a

h th t c t hw
F I G 1 1 —T h e a om s of a solid in
.

. . hi t h e arr ang e m e n is r e g ul ar .
( Pr ob
ab l y , in som e solid m a e rials , t h e at om s ar e arr a n g e d hi g gl ed y- pigg l e dy as in Fig .

w il e in o er sub s an e s t h e arr an g e m e n is , it is li ely , r e gul ar , k as s o n

abo e )v .

27
(3) gaseous
. Th e re Ar e Thr e e Stat e s of
In solids,
*
th e
gv
M att er : ( 1 ) Solid (2)
m otion Of e ac h m ol e c l e is li th at u k ,
liquid,
e

qu u
.

of a m an in a de ns e cr ow d (Fi s . 1 1 and w h er e it is alm ost

or ite im possibl e for him t o l e a e t h e spac e h e occ pie s b e t w ee n

FI G . 12 .
— I m agin ar y m i ch c c wt t chw
r os

un dr e d
opi vie
million h s
s of por
O f an
ion s
in
of a solid an d a
id e
”
liq uid a fe w

g u u k v yv y
.

his nei
h b ors ; ye t h e m ay t r n ar o n d and h a e som e m otion

ex

the
c u
from side t o Side
r sions

m otion
fr om t h eir
of
.

v ug k
In solids t h e m ol e cii l es m a e
a er a e

v
t h e m ol e c l es is li
posit ion s

e
In liq uids ( Fig 1 2 II )
.

th at of m en m o ing on a
onl er

.
sm all

G ag e , E LE M E N TS OF PH Y SI C S , p 1 9
. .
16 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

ug
g u
. 27

ug
c row de d t h or o
t h o h t t o b e in k
v u g hfar e .

t in t h e air
m ot ion li
In
e
ase s

na s
( Fig

u v yg
. 1 0) t h e m ol e c l e s ar e

qu
.

In solids t h e att r act i e for c e b e t w e e n m ol e c l e s is e r r e at ;

qu v
it r e ir es c onsider ab l e pr e ss r e t o alt er t h e sh ape of solids
li ids t h e att r action b e t w ee n m ol e c l e s is r el ati el sm all — theuqu vu y
In .

vy
O f any y
c oh e si e for c e is alm ost l ost ; h e n c e li ids w ill ass m e t h e sh ape
e ssel int o w hi c h t h e ar e po r e d In a gas t h er e is pr ac u v
y y u g H v g u
.

—
tic all no attr action b e t w e e n m ol e c ul es t h e c oh e si e for c e is

q v
al m ost e nt ir el

e n de a orin to gk k k u
ab se nt ; t h e

noc
ar e b o n din

on e an ot h e r apar t
an d t r a elin ar o n d

e n c e for c e is r e

g y
g u vy
.

ui r e d t o e e p t h e m ol e c l es of a gas fr om se par at in e nt ir el

and w ander in ar o nd e e r w h ic h w ay It is pr ob able th at .

h t t tt wt
I Sol id

sa ous

—T

qu ug u ku
FI G . 13 . r e e s a e s of ma e r an d u sin g a er as an e xam pl e .

t he t t
s a e (solid li id or ase o s ) O f any ind Of m atter is

u
,

det er m ine d b y it s t em pe r at r e an d t h e pr ess re t o w hic h it is

t cw t t t
s b j e ct e d .

— Wa e 1 3 ) m ay e xis in : (a) A solid state , ice ,

t ch th th t t th
E x AM PL E . r m ole ul es ( Fig .

h t ct t t h t c ch t c t t h t
Fig 1 4 ; ( b) a liq uid stat e,
. a e r , Fig 2 ; (c) a gaseous stat e, s e am , Fig 1 5
. . .

W a e r can b e an ge d fr om any on e of ese r e e s a es t o t h e o er by

t th v c t c h
ea in g or ooling i as t h e as e m ay b e Zin ( Fig 16) w e or din aril y see
‘

. .

anged in o it s liquid s a e an d

t t h
in its soli d s a e ; b y e a in g it is e a ing it

All liquids (e x ep possibly al o ol ) h av e b een

ch t t t th
s il l fur er aporiz es it .

— froz e n— b y applying low E v ery

t
solidifi e d e m pe r a u re s an d hi g pressures .

liq uid h as b e en — v ola il iz ed Eve ry gas h as b ee n b o

t h t ct c
i
an ge d n o a gas .

liq u efi e d an d solidi fi e d Sands one , diam onds and quar z can b e liq u efi ed
.

y
m el t e d— and v aporiz e d b y t h e in en se ea of t h e e l e ri ar c .

g k k
It follow s
quv z
t h at any solid ele m e nt is m e r el “
the fr oz e n or

c on e ale d st at e of t h at ind O f ele m e nt Any li . id is t h e m e lt ed

st at e of t h at in d Of e le m e nt Any gas is t h e . apori e d s a e of t t
 M AT TE R AND THE ELE C TRON THE OR Y 17

k gv
SE C . 1]

th at ind Of ele m en t Not e th en th at in t h e c h an e of m att e r

g yu gv
.

from one t t
s a e to ano th er t h e m ole c ul es th e m se l e s are not

g
,

c h an e d, it is m erel t he spacin sbe t w e e n and the c

spa e s oc cu
/

pie d b y t h e m ol e c l e s in t h eir ib r at ions and w an de rin s t h at

w t c ch w t c —G
t
ct hw c t wt
FI G . 14 .
— I ce m ol e
im ag i ul e s, an FI G . l5 . rea ly e nl ar g e d inag
n ary V ie gr e a l y e nl ar g e d Ea in ar y v ie O f m ol e ul e s of s e am

h
.

m ol e ul e is s o n as b eing om pose d ( a er v apor ) .

of an a om O f oxy g e n a n d 2 a om s of

v gg
y d r og e n .

ha
a oms
t
at om s
e

u
c om posin
bee n

.
c h an ed . The m ole cul e s
t h e m ole c l es and t h e
re m ain

el e
int act
ct rons c om posin
as do t h e
g the

I Sol id
"

FI G 16 — Zin c 11 Liq uid

in t h e solid , liq ui d an d
III Gase ous

tt
Gu
. .
g aseous s a e s .

28 Eq ual Volum e s of All

.

Sam e Num b er of ol e cul e s Mu ase ous

n de r
Sub stance s C ontain th e
t h e sam e c onditions of t e m
u
Thi s is AV O GADR O S l aw
y
’
pe rat ur e and pr e ss r e It c onstit t e s

y y
. .

one of t h e m ost im por t ant ph sic al c on c e pt s b y m e ans of w hic h

m an ph si al and
c c h emic al ph e nom e na can be e xpl aine d.
18 PR AC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

W u
. 29

M u 29 .

ol e c ul e s
h en a S b stanc e Expands, th e Distance s b etw e e n It s

v gg
In c r e ase s ; w h en it c on tr act s, t h e dist an c e s b e t w e e n

g
—
it s m ol e c l e s de cre ase t h e m ol e c ule s t h e m sel e s do n ot c h an e

pg
in siz e
a r a r u
ap h
.

F ig 1 7 ill st r at es t hi s t r u v yg g
This mi h t b e infe rre d fr om t h e st at e m e n t in a pr e c e din
t h i n a dia r a mm a t ic w ay

u
. . .

Th e m ol e c ul es of a c om pr e sse d gas ar e r el ati el cl ose t o e th er

u u y u
,

as in I If t h e g as is permitt e d t o e xpan d it s m ol e c l e s w ill b e

g gu y
.
,

f r th er apart as in I I Th e r e is pr e c ise l t h e sam e n m b e r Of

ug
.

”
“
m ol e c l es in dia r am I as in dia r am I I Sim il arl the .
,

m ol e c l e s of a s b st an c e ar e

u y
som e w h at cl ose r t o et h e r w h e n

t h e s b st an c e is c ol d t h an t h e
ar e w h e n it is h e at e d

M u
.

30 Th e Differe nce b etw e e n

gfi u
.

an At om and a ol e c l e , it
b ein r st nde r st ood t h at a

u u
m ol e c ul e is m ade u p Of at om s
m ay be e xpl aine d t h s : It h as
,

yu u
b ee n st at e d t h at t h e m ole c le is

t h e st r ct ur al
’

y
t h e ph sicist s unit of m att e r or
nit of ph sic s

u u g g y y
w hil e t h e at om is t h e Ch e m ist s
’

nit T h e m e anin of t hi s is

g u v
.

t h at d r in any or din ar ph s

h e at in g g k
ic al c h an e s c h as e apor at ion
c oolin e xpansion con , , ,
,

tc c tw
t r act ion an d t h e l i e t h e con

c tt
n Em d d _
e

St it Ut ion O f th e 111 0 16 0 1116 IS 11 0 1;

1 7 — H ow t h e dis

g
FI G . . an e be e en

m ol e ul e s of a g as in r e ase s if t h e g as affe ct e d In fact th e se ph e nom

u
.

pe r m i ed to e xpan d
due t o c h an e s in t h e
'

e na ar e

posi

u u u u k v
tions or r el ations of t h e m ol e c l e s On t h e ot h er h an d w h e n
c h e m ic al ph e nome na oc c r t h e m ol e c l e is br o e n up int o it s
.
,

u u g yugg y
,

c onst it e nt at om s and ne w m ol e c l e s ar e for m e d NO di ision

gk y
.

of an at om occ r s d r in any or d in ar ph sic al or c h e m ic al

c h an e B ut at oms can as elsew h ere s
. est e d b e par t iall
, ,

t t th ct
b ro e n up int o el e ctr ons b y t h e applic at ion of c e r t ain m e t h ods .

c — In an
c
'

NO T E k

tt c
el e m e n al l t h e a om s are ali e . In a om pound al l t h e

k kin ds of m ole ules

t th c
”
m ol e ul es are al i e . In a
“
m ixt ur e e r e are diffe ren .

EX AM PL E .
—Ii t w o form s Of m a e r , n am e l y, t w o k in ds of san d bl a k and,

w hit e , are m ixed oge e r, e a h k eeping it s indiv idual propert ies unch anged ,

R ow l and Am os. PHY SI CS .

 M ATTER AND THE ELE C TRON

tt tt t ct t c th c
SE C . 1] THE OR Y 19

ha it is possible t o separa

c t c ch t t th cc t h c
so h em again, t h e h ange is alled a ph ysi al
e

one . Wh ereas, if, as t h e resul of b ringing t w o h in gs oge er, nam ely, a

pie e of oal and t h e oxyge n of t h e air ( is o urs w en oal b urns) , t h e
proper ies of ea are los and an en irely new sub s ance appears, it is called

a ch em ical ch ange

y g
.

31 .

gu g u gg u g g u g
A Ch emical Change , th en, is
transfer or c h an e in r o pin of atom s Old r o pin s ( m ole
r eall
thin m ore t h an a no

g v
.

c ul es) are disr pted and new ro pin s ( m ol e c ul es) are form ed

g
.

In c h e mic al c h an es neit h er t h e at om s t h e msel e s nor t h e ele c

agg g g u u gv u u
tr ons c om posin t h em are alt ered in any w ay For ex
r e at ion Of ele ct r ons w h ir lin
am pl e t h e

ar o nd a posit i e n cle s
.
,

g y H v g g
,

w h ic h w e c all an at om of c opper r em ains d r in a c h em ic al , ,

c h an e al w a s an at om of c opper ow e er c er t ain at om s d o

v
.
,

som e tim e s lose el e ct r ons as de sc rib e d in t h e foll ow in p a r aph

a r

v
.

32 T h e Atom s of Radio acti e Sub stance s Ar e C ontinually

“ ” -

g v
.

h
S oo g ofitin El ectr ons — T h e re ason for thi s is so it is b elie e d

u H g
, ,

th at t h e arr an em ent Of t h e ele ctr ons in th ese r adio act i e -

u
at om s is an nst ab le one

u e nc e—
gu g
sinc e t h e e ner al pr ope r tie s of
.

a s b st anc e ar e det er m ine d b y t h e n m b e r and r o pin O f t h e

u g
st anc es ar e u y
r ad allg gg h ug
ele ct r ons w hi c h c om pose it s at om s

c an in v — y—
y
t h e pr opert ie s of t h e se sub

u
t o h er sl ow l
h — as t h e

k
n m b e r of el e ctr ons c om posin

uy
el e ctr on e m anations one

spont ane o sl
v g
th e m de cre ases Th s due t o
ind of r adio acti e el em ent m ay c h an e
,

int o anot h er kind of el e m e nt

-
.
,

y g u
.

33 Furth e rm or e , Atom s of Any Sub stance M ay Lose an El ec

u
.

— —
tr on or possibl a fe w el e ctr ons b y t h e el e ctr ons b ein b r sh e d

u gg v y H v v u y u y
or r b b e d Off by m ain for c e or frict ion Or at om s m ay b e
c a sed t o i e up ele ct rons by ir t e of som e pr operl dir e ct ed
.

e le ct ric a en c

u
ow e er
.

ug y
in pr actic all
u ,

t otal num b er of ele ctrons r bbed off or p sh ed OR by s c h

all s c h c ase s t h e ,

y u u
for c es— frict ional or el e ctric— is an exc e e din l

u y sm all pr opor

tion of t h e t ot al n m b er of el e ctr ons in t h e s bst anc e pr ob abl

g
,

onl one el e ct r on in a m il lion m illions O f t h e m It is s c h a

g u v
.

sm all pr oport ion t h at no c h an e in t h e appe ar anc e const it u

fi
,

tion or w ei h t Of t h e s b st anc e as a w h ole is de te ct able e en

u u vy u u v
, ,

b y t h e applic at ion of t h e m ost delic at e and r e ne d m e th ods and

m e as r e m ents B ut b e c a se Of t h e e nor m o s r e p lsi e for c e s

fi u u y yg v u
.

of fr ee el e ctr ons ( Ar t a relati e l

. fe w ele ctr ons in e xc e ss or
in de c it on a s b st anc e can acc o nt for m an Of t h e w onde rf l
ele ct r ic al ph e nom ena w hic h are c onst antl b e in ob ser ed and
w hic h are difficul t of explanation on any oth er basis .
20 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y

y
[ ART 3 4 .

an d M
34 .

ugg How M att e r

ol e cul e s
g is
y
Is, Possibl
s es ed
t in
,Built up fr om El e ctr ons, Atom s
Fig 1 8 Th e sph er es r epre se nt

g y
. .

t he c e nt ers of at om s c onne ct in t h e at om s ar e m e r el
Th e lin e s

u u gu g g gu
.

im a inar lin e s t o in dic at e t h at t h e at om s ar e dispose d in t h e ,

s b st an c es Sh ow n in r e l ar e om e t ric arr an e m e nt s Th e re

kg y
, .

ar e no s c h line s c onne ct in t h e at om s of act al m att e r By

gg y v
.

m a in c ert ain m e asur e m e nt s on c r st al s wit h X r ay b e am s -

g if t

u
e d

y
sc i
y
e n t

g
ist s

u
( t h e

u
B r a

y
s an d M o sl e ) a e b e e n abl e t o de
h
t e r mi ne t h at in c r st als Of t h e s b st an c e s in dic at e d t h e at om s

uu vy u u u v y u u g k
, ,

ar e act all l oc at e d as dia r am m e d in t h e il l st r at ion C r st alli ne .

s b st an c e s h a e do b tl e ss a r el at i el sim pl e or re ul ar st r uc

u u u
t r e Pr ob abl t h e str ct r e s of a c om po n d s b st anc e l i e
.

w ood or cl ot h w o l d b e m c h m or e c om plic at e d th an th ose ill s

t t c t
1 R k Sa l t II Z inc ble nole

t t h w t t
( Zinc Sti ff/d)

ct tt th c ch c ct
F I G 1 8 — Ar
. . r an g e m e n of a om s in t w o in d s of r y s al s k ( T h e lin es C O D . .

n e c t in g t h e d iffe r e n a om s ar e s o n m e r e l y t o r e n d er t h e ill u s r a ion pl ain e r

‘
,

i n a u al m a er e re ar e , of ourse , no su line s on ne in g t h e at om s .

t r at e d in Fig 1 8 E ac h pair O f dissimil ar at om s in Fig 1 8 con

vu g
. . .

st it ut e a m ol e c ul e . The at om s ar e h el d in t h e r e l at ion indic at e d

by ir t e of t h e b al anc e d el e ctr om a ne tic int e r actions b et w e e n
th e m .

3 5 Th e E th e r
yv
(som e tim e s spe ll e d e th e r not t o b e c onf se d
‘

g uv
uv u
.
,

w it h t h e ane st h e t ic an e nt ir e l difi er e nt t hi n ) is t h e in isibl e

,

st uff w h ic h is ass m e d t o fill t h e oids in spac e b e t w e e n t h e el ec

fi u y uu u u v g v
trons and positi e n c lei w hi c h c om pose m att er It m ay b e
t h at it al so lls t h e spac e occ pie d b y t h e e le ctr ons th e m se l es
.

spac e —
u u v u
an d h e nc e is ab sol t el c ont in o s with o t oids or aps ! Al l
—
t h e e nt ir e ni er se 4 s it is ass m e d pe r m e at e d b y t his

y y
, ,
” ”
m e di m wt h e r
“ “
It h as b e e n c all e d the all pervading tether -

y y y fi yk
. .

It e xist s in t h ose por t ions of spac e w hic h ar e appar e ntl e m pt .

It is pr ob abl at rest— st at ionar V e r little is de nit el . nown

 R
ht v t c t
22 P AC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART . 3 6A

t v c th
Wh en lig
t t
th h thh t th t t c tt c
par ial wh
a uum , ch t tt c th
falls on t h e
ey r o at e
anes of a r adiom e e r

by v ir ue of en ergy
(Fig
i
.

is
w hi h oper a e in a
ransm i e d t o em

c t th t t c t
r oug t h e ae er . If a erm om e e r in a b o le ( Fi g . 2 2 ) from w hi h t h e
air h as b een e x aus e d is b r ough k
ne ar a a e of ice it s m e r ury w ill fall . This
in di a es a e ne r gy h as b een ran sferr e d from t h e m er ury t o t h e a m os

t t t h t c th w — He a b ein g va v

t tt th h t
FI G . 20 . r adi a e d h r oug a par ial uu m by a
e er a e s.

tt
ph e re ou
se nsi

th th t
iv e t o t h e w
side

c c htof t h e
fa
b o le
er vib ra
r oug

ions
t h e m edium of t h e a
hi h are
n h er
all ed lig as
. Our e yes are
is e xpl aine d in

v y
de in t h e E L E C TR I C IL L UM I N ATI O N
’
ail au or s PR AC TI C AL .

u ufi
36A Ions . and Ioniz ation .
—E er n or m al a om t c om pr ises a
c ert ain n m ber of el e ct r ons in c om bination w it h s f c ient posi

FI G
c t hth t
. 21 t— Th e
. r adiom e e r .t FI G
m er ury in
. 22 .
— E ner gy b ein g
er m om e e r
r an sferr e d

b ul b t o t h e
fr om
ou t

v y y ju u gu u uv
sid e a m osp e re .

ti e ele ctric it t o st ne traliz e t h e ne ati e effect of t he ele c

u v y u z
t rons Norm all at om s exh ibit no n s al ele ctric al pr oper

v
.

y
,

t ies be c a se t h e positi e ele ct ric it in th em ne trali e s t h e n e a g

u uu
ti e B ut if an at om h as an ele ctron t oo m an or an ele ctr on t oo
.

few t h en it does exhibit n s al ele ct ric al proper ties w hic h can

, ,
SE C 1] M ATTE R AND THE EL E C TRON THE OR Y 23

v uv
.

( g
F i
z
2
ioni e d
2 A
.
) t h er e b pr od c e d ,
an d t
uhyeu
be de te cted by t h e ele ctrostatic attracti e and rep lsi e effe ct s
at om is t h e n

Th s w hen anelectron is taken r om or added to a pr e

*
said t o b e

f
z
.

viously
-neutral ato
m or m olecule, the char ged particle w hich is thus
for med is called an ion Th e proc ess is th at of ioni ation In

k k u u
. .

ot her w or ds an ion is w h at is l eft aft er an ele ct ron h as b ee n

vuy u
,

noc e d fr om a ne t ral at om or m ole c le Or an ion is w h at .

t h en exist s, after an electron is added to a pre io sl ne tral -

é — z
Only W
h m /Vear

cth t tw t
FI G t t t
22A c tt ct
t t h h w ctt
— Ill us
ing t h e d iffer e n e s, and t h e a r a i e and r e pul si e
ra v v

t ct t h t t t tc
. .

for e s. b e e e n a om s and posi i e an d n e g a i e ions v v

( I t s oul d be u nd er s ood .

a v
t h e ab o e are m er el y diagr am s and are not in e nd e d t o s o t h e a u al

u
c ons r u ion of a om s T is ill us r a ion ad ap e d fr om C oms o
. and Tr ol and ) k .

a om
t

k
or m ole c le
v If an ele ctron is knoc k ed fr om a norm al
.

at om t h e at om t h en b e c om es a positi e ion (som e t im es c all e d

g v
,

a at ion) If an ele ctr on is adde d t o a norm al at om t h at at om

W
,

t h en be c om es a ne ati e ion (som etim es c all e d an anion)

g u
.

3 GB Positiv e and Ne gativ e Electrifi cation — h en t h ere is an

kfi W g v y g
. .

e xc e ss of e le ct rons assoc iated wit h a t hin it th en ac q ir es ce r

"

or ele ct ri ed
‘
T N U
E E o
g
t ain re m ar able propert ies and is said t o b e ne ati el c h ar ed

MA
h en a t h in h as assoc iat e d wit h it less t h an t h e
ATAN D E RE
C
.

C om t o k and T oland D Van Noat and

r TT E R LE T RIC I TY . s c r
.

-
s
N w Y o k C it y
, .

e r .
24 P RAC TI C AL E LE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 36 0

u vy g
.

nor m al n m ber
fi of el e ct r ons it h as c e rt ain ot h e r
, pr ope r t ie s an d is

th c
said t o b e posit i el c h ar e d or ele ct ri e d .

th
X
E AM P

c
LE —

t ct w tt
t ct
If

th
a

ht
t w ht
gl ass
ct
fied
w ch
th
r od (see Fig 3 ) is . ru b b e d wi a pie e of sil k , t h e
ob j e s su

cth th c c t th c t t t ct ct c t h w th
”
om es
“
r od be el e ri an d ill a ra lig -
eig as

pi b all s or bi s of
pape r T h e e xpl an a ion is a ru bb ing t h e r od
. i the
kn o k

th tt ct c ct h
lo e d som e of t h e on s i u e n el e r ons fr om t h e r od T e r e is, .

a defi

cct t ct ct cw tt ttct ct ctwh ch w c ch th t tht

en , i (l ess an t h e n orm al n um b e r ) of el e r ons asso ia ed i
th e r od , an d t h e pi b alls ar e a ra ed t o it b e au se any ob e j a ving a

defi i j

t h t t ct c c c ct w
of el e rons ill a ra an ob e i h as it s n orm al om pl em e n of

th th
e le r ons . El e ri a ra ions an d r e pul sion s ar e al ays su a ey

Fig 22 A

wh ch th c c t th ct tt ct th th t c t ct
en d to r es or e an el e ri al b al an e , se e . .

T us, if a hin g h as an e x ess of el e r ons, it ill r epel any o er in g

ct c c t c ct th
i h as an ex ess of e l e r ons . O r if on e in g h as an e x ess of el e r ons

defi —

th c t ct th tw tt ct th th w ttt ct
an d an o er a i , ey w ill a ra on e an o er e nd to r es or e t h e
e le ri al b al an e . If on e h in g h as an e x ess of el e r ons and an o er

th
ing it s n orm al n um b er , ey ill a ra on e an o er . An d, if a h in g h as
a de fi i of el e rons an d ano h er it s n orm al num b e r , ey ill a ra on e

y g v
an o er .

3 60

uu u
th e Positi v . El e ctr on curr e nts
e (Art
v g v
. u u y
t h at it is s all
ass m e d t h at ele ctr i c curr ents flow fr om posit i e t o n e at i e
al w a s

in spi e t
Flow fr om th e Ne
of t h e fact
ti
a e Pol e t o

u y
.

T h is nf or t n at e st at e of affair s is due t o t h e fact t h at t h e pione e r

u fi vvg
n der st and it now w as appr e c iat e d y v
e le ct r ic al e xpe r im e nt e r s b e for e t h e n at r e of e le ct r ic it

ar b it r ar il
as w e

n am e d an
,

Hu v fi u y k
, ,

e le ct r i c at ion in ol in an e xc ess of e l e ct r ons a posit i e e le c

t r ifi cat ion ow e e r . .

kfl u v ug
t h is appar e nt dif c lt w or s n o r e al
h arm inasm c h as in pr act ic al w or w e w ill c ont in e t o ass m e
,

v uu y k v
ti e w h er eas w e act all u
th at w h at w e c all an electric curr ent ow s fr om posit i e t o ne a

g v
now t h at t h e c r r e nt w h ic h d oe s

v
,

flow (t h e e le ct ron c rr e nt ) m o es from w h at w e c all ne at i e

u
,

t o posit i e

M u
.

3 7 To Summar iz e th e Pr e se nt day Ide as as to th e C onstr o -

u g u
.

tion of t
a t er — M att e r is m ade up of m ole c le s w h ic h ar e in

uu
. . ,

t r n c om pose d of atom s At om s ar e ro ps of e le ct r ons in

y
.

stab l e or bit al m ot ion ar o nd a c om m on ce nt e r of m ass E le c .

t rons are part ic les or c or p sc le s of ele ct ric it .

 SE C T ION 2

G
M A NETISM

38 M agne tism
k -
We g
g
do not kunow pr e c ise l y w h at m a ne t ism

y g y
. .

is B ut w e do now h ow t o pr od c e and c ontrol it Ma tism

ne

y uM y v ug y
. .

and ele ctric it ar e not t h e sam e th in s b y any m e ans . Th at th e

are closel r e l a e d, a s
t t d follow ing pages w ill pro e
of t h e

u u u g ug
.

3 9 Th e . Natur e of agn e tism (see Ar t 68) is not t h or o

. hl
nde r s ood t It m ay b e a str e am or c rr e nt of som et h in t h r o h

y u ug k yg
.

t h e ze t h e r , som e w h at sim ilar t o a displ ac e m e nt c rrent (Art 1 0 5) .

of e le ct ric it —
in a c on d ct or t h o h it is not li el t h at th is is
t he re al e xpl ana

g .

u kv
tion On t h e ot h er h and it is alt o e th er prob
ab le t h at m a ne tism is a ph e nom en on w hic h occ rs w h e ne e r
,

e le ct rons (Ar t 4 ) ar e se t int o r ot ation

k
.

y In any c ase it is now n

qu v
t h at t h e ph enom enon of m agne tism is al w a s acc om panie d b y a
.
,

u
.

—
c er tain ind of stress in t h e aeth e r or by w h at is e i ale nt t o
s c h a st re ss

g
.

3 9A Th e El e ctr on Th e or of y M g agn e tism is e xplaine d in a

k gu y u fi u
.

e ner al w ay in Art 2 I SA in t h e Ele ct rom a ne tism Se ction of

.
,

t h is boo To nde rst and t h is t h e or , one m st rst nde r

Mg y vg uk u y
.

st an d ele ctr om a ne tism .

40 A a n e t is a b od h a in t h at re m ar able pr ope r t of

v y g v g gv g
.

p ola r ity an d of a ttr action an d re pu lsi on f o n d i n n at r e in t h e

l odest one E e r m a ne t (exc e pt t h e rin m a ne t (Ar t

Mg g v
. .
,

h as at le ast t w o opposit e (positi e an d ne at i e ) pole s (Ar t .

41 C lasse s of a ne t s — Ma ne t s m ay b e di ide d into th re e

g
.

c lasse s : ( 1) Natur al m agnets (Art 48) of l odest one w hic h are

'

v y
.

pie c e s of m a ne tic oxide of ir on ; (2 ) per m anent m agnets (Art 80)

g zu u
.

w hic h are b ars of h ar de ne d st e el w hi c h h a e b ee n pe rm ane ntl

u g z
b ars w o n d r o nd w it h a c oil of ins l at e d wir e W
m a ne t i e d ; and (3 ) electr om agnets (Art 2 1 8) w hi c h ar e soft ir on

fl ug h e n el e c
.

g g
.
,

t ricit y ow s t h r o h t h e c oil t h e b ar is m a ne ti e d and w h e n t h e

flow c e ase s t h e b ar l oses it s m a ne tism

yy v v v
.

42 Th e Im portance of a Th or ou h Unde r standing of M ag

u
.

ne tism can sc ar c el b e o e restim at e d Th e principles in ol e d

g g
.

ar e applie d in ne arl all e le ct ric al appar at s — fr om t h e sim plest

ele ct ric b ell t o t h e l ar est e le ct ric e ner at or .

25
 26 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

uv
. 43

43 Th e Lode stone
.
—
Nat r al M agnet s An ir on or e now

u
.

c alle d m agnetite, w as disc o e re d c e nturie s ago ne ar M a ne sia in

.

g u ,

y g u
,

Asia Minor It w as fo nd t h at som e of it h ad t h e w onderf l

uy
.

pr ope r t of attr act in ir on (Fig It w as al so fo nd t h at

u
.

if a pie c e w as s spende d b y a t h r e ad (Fig a c e r t ain .

one of it s e nds al w a s point e d north and t h e ot h e r sou th Th s .

Iron fi /in 5
Afr/ a c re by Stone
“

Pi e c e of
} Lod e s ton e

"
I Lode st one Att ract in g Iron

t t
II Lod e fo ne C o m
‘
s
p a ss

— L od e s

g u
FI G . 23 . on e m ag ne s.

vg g u g u
arr an e d

na i at e d b y sin
c om pass (Ar t
it c onstit t e d Ships w e re t h e n
a

s spen de d pie c es of l ode st one w hic h m e ans

.

g y g
,
”
le adin st one Th e st one s w er e c all e d fr om t h e nam e of t h e
“
-

gk u g
.
,

tow n m a nets and t h eir pr ope r t

,
w as t er m e d m a ne tism .

M a ne tit e is al so fo n d am on ot h e r pl ac es in t h e St at e of
‘

g
, ,

Ar ansas, in Sw e de n and in Spain

g
.

44 Artifi cial M a n e t s — Ii a

k
. .

fifi flifigf
' eg’d’
darnin ne e dle or ot h e r pie c e of
e

st e el (Fi g 2 4 ) b e str o e d wi t h a

g g
.

i
p ce
e of l odest one and t h e n dippe d

u g
int o ir on
clin
t fts
to the
Ob v io
filin s,

u gy
e n ds of

sl
t h e fil in

t he
t h e ne e dle in
s

ne e dl e
Will

is

kg
.

now also a ma ne t A se ondc

u
.

n e e dl e s ro e d
t wit h t h e fi rst will

tt ct
fig 5223 1 2215
1 3 11
b e c om e
cial ma g
a ma
ne s cant
ne t t oo .

b e pre par e d, b ut
Th s art ifi

gu
0
b e done m ost e fi e ct i v ely b y
'

t iz e d) a in g ir on filings I t can

gy g
ra .

ctrom a netism (Ar t el e

u g
.

45 M agne tic and Non- ma ne tic S b stance s — A m a ne tic

g yg g z
.

s b st anc e is one t h at is for c ibl att r act e d b y a m a ne t — or cap

abl e of b e in t e m por aril m a ne ti e d

k
A m agnetizable su bstance is
one t h at w ill re t ain m a ne tism and t h ere ar e onl
l odest one nic el and im p re ir on
, u
a fe w : st e e l

Ve ry fe w s bst anc es are .

.

yu ,
 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y

48 ukfl g u g z
North and So —
th Pole s If an nm a ne ti ed darnin
’

g
u vy u u u g u fi
. .

ne e dle b e l aid on a c or oa tin on w a er t (Fig . and t h e n

be s cc essi el p sh e d ar o n d w it h t h e fi n er and all ow e d to

c om e t o r est ,
it w ill , in ea c h c ase , ass me no par t ic l ar n al
posi
t ion in pr efer en c e t o ot h er s . Now , if t h e nee dl e be m agnetized

I Unlike Pole s Att ra ct

t c tt ct II Li k Pol e s Re pe l
‘ “

27 — M ag n e

kg g y u u
FI G . . i a ra ion an d r e pul sion .

by
sam e
t
s ro

pos
in
i tion
it w it h
poin
a

g
ma
th an d so th F r th er
tin al m os
ne t ,
it w ill
t due n or
al w a s c om e

ky yg
to r es t in t h e

u ug
.
,

m or e if t h e ne e dl e e nd t h at point s nor th b e m ar e d b y t in a

g
,

t h r e ad ar o nd it it w ill b e fo n d t h at t his en d alw a s points t o

,

t h e nort h Th e nor th poi ntin e n d of t h is ne e dle m a n e t is

.
-

I Da r ning Ne e d le Compa ss
“

FI G . 28 .
— Th e c H Comm e r c ia l Compa ss
om pass
'

c alle d its

u
south or south seeking
nor th
-
pole or n or th -
seeking pole

pole c or Ob io vuy sl
.

g
Th e ot h er
t h e m a ne t on t h e
end

k
is it s

vy
g
.
,

c onstit t es a c om pass (Art It is also appar e nt t h at e er

f
.

m a net h as at l e ast t w o poles (for t h e one e xc e pt ion see Art .

Th e nort h pol e is t h e one at w h ic h t h e lines of or ce (Art 56) ar e .

30 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRIC I T Y [ ART 51

y
.

N point
nee dl e doe s
on t h e

51 Th e Ear th is a M a n et
c ar d al w a
not al w a s
—
y g
t h (Ar t point
s poin

T hi s w as disc o er e d by Gilb e r t
t s t ow ar d
exact ly nor
t h e n or t h

v
.
. A c om pass

g y
. .

A c om pass ne e dl e point s nort h for t his re ason Th e e ar t h s

’

g
.

m a ne tic poles c oinc ide al m ost b ut not e xactl wit h it s ge o

u g
, ,

r aphic al pol e s This can b e de m onstr at e d w it h a dip needle

g z k g ug k g k
.

( g
Fi . O ne c an a s sh ow n b e m a de ,
b y p sh i n a ,

m a ne t i e d nitt in ne e dl e t hr o h a c or so t h at t h e c or w ill

kgg
be at t h e c e nte r of t h e nee dl e and insertin t w o sh or t e r pie c e s
of nitt in nee dle or w ir e for an axis Tum ble r s can b e se d for
u u g zg u
k
.

b e ar in s .
—
Th e ne e dle w hic h sh o l d b e r e m a ne ti e d aft e r in
sert ion in t h e c or ( A t 83 ) — w ill a ss m e a s l an t in os it ion
r p
-

u y gg
. .

’
Its n or t h e nd w ill dr op dow n due t o t h e e ar t h s att r action At .

a poin t ( ab o t m il e s aw a fr om t h e e o r aphi c al nort h

yv g
’
p o l e ) in B oo t hi a F eli x w e st of B a ffi n s B ay a
,
di p n ee dl e b e c om es ,

ne arl e rt ic al Thi s point is t h e m a ne tic nor t h pol e of t h e

.

h w th t th t IP A DI P Ne e d le IlI Ha gne t m Globe

’
'

u z
FI G . 30 .
—S o in g a th e e ar is a m ag ne .

u th
g At th e ne e dle is h ori
u At
’
e ar . e ar th s eq t
a or a dip ont al .

t he so th l
p e t h e ne e dle
o is a ain al m os t vertic al wit h it s so th

gu fi v g u g ug z
,

pol e dow nw ar d . A dip ne e dle is sh ow n in Fig . A b ar

ma ne t xe d wi thin a l ob e h av in a ma ne ti e d ne e dle

g
s s pe nde d o er

of t h e e ar t h s m a ne t ism on a dip n e e dle

’
miniat re sc ale t h e e ffe ct
it , will r e pr od ce on a

y
ugg g u qu
.

W52 h y th e Earth Is a M agne t is not known de fi nit el It

fiv g u
. .

h as be e n s e st e d t h at it s m a ne t ism is due t o t h e c rr e nt s of

e l e ct ri e d air t h at as c e nd at re ions adj ac e nt t o t h e e at or

vu y g v
.

t h e n t ra el , par t nor t h w ar d, par t so th w ar d, t o desc e nd at t h e

o
p es l .

g
Th ese m o e m e nt s of el e ct ric all
e ffe ct of r e al ele ct ric c r r e nts
c h ar e d air h a e t h e
Th e e neral dir e ct ion of t h e e ar th
qu
g u
.

’
c urrents wit hi n t h e e ar t h s surfac e is fr om t h e pol es t o t h e e a
t or Fig 3 1 indic at e s t h e m a ne tic c ir c it (Ar t 5 7 ) of t h e e ar th

g gg
. . .
.

53 Th e D eclination of th e C ompass Ne e dl e at any loc at ion

.

is t h e an le b e t ween t h e magnetic meridian and t h e eo raph ic

SE C . 2] M AGNE TISM 3]

m eridian at t h at loc ation

is t h e dire ction of a m a ne tic nee dle at t h at loc ationg
Th e m agnet ic m eridian at a loc at ion
.

D e c lina
tion is due t o t he fact t h at t h e m a netic and eo r aphi c poles g
’
_

gg v .

of t h e e ar t h do not c oinc ide (Art

y y
diffe r ent loc ations on t h e
De clination aries at
e ar th ’
u gu
.

s s rfa e and c g uy g
r ad all c h an es

from ear to ear . Th er e is

g v
th at c ir cles t h e eart h passin abo e t h e nor th and so th m a netic
an irr e lar line
u gu
o f no declination

u u
,

po l e s .A t l oc at ions on t h is line a c om p ass ne e dle point s t r e

nor th and so t h Acc r ate c h arts w hic h indic ate t h e de c lina

.

Nor fi r -
Pole
“

FI G . 31 .
—The e ar t h ’
s m ag n e i tcc c t
ir ui .

t ion
u vg
different point s of t h e e ar th s s rfac e ar e pr epar e d for
at
’
u
and

ug g y
se d b y na i at or s

54 M agn etic Transpar enc —

.

A m a ne t w il l attr act (Fi s g ug g

gg u u
. .
.

an d 11 ) t h r o
—
h lass, w ood, m ic a in fact t h ro h any

ug ky
th in exc ept iron Ii a plat e of iron b e s b st it t e d for t h e plate
.

of l ass in I t h e n m b er of t ac s att racte d w ill b e less Notic e

g u
fi g u g ug
.

at 1 1 h ow t h e m a ne t , h er m e t ic all
‘

se al e d w it hin t h e lass t be ,
a
g uv y
ttr acts lin s o t side of it M a ne tism acts th ro h all e xc e pt
m a ne tic (Art 4 5) s b st an c e s
ar e m ade of
.

er
.

M agneti c scr eens or shie lds (F ig.

soft ir on t o e n c lose c e r t ain d e lic at e

.
32 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 55

u k v
.

inst r
fr om
u
w o l d not
m e nt s and
e xt e r nal m a g
w atc h and c l oc
ne t ic for c es
m o e m e n ts t o pr ot e ct t h e m
- -

A c om pass at A within t h e shield

b e affe ct e d by t h e m a net ism of N
.

Th er e is no in g .

Q EBS
tt tct c
‘
W ' I
I

P M 9“et Att mch n ThroU9 h II Ha net kl l rad m 9 Thr0 0 9 h

‘' ’

§
‘

9
Pla + e 6 1a s 6lass Tube III “

llagnet l o Shie ld
‘

— Ill us

v y u g
FI G . 32 . ra in g m agn e i r anspare n y .

su lator f or m agnetism

ism ; it is for t h is r e ason ( b e c a

.

u gk u g
Ir on is t h e er b est
c ond ct or of m a ne t
se of it s r e at pe r m e an c e Ar t 63 )
‘

v gM g
.
,

t h at it m a es s c h ood and effe c

t i e m a netic shiel ds

M g gu g
.

55 A a n e tic Spe ctrum or

gu
.

a n e tic Fi re (Fi s 33 and

fi g v
-
.

33A) can b e m ade b y sift in ir on

u g lin s fr om a sm all sie e or

g
m slin

tc g v
b ag on a sh e e t of l ass, past eb oar d

ct
or paper n de r w hic h a m a ne t or

g g vg
FI G 33 — M aki n g a In a g n e i
ma t ha b e e n pl ac e d Th e
. .

ne s e

f y u u
r um
.
spe .

filin s w ill ar r an e t h e msel es in

the
g
dir e ct ions
g
f orce (Art 56) e m anatin fr om
of t h e lines

f
t h e m a n e t or m a ne t s an d t h e r eb pr od c e an acc r at e r e pr e
sent at ion of t h e fie ld of or ce (Art 6 1 ) ab o t t h e m a net
o

u .
.

g .

I bar Ma g n e t
t c ct I fi nd of b a r nagnet

fi g u vg u yy
FI G . BSA — . M ag ne i spe r um s .

Th e sh ee t
as t h e fig lin
on w h i

on one side w it h par af n, and

fall
ch
on
the
it
fi
.
lin
If t h e
s ar e sif e d sh o

sh e e

t h en
t
h as b ee n pre
t
allow e d t o c ool,
ld b e

u
en tl t appe d
io sl c oat e d
t h e spe ct r m
 M AGNE TI SM 33

u y g g
SE C . 2]

can

u fi u
on t h e c oat e d side , o er a st o e or b yp
‘
v
b e m ade perm anent by c aref ll h e atin it , with t h e filin s
assin a h ot solde rin iron v g g g
p
nder it

ar af n
B y t hi s proc e ss t h e filin s ar e im b e dde d in t h e
.
.

Bl
56 Line s of For ce or Line s of
.
e pr in t
s can u
Mg g y u g
b e m ade from v a ne
s

tic
ch
Ind
posit i es

tion (see
c
.

also

Ar ts 2 2 6, 59. and 60 ) ar e t h e im a inar lines alon w h ic h the

of fonte
“

I Trac ing Force Lane s II P l a n V ie w

c
"

— L in

ug v g v y
F IG . 34 . e of for e.

a ttracti e or r e p lsi e for c e of a ma ne t cts

a Th e m ap out

gv y g uu v u v u
.

t h e lines of m a ne tic s r ain

t Th e lines of for c e , or s r e am of
t

u
.

ma ne t ism is ass ,
m e d t o le a e or flow fr om t h e nor th pole of
e er m a net t o c ,
r e ar o nd in t h e o t e r m e di m and t o e nt e r

FI G . 35 .
— M ag n e i tc c c t
ir uict thct h
of twh h
lines
k
of for e r ou g a b ar m ag n e ic h as

u
b e e n b ro e n i n o se ion s .

the
k
th pole (Fig
so -

uu u .

uk
Eac h line of for c e c om ple t es an un
b ro en c ontin o s pat h or c ir c it t h at is e ac h is a close d

u g g
, , , ,

line Th e com ple te c o rse or l oop t a en b y t h e lines of for ce

k
.

wit h in and w it h o t t h e m a ne t— c om prises t h e m agnetic circuit

(Art 57) of th at m a net If a m agnet b e b ro en into sm all
. .

”
Se ctions (Fig 35) t h e lines of for c e will flow from se ct ion t o
“
.

s
34 PRAC TI C AL EL EC TRI C I T Y [ ART 57

ug v g v v
.

se ct ion t hr o h t h e inte r enin air This pro es th at e ac h

ug gk v
.

line for m s a c l ose d l oop Lines of for c e ne e r c r oss one anot h er

u u
. .

E ac h line of for c e can b e t h o h t of as r ese m blin an in isib le

g yv yu g
,

st r e tc h e d r b b e r b an d Th er e is a r b b e r b and li e t e nsion - -

g j y
.

alon e er line t e ndin t o sh or t e n it E ac h line also exer ts a

y v W
.

side w a s p sh in all dir e ct ions t e n din t o c r ow d ad ac e nt lines

aw a

M
fr om it h e n for any r eason lines ar e dist ort e d t h e
.

u
te nd t o r e co er fr om t h e dist or tion or t o react a ainst it g
g g u u y
.

57 A agne tic C ir c uit is t h e n t h e r o te or pat h foll ow e d by

g g ug g g
.
,

t h e m a ne t ic lines of for c e of a m a ne t In practic e s all .

, ,

t he r e ate r par t of a m a n et ic c ir c ui t is t h r o h m a ne tic

g u g u
— —
m at e rials ir on and steel b ut t h er e m ay b e air aps in a

gg uu gk Se e Ar t 62
“
m a ne tic c ir c it . R in C ir c it s . It will b e of
, .

r eat assist an c e in nderst andin t h e ph e nom ena and l aw s of

g u g
m a ne tism if t h e st de nt w ill t hin of t h e lines of for c e of any
m a ne t as c onst it t in a st r eam or flux (Ar t 25 5) ow in ar o nd . fl g u
Side V ie w

Line going away fr omyou f or “

tt
Sect ion A- A
l An Ar r ow
'

II For ce Line s in Bar

“

FI G . 36 .
— Re pr e se n a ion of lines of for ce .

e le yy fl u
t h e m agnetic
ct ricit
u ow s u H v g u
c ir c it similar t o t he w ay in w hi c h a c
ar o n d an el e ct ric c ir c it ow e
r r en

er,
t
it is
of

g y z g ug u u
.

r easonab l c ert ain t h at th e r e is no actual flow of som e t hin in a

— v k
m a ne t i e d m a net ic c ir c it as th e r e is in an ele ctric c ir c it w hic h

gg fl g u y
is c arr in a c rr ent b ut t hi s does not pr e e nt one fr om thin
ing in t e r m s of som e thin ow in Th er e ar e m an sim il arities .

b e t w ee n ele ct ric and m a ne t ic c ir c its as will b e dem onst r at ed

g u
,

— b ut t h e t w o ar e not b y any m eans t h e sam e Se e Art 2 1 9

, ,
. .

for
“
Th e L aw s of t h e Ma ne tic C ir c it

g u v g u g
.

58 Th e Dir e ctions of Line s of Force Can Be Trace d by a

g
.

m a ne t ic spe ctr m ( Fig 33 ) or b y m o in a s spende d m a ne t

g zg u
.

ize d nee dle or c om pass alon a for c e line (Fig . Th e

ma ne ti e d nee dle , at any l oc ation, will ass m e t h e dir e ction
of t h e
of an

one
fi u
ol o
ma
in
f a
ne

t
ni e n u
tic for c e (or line
m ber
m agnet t o t h e
of lines
of

of

ot h e r
for c e ) t h at loc ation E ac h
at

for c e can b e t h s t r ac e d fr om
.

p e .
 SE C . 2] M AGNE TISM 35

Repre se ntation
59
ar row (1 ) or a V
.

-
sh ape d a rrow -
head t h s :
of Line s of Force
u (
V,
see

can
Fig
be
.

kg
36) — An
draw n on
lines of for c e t o sh ow t h eir dir e ctions w h en
y f u is loo in “
one side

Th e lines al w a s flow rom

”
on at t h e lines the nor th to the

g kg
.

south pole outside o f the m agnet a nd fr om t h e so t h t o t h e nort h

fl g W I

pol e inside of t h e m a net h en loo in at for c e lines e nd on,

fl g y
.

a dot ( as at Section AA in I I ) r e prese n s a t line w h e n it is ow in

t ow ar d one

(1 ) k k
This m e th od h as b ee n
loo s
u .

li e a dot
A c ross

k and
r epr esen s

adop e d

t he
t
t
be c a
it w h e n it is
se

rear end of an arr ow

t h e h ead
ow in
e nd of an arr ow

li e a
aw a

c ross
.

u
.

60 Fur th er Explanation of th e Te rm , Line of Force

“ ” —This

u y y g y yu
. .

c onc eption (for it is s c h , as one can not see or fee l line s of for c e
be c a se t h e are im a inar lines) is ex rem el
t seful in t w o
ra th e r distinct w a s :

FIE L D ( ART 6 1 ) or A STRE AM or M AGNE T ISM

. t
(a) FO R INDI C ATI NG THE DI RE C TI O N or ACTI O N AND THE EXTE NT or THE

t t t t t twth th tc t
We can m ake a m agne ic k
.
'

ct ct ct tt t t c th t
spec rum , or ins ead , plo l oops li e ose of Fig 34 . of t h e m agne ism ab ou

c
a m agne Th e spec rum or t h e pl o
. ill en , in a ge ne r al w ay, indi ate t h e

dire ions of a ion and t h e e xt en of t h e m agne i field e c an say a . W

t h e lin es of our reprodu ions por ray or s and for t h e lines of for e in t h e
“

fi e ld

c t t th tt tth t ht c
.

( b) As A UNI T FOR ME ASU R I NG T HE M AGNE TI SM IN A MAGNE TI C FI E L D .

viden

th th t th t t c
It b e am e e m any ye ars ago a som e me od or uni s oul d be
fi el d

ct c t t c t th t v
adopt e d for t h e m e asure m en of t h e am oun of m agne ism in a m agne i .

fields

t t t t
One of t h e me ods propose d w as : a it b e assum ed a m agne i
—

w t t t th
are om pose d of lin es to b e alle d lines of forcc b
and a e e ry line re pre

c c ct c c t t tht c
se n a e r ain am oun of m agne ism . Th en t h e o al am oun of m agne ism
in a fi eld b e propor ional t o t h e o al num b e r of ese im agin ary lines
oul d
He n e b y om pu ing t h e num b e r of

t th th t th
om posing it . e se im agin ary lines

of for e in a e r ain fi e l d t h e am oun of flux or m agne ism in it

c t t th t t c c t c t t
oul d b e
T h is m e od— am ong o e rs— w as adop ed

ttw c wt th c c c
d e e r m in e d . It w as en .

agreed b y t h e s ie n is s a a m agne i fiel d on aining a er ain am oun

(Ar t

h t th thth t tt t wc t h
of m agne ism . 22 6) oul d be onside re d as om prising 1 line of for e .

A field of fi eld fi eld

t t
i e t h e am oun is e n re fe rre d t o as a of 2 lines ; a

ving v

th t t c t c c t t t t t th t
a a ousan d im es t h e am oun oul d a e l ines . It is ev i

den e n, a , on h is b asis w e c an as e r ain th e am oun of m agne ism ,

field b y om pu ing t h e num b e r of ese im ag

w
a is t h e flux, of a m agne i
in t h e fi eld A de fini e quan i a ive de fini ion of a

c ct th t
inary , un i line s of for e .

f for ce is give n in follo

w ch c t ct th w
line o ing Art . 226 .

N0 TE .
— A lin e of for e is an a ual l ine in t h e se nse a it is a l ine along

Mu g
hi a for e due t o m agne ism a s . O er ise , it is an im aginary line .

61
,
. A
g g
tic Fie l d or a Fiel d of For ce is t h e re ion adj ac e nt
agne

g u
to b ut o t side of a m a net w h ic h is perm e ate d by t h e m a ne t s
,

lines of for c e and within whic h m a netic s b st anc es ( Art 45)

’

.
36 PRAC TI C AL EL EC TRI C I T Y [ AR T

v y gfi u u y
. 62

or c ond ctors c on e in ele ct ric c rrents are per c eptibl influ

e nce d

g ug z g u
Th e exte nt of a eld and t h e dir e ctions of t h e lines of
.

for c e c om posin it can b e st die d b y t h e m a netic spe ct r m

W u gg ku .

uy
m e t h od (Ar t 55) or w it h a m a neti e d n ee dle as in Fig 3 4
h e n t h e ir on filin s ar e sprin l e d t o for m a spe ct r m e ac h b e
. .

g v g
,

c om es a m in t e m a net b y ind ction ( Ar t 64 ) an d t h e th er efore

v yg g uu g gg fi
.

arr an e t h e m sel es al on t h e dir e ct ions of t h e lin es of for c e .

Se er al acc om pan in ill st r at ions sh ow in m a netic spe ct r a and

f ug
-

ug u
lines of for c e dia r am s ill st rat e t h e ide a of a m a ne t ic el d
-

g qu y
uni orm m agnetic fie ld is one t h r o
A
h o t w h ic h t h e lines of for c e
.

h t c t t c t
ar e (or m ay b e t h o h t of as b ein ) e idist antl spac e d .

tc w w
N O TE —T
tt c t tt cc
e ore i ally th e e x e rn al m agne i fi el d
for an in fi ni e
due t o any m agne
fi el d

t c t c v t v tt t ch h c t t
e x e nds from and all ar oun d t h e m agn e dis an e b ut t h e
be om es ea ke r and eaker as t h e dis an e from t h e m agne in re ases . Pr ac
fi eld de el oped by any m agne is s r ong enoug

tc
i ally, t he t o b e pe r ep ib l e
onl y for a d is an e of a r e l a i e ly few fee — or in es— fr om t h e m agne A .

m agne i fi el d h as b een lik ene d t o a m agne tic at mosphere .

tcc c t
‘

n C irc unt of l l Closed Ring m Ma ne t ic Circuit

gA
'

Ba r Magne t s Ma gne t i c Circwt vat lr fi ap

— Ri n g

g g
FI G . 37 . m ag ne i ir ui s .

ne
62
tic fig
.

u gA Rin M a
el d g If fo
n et

r
(Fig 37) h as
b ar m a
. no pol es an d no ex er n al

ne s ar e ar r an e d t o
t c l ose d for m
t
a
m ag

fig u u g g g u
.

r e ct an le (I ) t h e r e w ill b e no appre c iab le exter nal fi e hl t h at is—

g fi u
,

no el d o t side of t h e iron or st ee l c om posin t h e m a net s S ch

g g g k v y
.

a r o p c om pr isin a c l ose d m a ne t ic el d c on st it t es one for m

st ron lgy g v
of a rin m a net

v y u v
A st eel rin l i e t h at of Fig
.

m a ne t iz ed and yet h a e no pol es b e c a se it s lines of

m ay b e er .

g g fi u gW g u
forc e now h er e l e a e (t h e r e is no t e n de n c for t h e m t o le a e ) t h e
iron or st e e l c om pr isin t h e m a ne tic c ir c it h e r e it is desir

u u u
.

ab le t h at t h e r e b e litt le or n o e xt e r nal e ld r in m a ne t ic c ir c its

g u
,

are se d — as in t r ansfor m e rs an d in c e r t ain el e ct r ic al in st r m e n t s

u v y
.

If a pie c e b e c t out of t h e r in as at 1 1 1 t w o pow e rf l pol es w ill

g u y u u u
, ,

b e for m e d at t h e c t T h e n w e h a e t h e el e m e nt ar for m of

g g g
.

t h e m a ne t ic c ir c it t h at is w ide l t iliz e d for se f l per m ane nt

m a nets (see 1 1 V VI and VI I ) and for t h e m a netic
, , ,

c ir c uits of enerat ors and m ot ors .

38 PR AC T] C AL ELE C TRIC I T Y [ AR T 64

Wg g v y
.

is said

u
t o b e induced . tism is de el ope d in a b od

y
h en m a ne

b y t h e ind ction of a m a ne t at le ast t w o poles are prod c e d in

g u
g uu k uu k
,

t h e b ody Th e t w o poles of t h e b od and m a ne t th at ar e ne ar

g
.

e st to e t h er will b e of nl ike in d (on e nor t h an d one so th ) an d

k
t h e pole s t hat ar e t h e f r t h e st apar t w ill in e n e r al b e of n li e
ind also (see Fig . Not e t h at t h er e a sim ilarit
,

be
,

II Magnet iz at ion bg Ind uct ion

So ff Ir on
.

c ct
t i me s of Force o‘FInd uct i n
o

FI G 39 —T h e pr in ipl e of in d u ion

g uu gg uu
. . .

fi
t w e e n static

y g g
and matic ind ct ion Ma ne tic ind ct ion m ay
ne

u
also b e de ne d as t h e pr od ct ion in a m a ne tic s b st an c e of
.

m an m or e lines of for c e t h an w o ld b e pr od c e d in air b y t h e u

sam e m a ne t iz in for c e In Fig
soft iron b ar B is int r od c e d in t h e
.

u u .

fi
for e xam pl e w h e n t h e
eld t h e n m b er of lines of

for c e in B is inc r e ase d (b e c a se of it s perm eanc e, Ar t 63 ) enor

u ,

.
 M AGNE TISM 39

v u ug u
SE C . 2]

H fi g y fij
m ously ab o e

e nc e t h e int e nsit
t h at did th read th ro h t h e air
t h e n m ber
of t h e el d aroufi d t h e ir on B is t h en s ffi c ie nt

g
.

u
t h at lin s or ot h er ir on ob e cts m ay be attr acted If m a ne t

g v
ism is prod c e d in a soft iron b ar b y ind ction t h e b ar w ill lose ufi u g
.

g u u vy
,

it s m a net ism w h en it is rem o ed from t h e eld of t h e ind c in

g
m a net
y If m a netism is prod c ed ind cti el in h ard ste el t h e
.

stee l will pe rm anentl

from t h e fi el d .
r et ain a port ion ev en wh en it is r em o ed v

1 Line s of For ce

t c tt ct
fix flagnef ic Spe ct rum
'
-
.

FI G . 40 .
— M ag ne i a ra ion .

65 Explanation of Attraction and Repul sion

g
.

u
— Art 48 st ates
t h at a nor th pole is form e d w h e re lines of for c e lea e a b od of
m a ne tic m at erial ; t h at a so t h pole is pr od c e d w h ere lines uu
.

v y
.

e nt e r one

gT h e r efor e , w h en a nort h and a so th pol e ar e pl ac e d

.

u
n e ar t o e t h e r ( Fig 4 0) t h e l ines of for c e fr om m a ne t A unit e g
gg u y u
.

w it h t h ose of B t o c onstit te a st r e am of lines ac r oss t h e air gap

k
and ar otm d t h e m a ne t ic c ir c it

y
b and-li e t e nsion alon lines of for c e (Art
sion in t h e lines c reat es a te nde n c
Th ere is al w a s a r bb er
.

e nc e t h e t e n

ac r oss t h e air gap t o pull A

. H
40 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 66

g g
.

W
an d B t o et h er . This is t h e
u
tion of m a n etic att ract ion
h e n lines of for c e ar e in d c e d in a m a ne tic b od b y a m a ne t
expl ana

g y g .

as in Fi g .t h e l i

u
n
ge s

up a

B at S c r e at in t h er e a so t h pol e
,
s s fr om A at n or t h po l e N an d e

Th en t h e t ension in t h e
for c e lines c a ses N an d S t o att r act one anot h er ac r oss t h e air
n t e r
,

.
,

a
g p

o l
g
es
. T hi s e xpl ain s t h
g z
e a t
y
tr ac ti o n du e to m a gn e tic

m a ne t fir st m a ne ti es t h e b od by ind ct ion t h en t h e nl i e
a tt r act on e anot h er
in d u ction T h e

u ,
.

u k
p .

a ?

I Li n e s of For ce
“

JI rl aq net ic Spect r um
° -

— M ag ne tc
t t cw h
FI G . 4l . i r e pul sion .

cht th c th t
NC T E — .

chc th
Wh en lik e p ol es
-
a n or h an d a n or h po e l — ar e pl a e d ne ar

ct c t t c
t h t cc t
ea o e r as at Fig . the l ines r epe l e a o e r and t h e side ays pus

ing e nd e n y a pr ope r ty of l ine s of for e (Art 5 6 )

is a . re a es a en d e n y

u
for t h e m agne s t o pus apar T his a oun s for m agne i
. re pul sion .

u g v
M agne tization Due —
’
66 t o th e Earth s Ind ction Ir on col

v y
. .

u m ns and b e am s in b il din s, s o t es an d ir on m e m b e r s of m ac hin

e ry

a c qug g g
t h at h a
ire
t tionar in one position for som e t im e
e r e m aine d s a

m a ne t ic prope rt ies T his can b e de m onst rat e d b y .

hh w t h w t th
b rin in a c om pass nee dle ne ar t h e m .

EX AM PL E
ir on b ar w ill
—T
s o
is can also

no
be
m agne ism if
s o n as sugges e d in

suppor e d t
Fig 4 2
oriz on all y
. .

in
The
an e as t
ann e al e d
-
and
 M AGNE TISM

wt w ct tc
SE C . 21 41

es

h t ct
line .

ct
Now h old it in t h e dire ion of t h e m agne i m e ridian and dip /

th
hw t t t ht t
ping do n in t h e dire ion indi a e d b y a dip needl e (Art Th e nor .

e nd s oul d be ab ou 7 0 degrees b el ow t h e
S rik e

t th th
oriz on al . t h e b ar a s arp rap

w th th th
ih h am m e r
a If it is now es ed for
.

a com pass it s nor ”Of /” M l

polari y w i e nd

t tw
ill b e foun d n or -se eking and t h e
king If ne w it is

ctct v
sou e nd, sou -see
.

c
urn ed e nd for e nd and again r appe d, t h e

ill b e re ve rsed

ct t tht t t
pol ari y T h e e ffe s .

ab ove des rib e d are due t o t h e in

t
du i e
a ion of t h e e ar
’
s m agne ism Na ural .

— —
m agne s l odes ones ar e doub less pro

th ct
du ced in a sim ilar m ann er .

— M ag ne t iz in g

g
FI G . 42 . a r od by
67 C onse q ue nt Pol e s are pr o th e e ar
’
s in d u ion

g z
. .

duce d if a tic m e tal

b ar of ma ne

b e so m a ne ti e d at c e r t ain par t s b ut not at ot h e rs t h at t h e int e r

m e diat e poles O ppose one anot h er as in Fig 42 A C onse e nt . . qu

'

c c t
Sout h Pol e Con s e q u e n t Pol es
Ill -
Ma g n e t ic Spe c t r u m;
42 A — T h e prin ipl e of

ug g g vy
FI G . . onse q ue n pol es.

ol
p e s can
tion
b e prod c e d ele ctr om a
of t h e w indin alon a b ar .
ne tic all
It is e
by re v ersm g t h e dirc o
ident from t h e ill u s ra~ t
42 PRAC TI C AL E L EC TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u g v g u
. 68

tion t h at s ch a ma ne t c an ha e t w o or any r e a er n t m ber of

ol
p es .

68 Th e Explanation of M a
u gu ne tiz ation — No e xpl ana

y tion t h at

g z y u g
. .

offe rs an ab sol t e pr oof h as t h sfar b e en pr opose d Pr ob ab l

y g zv y
.
,

the atom s (Ar t 1 2) of a ma ne t i ab le b od ar e m in te m a ne s t

g z
.

—w h e t h e r t h e b od as a w h ol e is m a neti e d or n ot . B efor e it
is m a ne t i e d t h e ir pol e s point alm ost e e r
,
-
w hic h - w ay ( Fig .

Recta ng le s r e pr e se n t i ng atom s Rec ta ng le s r e pr e s

tt c t c th t
1
“

Un Ma gne t ized II Po r t ia llg M z ed

a nei n
g III Ma ne h z ed
t o Sa urah on
'

— Il l u s

H v g g g
F I G 43 . . ra in g t h e so- al l e d a om i e or y of m ag ne ism .

is s u uy u ow e e r ,

y g
th eir
c h t h at t h e prod c e no ext er nal fi eld Inc r easin t h e mag
ar r an e m e n t into rin ma ne s t (Ar t . 62 )

W y uy g z u
.

net iz at ion c a ses t h eir axe s t o b e c om e m or e ne arl par all e l as at

h en t h e b od is f ll m a net i ed or sat r at e d ( Ar t 247)

y u
.

all of t h e nor t h pol e s of t h e at om s point t ow ar d t h e nort h

po l e o f
u v y
t h e b od (1 1 1 ) and t h eir so t h pol e s point t ow ar d t h e

qu
so t h pol e of t h e b od Th e at om s

g yy
.

do not, h ow e e r line up it e ,

as r e ul arl as sh ow n at 1 1 1 , be

yg ug c ause if t h e did
w oul d pass out onl
ends of t h e b ar
th r o
M a ne tic
t h e lines of for c e

spe
h the
ct ra

g
.

sh ow us t h at som elines pass out of

b ar m a ne t fr om it s sides as w ell
’

as fr om it s ends See Art 2 1 8, A for

y
. .

an e xpl an a tion as t o h ow , on t h e

g vg b a s i s of t h e ele ct r on t h e or of

t tt t th u g
m a ne t ism , t h e m o in ele ct r ons

in t h e a om s ar e assum e d
t t o pro
FI G 44 — Ill us ra in g t h e e or y

th t t t h t th th
. .
.

of m ag ne iz a ion d ce m a ne i tc ol
p es .

th t t c t wh t
.

NO T E — It

t t t tt th
. appe ars a the a om s of s e e l ar e ar der t o u rn an ose
of ir on, a is, s eel is m ore diffi ul t t o m agne iz e . B ut en s e el is

h c c t t
m agn e iz e d it re ains it s m agne ism b e er an doe s ir on (se e Ar t . 63 ,
“

thth c h t tt
Per m ean ce
— T is

t t t c thct t
EXAM PL E pr in ipl e of a tom i m agne ti za ti on c an b e d e m ons ra e d

wi a m e d i ine v ial (Fig 44 ) al m ost fu ll of s e e l fi l in gs

.
o
. If t h e b o le
ak e n and t es e d for pol ari y no m agne i e ffe

t t tt v t
be oroughl y s can b e

ob se r ed v . If ne w t h e filings be polarized b y st roking t h e v ial wi a s rong

b ar m agne and h en es ed , t h e b ott le full will h a e a nor h pole at one end

 M AGNE T] SM 43

ttt t t t t
SE C . 2]

th t
and
k
h l
a sou
p o e at

tt
t h e o h e r

tct
I f it b e a ga in
k
sh ak e n t h
. e p o l a ri y
m
w il
ll
l b e l
i
os

t tc t c .

th t t t
If a n i in g n e e dl e b e m a g ne iz e d a n d b ro e n in o bi s , t h e s a es p e e

t c t t t w th
i
a it s poss ibl e t o o b ain w ill b e a m a gn e lik e t h e p i e e s of t h e b r o k e n

b ar of Fig 35 He a ing, j arring or any a ion

. . a e n ds t o dist urb t h e

a om i arr ange m e n i in a b ody m ay d e pr iv e it of it s pr ope r ies as a

u (Ar t
g g yz
pe r m an e n m agne .

p r od
69
cu
u ug W y u u
e d w h
.

e n ev
s b st an c e h as e xactl
y
e qu
Uniform M agne tiz ation or a niform m a ne tic densit is
r s ar e in c h c r oss se ct ion of a m a ne

t h e sam e n m b e r of lines of for c e passin

t i e d - -

g
ug f
th ro h it
qu
h e n t h e n m b er of line s of for c e is diffe re nt
.

t h ro h different s are inc h c ross se ctions t h e m a neti ation is - -

g z
no uni
n

th c orm
t t t t c
-

t c t c tt c
.

N — Al ou h it is

th t t c t th h t
O TE .
g se ldom ha an ab solu ely un iform m agne i de n
sit y can b e produ e d in a sub s an e , it is of e n assum e d , t o fa ili a e om pu

M
t at ions a t h e m agne i densi y roug ou a b ody is uniform .

u
7 0 Th e
Fie l d u
.

j (t his u Fl ux of a
s b e ct is disc
agne

sse d
tic

f r

u
ing se ction on
”
ug fi g
th er in Ar t 2 2 5 in t h e follow
Th e M a ne t ic
C ir c it ) is t h e t ot al n m b er of
.

an i of m a ne ism in
u
l ines of for c e c om prisin t h e eld

qufi y g
or in ot h e r w or ds t h e am o nt or
,

t t t t ha t F
Sid e V ie w

ro 4 5 —
,
E l e v a t io n

An im agin a y m agn i tc r e

u k g u u u y
. .

flux f 4 9 1in e ° s'

el d Total induction is anot h er

u t
.

t er m som etim es se d th at m e ans t h e sam e thin Fl x is s al l .

t th
r e pr e se nt e d b y t h e Gr ee l ett e r <l> ( pr ono n c e d ph i)
(
c
.

EXAM PL E —In Fig 45 is re prese n ed for e xpl ana ion t h e fi eld of an

t c t th ct t
. .
, ,

im agin ary m agne t It h as a flux of 49 of ese im agin ary lines of for e , as

.

de e rm ine d b y oun ing em in t h e E lev ation pi ure Th ere fore , for his .

im agin ary fie ld

43 49 lines .

qu
71 .

u Th e

fi uu y g g ug v M agne tic
M axw ell
m axw ell is t h e am o nt of m a ne tism passin t hr o h e e ry
Is O ne Unit of Flux — A .

s are c e nt im e t er of a

1 m axw ell
k g v
el d of

1 line of for c e u
nit int e nsit This m eans t h at
”
Th e nit m axw ell is sel dom se d
“
.

u
.

in pr act ic al w or it b ein m ore c on e nient t o say a flux of “

g g u u gv g
”
l ines t h an a flux of “
m axw ells F rt h e r infor m at ion .

r elatin t o t his sit at ion is i en in Art 22 6 t h e follow in se ct ion .

t c c c t w c t
Th e M a net ic C ir c it
“
on .

in ct c c c t
NOTE — Flux in
an e le h ri th tir
a

ui
m agne i
. See Ar t
ir
.
ui
2 26
is in m any
. It s ould
ays analogous t o

not be assum ed
urren

a
 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y

t c ct c c t t t
44 [ ART . 72

h tt
m agne i flux
t h t c c c t w c w th t w
and el e ri urr en are t h e sam e
Ho
h ing be cause h ey are not
e v er , t h e la s a gov e rn t h e
.

t c t ct c c c t
T ey are en ire ly diffe ren p e nom en a .

de v el opm en are pr e isely an al o

c t t c th c t ct c
of flux in a m agne i ir ui gous t o t h e l a s
v v

c t ct c c t c
g o e rn in g t h e d e e l opm e n of u rre n in an e l e ri ir ui Th e form ulas .

for om pu in g m agne i flux are v e ry sim il ar t o

t tt t
ose for om pu in g e l e ri

Th e form ul as for t h e t w o kinds of ir ui s are in m any ases of

tt cct
ur r e n .

ide n i al form . But diffe ren l e e rs deno ing difi e rent , b ut anal ogous,
quan i ies are used in t h e form ul as for t h e t w o ir ui s .

fiu g v g
7 2 Th e Fie l d Inte nsity or
.

u y fi g (
m a net om oti e r adient) at som e desi nate d point in a m a ne t ic
c alle d
g
M agnetic Inte nsity al so .

el d is a m e as r e of t h e ab ilit

d c e flux or line s of for c e

of t h e
Field intensity is t h e c a se ; fluxuu y
el d at t h at point t o pr o , ,

u fi
.

de nsity (Ar t s 73 and 24 6) is t h e e ffe ct

. Note part ic larl t h at .

t h e t er m fi eld intensi ty m st r elat e t o som e spe c i ed point or

l oc at ion
N O TE t t
thth th t c t t t t ch t t t t h
.

— Fiel d in c t
ensi c ty at a t t
e r ain

ve
t t lo a ion is
(Ar
also, s a in g the si ua ion

t ch
in an o er w ay, t h e m agne om o i for e s . 2 45 an d 2 6 1 ) per uni l e ngt
fi eld

th th t
of pa ,
at a lo a ion or poin . T us, in e ns i y is m agnetom oti ve

(Art

t t
for ce gr adient an d m ay b e e xpr esse d in am pe re - urns . 2 6 1 ) pe r in

t c t t t
l en g of pa .

NO T E — Th e field intensity an d it s sym b ol H

t t c ch
. e rm ,
rel a e onl y t o t h e ab ili y
fi el d A diffe ren (Ar t 73 ) is use d t o

tch c w th t c ct c tt h ch t t tt v
of a m agne i t o gene ra e flux . e rm .

design a e t h e de nsi y (flux lin es lin es of for

or e pe r sq uare in ) of m ag

c
ne i flux in m agne i ir ui s are som e im e s use d in er
. Te rm s w i
angeab ly i
“
field in e nsi y are : magnetizing for ce (not m agne om o i e
for e ) , magneti intensi ty, strength of fi eld, intensity Of magnetic field, fi eld
c

u u
str ength an d fi eld density .

passi
73
n t g ug u
h r o h any s b st an c e t hr o h a pug
Flux D e nsity is t h e n m b er of lines of for c e per nit ar e a
.

l an e at r i h t an l es gk g
uu y g
United St at es flux densit is m eas y
t o t h e dir e ction of t h e flux lines
u . In pr actic al w or in t h e
r e d in lines per squar e inch

and is

(Art .
s all

flux d e nsity
,

and a re a t h s :
fiu
desi nat e d b y t h e c apit al l e tt er B It follow s
t h er efore t h at th ere is a c er t ain de nit e rel ation bet w een flux;
,
.
,

fl
( 1) fl ux density (lines pe r sq . in ) .

t h at is,
(lInes per sq m )
(2)
. .

h enc e,
(3 )
d
23 (sq in )
. .
46 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART 7 4 .

in X 34 in 54 or sq ih ; ( 2 ) t h e are a of t h e fi e l d at FF

tt t
. . . . is 2 i n . X 2 in .

4 sq . in ; (3 ) t h e are a of t h e fi el d at E E is 1 in X 1 in
. . . 1 sq . in . Now

t
sub s i u e in t h e form ul a B qb A:
49
(l ) B 196 lines per in flux densi y at DD

t
sq . . .

0 25

49
(2 ) B li nes per flux de nsi y at FF

t
sq . in . .

49

v v t ct t vt
(3) B 49 li nes per sq . i n. flux densi y at EE .

Th e

ht c t
alues of h ow flux densi ies m ay ary
his im aginary e xam ple sh ow

th t t .

cct c ct
In (2) ab o e w e get a fra ion of a line in our resul for flux d ensi y .

c t
This s oul d n ot onfuse if it b e rem em b ere d a a line of force is, as used

h e re , a uni of m e asurem en (Art Hen e w e can use a fra ion of a line

ct t
.

fi guring j us

t t
of for e in , as we can use a fra ion of an in h or of a pound .

EX AM PL E .
— In a e r ain fi eld t h e flux densi y is 400 l ines per sq in and t h e
. .

are a of t he fi el d , on a pl ane at righ angles t o it , is 48 sq . in . Wh a is t h e

K‘
4 9 1 ines
of flam e

i < -
>
i se e s aw

— A sim pl e m ag n e i tcc c t En d Vie w

tt t t t
F IG . 47 . ir ui .

o al flux? SO L UTI O N — Sub s i .

tt in t h e for m ula
u e
al flux in fi eld
t
c

ht
A X B c

t tt t
48 X 400 lines o .

EX AM PL E — A fi e ld of W

t
. 36 sq . in h as
. a flux of line s . a is its
SOL U — Sub s i A

t c c c t c tt
flux de nsi y ? TI O N. u e in t h e form ula B ( b

ct c c c t
36 800 lines per sq i n flux densi y . . .

NOTE FL UX D E NSITY in a m agne i

t c c c t h ct c
.
-
ir ui is analogous t o urren den
(Art 1 23 A) in an e le ri

c c t c ct tt c t t t th ht
sit y . ir ui For e xam ple , t h e flux de nsi y in t h e .

t c
m agne i ir ui of Fig . is lines pe r sq in w ile in . . an e l e ri

c c t tt v c ct ct t ct th tt
ir ui of t h e orre pr opor ions t h e urre n de nsi y m ig be am p .

t w t c t t ct c t
pe r sq in . . Th e flux de nsi y at diffe re n planes, cut rough a m agne i

ct c c c t
ir ui of arying r oss-se ion, m ay b e differe n re gardl ess of t h e fa a

t he o al flux is ons an . L ik e ise, t h e urre n d e nsi y in diffe rent par s

G u y
of an e le ri ir ui m ay b e diffe ren at par s of t h e ir ui .

u se d
7 4 Th e .

fi
A flux densit of 1
a ss Is
y v g g u y qu v g u
a U nit of Fl ux
a ss is e
D e nsit
tim es
i al e nt t o 1 line of for c e
w hic h is som e

fi y gu
.

pe r sq cm A el d h a in
. . a densit of 10 a sse s m ay b e c all e d
”
a el d of 1 0 maxw ells per sq . cm . or sim pl a fi el d of 10 a sses .
SE C 2] MAGNE TISM 47

u v u g u
.

is not u uk g u
A m axw ell is eq i
m ch
v y se d

qu
alen
in t his
t to 1 line of for c e
count ry,
“
,
.

Out side of ph sic al lab orat ories

Th e nit a ss

k f
"

and t ext b oo it b ein m c h m ore c on enie nt and it e as

‘

-
s,

acc u

inch
rat e

or
“
qu u in practic al w or t o r efer t o lines

g
lines per s ar e inc h
”
o f orce per square

u y
.

75 M agnetic Force
is t h e p sh w ith w hic h t wo m a net s re pel

u u u g
.

e ac h ot h er or it is t h e p ll w it h w h ic h t h e att r act e ac h ot h er

v u yg gu g
.

For c e can b e m e as r e d in po nds or in any oth er nit of w ei h t

y g
.

Ob io sl tic for c e w ill b e exer ted b e t w een a m a ne t

a ma ne

u
, ,

and a ma net ic s b st anc e t h at h as b e c om e a t em porar m a ne t

g
m a net s g
b y ind ction ( Art
uu u gg
t h e sam e as b e t w ee n t w o perm anent
Ma netic for c e is m t al ( Fig
.

m a ne t A

u u
. .

att r act s b ar B b y t h e sam e am o nt as B att r act s A Ma netic

f y
.

for c e som e t im es c alle d m agnetic str ength sh o l d not b e c onf se d

g
, ,

wit h li ting power (Art 85) wh ic h is an ent irel different

M
.

t hin .

7 6 Th e Law s of
. agne tic Force Are

1 Like m agnetic poles r epel one another; unlike m agnetic

f
.

poles attract one another .

2 . The or ce exer ted between two m agnetic poles varies in

versely as the square Of the distance between them

v u u
.

Th e fi rst law
not st rictl y u tr e
ab o e is disc
in practic e b ec a
sse d in Ar t 77.

uv
Th e se c ond law is
.

se it ass m es t h at eac h of t h e

y u g
g
pol es is a m ere point
—a dot It is, h ow e . er , c losel tr e w h en
t h e m a ne t s ar e not t oo close t o one anot h e r and are lon in
proport ion t o
s a e d as a
t t form la t h u u
th eir se ctional
s:
ar eas . This se c ond law can be

(5)
‘
OI

fi rst
Wherein F
posit ion
g

.
forc e
1
”
exer e d

for c e bet w een

t b e t w een t w o m a
them in
g ne t poles in th ei
se c ond position
r

.
48 PRAC TI CAL ELE C TR] C I T Y [ AR T 7?

fi
.

D dist anc e b e t w ee n pol es in rs t posi tion . d dist an c e

th t th
b e t w e e n poles in se on d
c posi t ion .

X
E AM P L E —
ct c t c th
h
Assum e b ar m agne t s t o b e arrange d as in Fig 48 so
.

are fre e t o m ov e on fri ionl e ss gl ass r oll e rs and so t

a t h e pull b e
.

twt th a ey

tc wt tw t
ee n em

en t h e m agn e W
w th t t
c anb e m e asur e d b y d eli a e spring b alan es . e n ds ar e 4
e e n t h e m agn e s is 2 0 oz (Fig How

t
in apar t h e m u ual pull b e
.
. .

m any oun es ill it b e i t h e m agn e en d 2 in apar ( Fig . . SoL U

T I O N — Sub s X D

ht w th tw t ct th c wct c c
. itut e in t h e form ula f (F 2
) d 2
[ 20 X (4 X
4) X 2) ] = 3 20 + 80
(2 4 0z .

c ct h t th wh ch
T e r e fore , i t h e m agn e s 2 in . apar t h e pull or for e oul d
b e appr oxi
It prob ab l y oul d not b e e xa ly us in pra i e b e ause of

ct
ma e ly 80 oz .

e r ain e r r ors, in e ren in t h e form ul a an d m e od, for i it is not fe asible

to orr e .

I '

Ma gnet 4 Inch es A a rt
p

c tw — Ill us tt II Magnet s 2 I nch es Apa rt

g u
FI G . 48 . ra in g l aw of for e be ee n t w o m ag ne t s .

W 77 .

yu
h y M a n etic For ce Varie s as th e Sq ar e of th e Distance
—Th is l aw (Art 7 6) is not strictl t r e in pr actic e b e c a se it is u .

gg
.

b ase d on the t h at t h e lines of for c e fr om a pole fac e

assu m ption

g gu y g
of t h e m a ne t
u
of a m a ne t r adiat e ( Fig 4 9 ) fr om a poin t or dot w h ic h lies w it hin

Act all t h e lines of for c e do not c on er e t o a

.

t h e m a ne t an d w hi c h is c onside r e d t h e t r e l oc at ion of t h e pole

v qug
v u
.

point w it hin a m a ne t Th e m a n e t fac e sh ow n is 1 in s ar e

g ug qu
. .

h as an ar e a of 1 sq in It is ob io s t h at t h e r e ar e fe w er of t h e

ug
. .

lines of for c e passin t h r o h a s ar e in c h ar ea AB C D l oc ate d -

qu y
,

at som e dist an c e fr om t h e pol e fac e t h an t h er e ar e t h r o h the

u qu
,

s ar e inc h EFC H of t h e fac e This m e ans t h at sin c e flux

y u
.
, ,

de nsit de t er m ines t h e n m b e r of lines of for c e pe r s ar e in c h

u Wy g
,

t h e flux de nsit at AB C D is m c h l ess t h an at EFGH Th e

u
.

f r th e r aw a fr om t h e pol e one oes t h e l ess w ill b e t h e flux ,

density h er e t h e lines radiate from a point t h e n m b er of

. ,
SE C 2] M AGNE TISM 49

ug g v vy v y
.

lines th ro h a i en area will ar in ersel as t h e sq uar e of

W g g
,

t h e dist anc e t h at t h e area is frofn the point— not fr om t h e ole

i
p

u gy
‘

fac e ith a lon m a ne t t h e lines of for c e w ill r adiat e fr om it s

.

l l m t h ow n in Fig 4 9 and w it h s c h a m a net t hi s

‘

p o es a os a s s

y u H vv ky u g fi
.

”
inversely as the square of the distance l aw w ill h ol d c l osel b ut
not exactl tr e ow e er w it h a sh or t t hic m a ne t t h e el d

u v qu
.
,

of lin es of for c e t h at is de el ope d will b e fairl nifor m (Ar t 6 1 )

g u yy
.

for q i te a dist anc e fr om t h e pol e fac e and th en t h e in erse s are

law can not b e applie d w ith r eat acc r ac

gu y u u
.

78 D iamagnetism is an appare nt propert of c e r t ain m at erials

y y y
.

(am on th em are c oppe r antim on b ism t h ph osph or s and

g g u
, , ,

som e liq ids) w h e r eb t h e see m t o b e feebl r e pe lle d from t h e

p o l es o f a s t r on m a n et S c h m at erials ar e c alle d diamagnetic
.

hw c —S

y yv
49 . o in g t h e prin ipl e of t h e v
in e rse-sq uar e l aw .

substances.

v
Th e

u u g
th is pr opert is prob abl th at
e xpl an a tion
th ese m aterials h a e l ess perm eanc e (Art 63 ) t h an h a e air or
m agnetic s b st an c es Th at is a diam a netic s b st anc e is one
.
of

,
g .
,

u
,

th at does not c ond ct m a netism or lines of for c e as w ell as does

ai r

79
.

A Param agne tic Sub stance is one th at h as re at e r pe r

.

m e anc e (Ar t 63 ) t h an air or , in ot h er w or ds, c ond ct s lines of

gu
k g
.

for c e b e tt erth an does air

g z
.

80 A Pe rmane nt M agne t C an B e M ade by stro in t h e h ar d

gv y k g g g z g z
.

st eel b ar ( Fig w hic h it is desir e d t o m a ne ti e w ith anoth e r

y
.

str on per m ane nt m a ne t Th e m a ne ti ation th us att aine d is

g g g fi
.

r el ati el w ea St r on m a net i at ion c an b e e ffe ct e d onl by

.

p la c in t h e b ar in a s t r on ,
el e ct r om a ne t ic el d T his c an b e .
50 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ ART 81

u g uu u g u u
.

done b y c a sin c ontin o s c rre nt (Ar t 2 1 7) t o c ir c l at e ar o nd

fi g
-

y g g
.

t h e b ar ( Fig 50 , 1 1 ) or b y plac in it in t h e el d of a ener ator

.

t ct t t
(1 11 ) or of a spe c iall desi ne d m a ne t ( I V) .

h t ht
0 TE .
-
To m ake
tchc a

t c t t t
per manent magnet: b e nd t h e s ee l in o t h e
old if th e form re q uir e d and it s se ion pe rm i
re quire d

c t th c t
form ; it c an b e b en s it . To
Agi a e

h th t thh v h t h h wv t
arde n, h ea t o a erry r ed an d pl unge in o old running w a e r .

hw t
v iolen ly w il e it is oolin g . Th e ongs w i w hi h t h e m agne is t o b e im

t h th ttc w c c ct t tt
m e rse d s oul d be so d esigne d a ey w ill ol d it in s ape t o pre en dis
Holes ja

t
t ort ion . s oul d b e b ore d w e re er fe asible h roug t he s of t h e

tt t t t
ongs so a h as m u h of t h e m agne s eel as possible
ol d a er ill rea .

W ere t h e u m os pe rm anen y of m agne iz a ion is desirable, ageing (Ar t

1

t tt v t c t ct c t t
.

Art ifi ciall y age d ungs e n-st ee l m agne s use d in t h e b est

t tt
82 ) is essen ial .

m e asurin g ins rum e n s m ain ain inde fi ni ely an al m os pe rfe ly ons an

m agn e iz a ion
pe rm anen m agne s
.

t
Th e m os e xpe nsi e st eels do n ot ne essarily m ak e t h e b est
.

the
81 Form s of Pe r m ane nt M agnet s are sh ow n in Fig 3 8
.

s eel
t is b e nt int o a cl ose d or ne arl y cl ose d
.

sh ape as at
. Wh en
1 an d

P B}; Sf m kin9 I WHh

t t t th
a n Ele c t n c
' ‘
'

Cur re nt III- Wit h 6ene rat or N Wit h Special

Fie lIds
. Elect ra Magnet

FI G 50 — Me ods of m ag ne iz in g pe r m ane n m ag ne

g u g z gu
. . s.

1 1 the m a

p r op or t ig
on t o t kv
h e ir w
ne

it is in a b ar or ncl ose d for m

e
g
i h ts
t

t h an
w ill

a r e t hi c o
t i it s
re a n

nes
c h b e tt er t h an if
Thin m a net s ar e st r on er in
I t fo ll o
ma

w
.

s t h
ne

at
ti ation m

g vg g
.

a com pou nd m agnet (11 1 ) c om pose d of se e r al t hin b ar s c l am pe d

fi
8 2
g T
zh e A
fi
g
y
e in y
to eth er is m or e e ffe cti e t h an a solid one of t h e sam e w ei h t

y g of M a n e t S t e e l w h e r e b it w ill r e t a in pr a c-
g
.

u u
.

tic all xe d m a ne t i at ion in de nit el can b e acc om plish e d

Hg u
,

th s : B e nd t h e st eel t o its l tim at e for m and t em pe r it t o m axi

m um h ar dness

gv
at 2 1 2 de g F g y
eat t r e at (h e at ) it in st e am for ab o t 40 h r

g
.

M a netiz e t h e st eel as st ron l as possible and

.

gu g zu
. .

i e it anoth er sim il ar h e at t r e at m e nt for 8 hr Th e r eh e atin .

e ff e cts som e de m a ne t iz at ion b ut t h e m a net i at ion t h at re

-

W g
83 Rough Tr e atm e nt
. g z
m ains w ill be ab o t per m ane nt for all pr act ic al p r pose s
e ak e ns M agnet s

darning needle or any ot h er m a ne t be h eat ed red h ot and al

— If a m a net i e d
.
 MAGNE TI SM 51

u g
SE C . 2]

gu
low ed t o
gk
m a ne t iz e d darnin
c ool it

v g g u g
w ill b e fo nd t o h av e l ost it s m a net ism
t este d for stren t h b y c o nt in
nee dl e be
. If a

the n m
ujb
it w ill b e fo
e r o
n
f
d
t
t
a

u g g
h
c
a t
s

i
i
t
t
h
w
a s
i
gk
ll
l o
lif
s t
t
m
a n d
c h
t h
o
e

f
n

it s
ib
s t r
r

e
at
n
e d
t h
a a i
I
n

f
s

a
t
m
a

a
t a

n
b
e
l e

y g v
.

is dr oppe d o r a r r e d it w i ll l o s e s t r e n t h E a c h t im e t h e e e p e r

g u y u
.
,

of an o r d i n ar h o rs es h o e m a n e t i s re m o e d a n d r e p l a c e d s o m e

gt
of it s s r e n t
g uu
h i s l os t
uO b v io sl . a n y
t ainin a per m anent m a ne t m st not b e j arr e d or s b j e cte d t o
d e l ic a t e in s t r m
,
e n t co n

t
ex rem e

t
c

g u v
al er t h e in e r tu
h ang es
n a l
i n

mut
ue

o l
m
e c
p e

l
r

a
a

r
t
o
r

r
e

a t
A
om
n

i
y
c
c
s
o

t r
n d i
ct
t io
r
n

e
t
(
h.

A
a

r
t
t
t e n d s

o f
t
a
o

h h c c t t t
e r m an e n t m a n e t sh o l d b e a oide d
p
.

Nor a
ar m at ur e or

not in
—

h th th w
use .
W
kee per
W en
t
tcc c t
e re

ht h e form
s oul d b e pl a

is is d one ,
of a pe r m an e n
e d a r oss

e re ill b e
m agne
t h e poles of th e m agne
an ir on
pe r m

m agn e i
its it , a sof

w
ir ui for t h e
ir on
en i t IS

lid / d S fe e / oo
’

I Attra ct ing Iron

tt tt
‘

— Ill us

c w wh chw t t t th
FI G . 51 . ra in g ret en iv i y .

l ine s
c tt
of for e t o foll o ,
i il l en d t o m ain ain t h e s r e ng of t h e m ag

v y g
ne t ons an .

—
s e el
t
H
84 .

ar d s eel t g gv y u
R e t e nti it

Th e h ar der t h e
w ill
Is Ab ility t o R e tain
t
r e ain ma
s e el
t
ne tism
th e
er

r e a er
Ma

t
m
the
ne tism
ch
r e en t
. Se e Ar t 4 5

ti itvy
b e tt e r th an w ill soft
.

Pu re
.

ugg H g y
. .

sof t iron w il l not re ain t it at all Th is prin c iple can b e de m on

u g g
.

st r at e d as s es e d
t in Fig 5 1 an as m an sof t nails as it

u
. .

w ill pport b y it s
s att r act ion on t h e e n d of a b ar m a ne t E ac h

g W
.

nail h as now b e c om e (by in d ction Ar t 64) a little m a ne t for

u v u g y
.
,

th e tim e b e in . D et ac h all of t h e n ails . h en test e d ,

none
will b e fo nd t o h a ch m a ne tism If t h e sam e expe rime nt
e m

u g
.

is trie d w it h nee dl es w hic h ar e al w a s of h ar d ste el e ac h n e e dle

y u u g
, ,

w ill b e fo nd t o r e t ain c onsider abl e m a ne tism It follow s t h at

g uv y ugu
.

h ar d steel is t h e onl s b st an c e s it able for st r on per m ane n t

m a ne ts C ast ir on and im p re w ro h t iron re t ain som e m ag

y g
.

ne t ism For m aff e ct s re te nt i it C b es sh or t r ods an d b alls

y u k g
.
,

w ill not r e t ain ne arl so w ell as w ill l on r ods b e nt int o cl ose d or

ne arl cl ose d c ir c its Th e e epe r on a h orsesh oe m a net ( Fig
. .
52 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

v y g y u v y
. 85

ing g gt
s re n
m ot es it s r e t enti it
pr o

g
t h can b e m ade (Art
. Ma ne s of
t pr act ic all n ar

f fiu u y
.

85 . Th e Liftin M a ne t , som e tim es

Pow e r of a P erm ane nt
c alle d it s por tative orce is di f c l t t o c al c ul at e acc r at el It

f
.

depe nds on : ( 1 ) the quality of the steel (2) its shape (3 ) the shape

f g
, ,

and condition of the sur ace of the obj ect attracted and of the attr act

u g g z y
ing sur ace and (4) the size or weight of the m agnet it b e in as ,

h t t t t
s m e d t h at t h e m a net is m a net i ed as inte nsel as can b e .

ht t c t t w w t h
N0 TE —A h orses
.

t w
m agne w ill usually lif h ree or four im es as gre at
oe

t t th wc ht th w t w
a w eig as w ill a b ar m agne of t h e sam e eigh C am fe ring t h e e n ds or .

poles of a m agne in re ases it s lif ing po er ( Art

c t
Sm all m agne s ill .

A l if ing po e r

h t
lif m ore in propor ion t o eir eig s an ill l arge ones .

of 4o1b .
per sq . in . of pol e surfa e is a spl en did perform an e for a s eel m ag
net .
A good h orses oe m agnet w eighing 1 1h . sh oul d lif 25 1b .
54 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

k u v
. 89

to

tili
now

y
u z v k yu k u k
m e nt
e
u g
of u k
how w ater
pow e r

w at e r pr act ic all
.
acts and

Th e h dr a lic
to m a
h ow it m ay b e

e
en

it do w or
inee r m
se d

s t
in t h e de

for h im b ut h e does
now
el op

h ow t o

k v
,

not ha e to now t h e
c onstit tion of w at er ltim at e

k qu y
.

Li e w ise in t h e de el opm e nt of t h e ide as of pr actic al el e c

u g g
,

t ricit y in t h is b oo th e est ion of w h at el e ct r ic it is w ill not

u u
,

b e disc sse d at re at l e n t h B ut t h e desc ript ions of h ow it act s .

and h ow it can b e dir e ct e d and c ont r olle d so as t o do sef l

w th c t w t — Tr ansm i tt
k g g u u gy
FI G . 52 . in g e n e r gy i a urr e n of a er .

w or — r in

y g
—

ug g
b ells, f r nish ill m inat ion t r ansm it

v y
do simil ar t hin s w ill b e t r e at e d at som e l e n t h
e ne r an d

u y gy ju
.

89 M ay B e st B e Th o h t of as a C on e or of
El e ctricit

g v
.

—
Energyl As a w ei h tl e ss m e di m w hic h can c arr e ner st

y
el e ct r ic itu g
as can w at e r ( Fig 52 ) or air

u
Th e l aw s w h ic h o e r n t h e flow of
. .

in cl ose d c ir c it s ar e in e ne r al sim il ar t o t h ose t h at

gy
t ricit y is not e ner ( A r t fl g
det er m ine t h e flow of w at er or air in w at er or air c ir c it s
1 69) an y m o r e t h an t h e w at
. e r o
El ec
w in
.

FI G w th c t ct c t
53 — T r a n sm i tt in g i of e l e ri i y

u u gy W
. . e n e r gy a urr e n .

is
nder

u
pr e s

m att er ; see Art 2

s

g fl
gy g
in t h e pipe line of Fig 52 is e ner
re

Th e w at er ow in

y
at er

in t h e pipe , Fig 52 ,
. .

fl g u g gy
. . .

is a m e di m for t ransm itt in e ne r an d so is t h e el e ct r ic it

v tt t tc ttt
ow in in t h e c on d ctor of Fig 53 m eans of t r ansm itt in
‘

. a e n er .

N — Th e ene rgy de

th h c c t t w t t wh ch
or a el ope d by t h e s e am e ngine , Fig 5 2 , is
. rans m i ed

th t h t h th h
t o t he r otary pum p b y m e ans of t h e b el . Th e r o ar y pu p for es t h e w a er
mo b y m e ans of

t ht
around r oug t h e pipe ir ui to urn a a er or, i ,

ano er b el , d rive s a l ine s af . T u s al l of e se a ev b een m e d ium s in t h e

ransm ission of e ne rgy fr om t h e e n gin e t o t h e line s af .
(1) a belt , a

Dum p, (3) a curr ent o f water, (4) a w ater motor an d (5) another belt . In Fig 53 .
 U NDAM E N TAL I DE AS

ctc ct t c tt t t ct c t c
SE C . 3] F 55

w t wh cht ct c t t w t
an e le ric genera or or dynam o is subs i u ed for t h e r o ary pum p, el e
Wires) for t h e pipe line

t tt t c th w
t ricit y ondu ors ( oppe r
—
and an e l e ri m o or for

t t ht h t wh t tw th
t he a er mo or . In Fig 53,
is t h e m e dium by
. e le ri i y in s e ad of a er

e ne rgy is r ansm i e d ov e r t h e l on g dis an e ; o

h t
m e ans of i er ise , t h e

w ct t t w t ct c t th h
t w o ransm ission sys e m s ar e som e a sim il ar In e i e r Fig 52 or Fig 53 . . .

ave b ee n arr an ge d b e

t t t
a l ong b e l m ig een t h e en gine an d t h e line s af

i y—

tct cc t h t tt h hthwt th t
pul ley and it ould r ansm i the e n e rgy as do a e r or el e ri oug

possibly not as e f ien ly fi .

(Ob viousl y, b el r ansm ission v
o er any gre a
dis an e is n ot fe asib l e ) T . e se illus ra ions a e v
b ee n giv e n t o s o a

ele ri i y is m erely a m e dium for t h e r ansm ission of en e rgy and a it is

y u
not e n e r gy .

90 As t o

g
. W
w hi c h foll ow , b e of g v y
h at Ele ctricit
y rea k t
Is Like , it w ill, in t h e disc ssions
assist an c e if el e ct ric it is li e n e d t o
som e

r e adil yfi y
t h in w it h w h ich e er one is fam iliar and w h ic h can b e

g
c om pr e h en ded Th is w ill enable t h e r eader t o ac ire
u qu
kg v y g y g
.

a de nit e ph sic al c on c e pt ion of t h in s For t h e p r pose s of .

t his b oo it can t h en b e stat e d t h at ele ctric it is a som e t h in

vy g y
, ,

pe rm e at in e e r t h in This follow s fr om t h e ide a (Ar t 3 ) . .

t h at e er t h in — all m att e r— is c om pose d of ele ct r ons w h ic h ,

ar e par t ic l e s of el e ctric it E lectrici ty acts as if it w er e a w eigh t

u y y
.

less invisible non com pressi ble fluid perm eating all space—satur at
-

k fi y H vg k g yu
,

ing ever ythi ng Not e par tic larl t h at ele ctric it is not a fluid
.

t h is fact is n own de nit el ow e e r it m ay for our p r poses

k flu v
.
, ,

of e xpl anation b e c onside r e d as act in l i e t h e im a inar

, spe c ial

tt c th
in d of id desc rib e d ab o e .

ct c
NOT E

th h c t ct t
e le ri i yt .

ct c c
T h e el e r i
. t
We appe ar t o b e ge
t t w t
k t o Fr anklin s single fluid eory of
ct
urren is b e lie v e d t o b e a m ove m e n of e l e r ons

ondu or fr om t h e ne gativ e t o t h e posi iv e ins e ad of fl o ing

ing b a
’
-

th t ct ctct c t t c
r oug a ,

M any seien
'

from t h e posi ive t o t h e n e ga iv e as w as for m e rly supposed

t ch
.

t ist s b e lie v e n e ga iv e e l e ri i y is t h e onl y kind Posi iv e

t tct h th h ct t th t t c t t
”
a e le .

t ricit y arises fr om a l a k of e le r ons For e xam pl e a posi ively arge d .

ch tt wh t ct c t ch t th t
a om of the m e al elium is m e rel y a eliu m a om a h as tem poraril y l os
t w o of it s e le r ons . In e ory the ele r on is not a par i le n e ga ively
ive quivalen

ct t t ct t w t
arg e d b ut is in i se lf a n e ga ar ge . T his is e t o saying a

tt tw ht t ct t w ht c th t h c
ma er is o l ly el e ri al .

Th e el e r on e n e rs in o t h e st ru ur e of t h e a om , b ut is t h e e igh of t h e

tht wh ch h t th h c
a om d ue en ir e ly t o t h e m ass of t h e e l e r on ? It is l aim e d a the ele

t w th c t t w
ron h as no e ig in i se lf . It s appar en e ig is due t o t h e ad e rin g

h c c
te er ( Ar t 3 5) . i it d r ags al ong as it s oo s r oug spa e . It is lik e
s ir ring a b uck e of fluid i a ane , a sm al l i y quan of t h e fluid il l t e m

u M W Mu
porar il y ad e re t o t he ane and be arrie d al ong b y it .

91
Ele ctric it
J .
.

y Th e C on str
gu u ction
Is C onside re d as B e ing Anal o o
A C ull e r . GE N E R AL PHY SI CS
.
of

.
a tte r h ich
s
s t B e Assum e d if
t o a Fl id Filling
56 PRAC TI CAL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ ART 92

ugg g uy
.

All Spac e is
be ass uk u u v y k g u
t h at e er
m ed
s es e d
t
in d of m att er
in Fi s . 54 t o 58 .On t his basis it m st
is c om pose d of a h one

ar e all fi g y flu
c om bli e str ct r e c om prisin m in te c ells (Fig
ll e d w it h t h e im a in ar
Th e c ells
id w hi c h is an alo o s t o el e c
.

gu
t ricit y .

k
Th e w alls of t h e c ell s ar e c om pose d of an elastic m ate rial
B ut c ell w alls in diffe r e nt in ds of m at erials are not t h e sam e
.

u u u
.

Th ere is a diffe r en c e b et w e en t h e m at er ial of t h e c ell w alls of

c on d ctors ( Art 93) an d t h at of non c ond ctors or ins lat ors -

y W u
.

( A rt 9 2 ) a s w ill n ow b e e x p l ain e d

u
.

92 In th e Imagin ar C e ll all s of Insulat ing S b st ance s

u u
.

( n on - c on d ct or s or d ie l e ct r ic s A rt 1 3 1 ) t h e c e
,
ll w all m a
.t e r ial is -

ass m ed t o be (Fig an elast ic sem i por o s m em br ane

.
-
,

Il She e t
'
of El ast ic, Se mi
Por ous Mat e r ia l Wh ich
For ms Walls of Ce lls

ct c t t t c h t thctt c w c t ct t c t
l $h owing Assume d Ce ll ul ar St ruct ure
~ ~

th hwh ch ct c t ct c w
FI G 54 — Ill us r a in g t h e y po e i al or im agin ary s r u ur e of an insul a in g
“

. .

—
or die l e ri m a e r ial ( ell ul ar s r u ur e ; alls of e ll s ar e e l as i an d of a m at e
'

rial r oug i t h e el e r i i y
“
ele ri ui d c an sl o ly soak) fl

g u u u
.

gu ug fi u ugg u g u
som e t h in lik e se m i h t —
bb er if t h ere c oul d be ch
poro s s ee r s
-

a t h in Th s, a b l oc k (s c h as air
of any in s l at in s bst anc e

y u v g u
.
,

h ar d r b b er lass or ber) m ay b e t h o h t of as b ein c om pose d

g y fi g y
,

w h oll of t h o san ds of litt l e c ell s all h a in se m i por o s elastic -

flu uW k u ug v g
,

w alls e ac h of t h e c ells b ein e nt ir el lle d w it h an im a in ar '

el e ct ric id h e n an el e ct ric pr ess r e ( ol ta e Ar t 1 1 7 ) is

u u
. .
,

im pr e sse d on s c h a b l oc of in s latin m at erial t h e c ell w alls

u y
B ut t h er e w ill b e pr act ic all
k y flu
w ill b e c a se d t o st r e tc h in t h e dir e ct ion of t h e el e ct ric pr ess r e

ug k n o flow of t h e el e ct ric it id
.

flu g
lar ely v u
t h r o h t h e bl oc b e c a se t h e m em b r ane li e c ell w alls w ill
pr e e nt s c h flow
u u
T h er e w ill b e a displ ac e m e nt of t h e
-
-
,

y u ug
.
,

id in t h e dir e ct ion of t h e pr ess r e b e c a se t h e w all s are elast ic ,

but pr act ic all no act al flow t h r o h t h e w alls .

SE C 3 ] F UNDAM E NTAL I DE AS 57

H v uu u u
.

ow e er, sinc e no s bst anc e is

ct ins lat or of ele ca p fe
e r

u g
t ricit y (Art 1 24) it m st b e ass m ed t hat t h e c ell w alls in t h e
so c alle d ins lat in
-
.

m ateria ls ar e semi poro s Th e c ell w alls

u u-

u
v u flu y uu v y
.

in t h e m at erials w hi c h ar e t h e b est ins lat ors w o l d b e alm ost

H uen c e fluy u
im pe r io s t o t h e flow of t h e
w h en t h e
id ; t h e w o l d h a e litt le por osit
id in t h em w as s bj e ct e d t o an el e ct ric
y flu u u g
.

ug u v u
,

p r e ss r e p r a ct ic all no c rr e n t o f e l e ct ric it id w o l d fl ow

u qu u
,

t h r o h t h e w alls but t h er e w o l d b e som e flow Poor in s lat in

u g ug y gu
.
,

m at erials w o l d h a e c ell w alls w h ic h w o l d b e it e por o s

s c h w alls m i h t b e t h o

vy u
h t of as b ein c om pose d of an elast ic
m em br ane pe rfor at e d wit h m an m in t e h ole s
be t w een t h e er poro s elastic m em branes c om posin t h e c ell
Th s r an in ug g g .
,

c ct c c ct c c
c t t ct w
FI G . 55 .
— O ne im agin ar y ell fr om a. FI G 56 — O ne im agin ary ell fr om a
. .

v ( Wall s of ell
”
e ry g ood on d u or .
g ood on d u or .

om pose d of e l as i b er s o e n or fi v

u v u
j oine d in o an O pen issue ) .

g vy g
w alls of poor ins lat ors
t im per io s m em branes
and

c om posin t h e w alls of t h e b est ins l at ors t h ere w o l d b e w all

the
uy
alm os

u ,

ct c c c t
m e m br anes of e er de r ee of por osit .

c
Nor E
c
w w ct t tch c
If t h e el e

t th t th w t t th t thc
i pressure, w hi h is im pressed on a blo k of h ese
'

' -
. r

cth thc hht ch th v

im agin ary ells, om posing an insul a in g m a e rial , ere so grea a t h e el l

e d e x essive ly,

ch t h h t cc
al ls oul d b e s re en ey w oul d rup ur e an d er e

w ould b e an a ual flow of t h e el e ri fluid

tht t ch c t w
T er e w ould b e a disrupti e .

c ct c
dis arge This is w a o urs w en
. ere is a lig nin g dis arge r ough

t h e a m osp ere Th e air, an in sul a in g ma e rial , is b rok en d o n by an

.

u
ex essiv e ele ri p r essu r e an d t h e lig nin g d is arge urren fl ow s
-
.

y gv y u
9 2A Insul ating S b stance s on th e Basis of th e El e ctr on
Th e or
.

ar e b elie ed t o be t h ose s u uy u g
bst an c es in w hic h t h e el e c

u u
,

tr ons are h el dti h tl b o nd in t h e at om s Th s ele ct ric con .

d ction c rr ents (Art 1 04 ) can not flow r eadil in an ins l at in

.
58 P RA C TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 93

u u v u
.

at om
—
b st an c e b e c a se it s el e ctr ons
t

H v y v
R em e m b e r t h at t h e r e can b e an el e ct ric c rr ent onl
to c an not mo e fr om a om

y
u gu
.

w h e n el e ct r ons ar e m ov e d ow e e r t h e el e ct r ons in t h e at om s
.

of ins l at in s b st an c es c an pr ob ab l b e m o e d o r s h
,
ift ed ,

FI G . 57 .wh ch
wh chc ct t c c
— M e m b r an e s w i m ay b e im ag ine d a s om posin g t h e all s of t h e c e lls

v ug v y
of i on d u in g m a e r ial s m ay b e assu m e d t o b e om pose d .

u u gu
w it h in t h e at om s
u
t h e m sel es t h r o h e r sh ort dist an c es w h ich
a cc o nt s for t h e fact t h at displ ace m e nt c r r e nt s (Art 1 05) can
,

y W u g ug
.

e xist in ins l at in s b st an c es .

93 Th e Im aginar C ell
. all s of C on d ctin M ate rial s, s c h
as t h e m et als w oul d b e c om pose d of el ast ic fab r ic s r e se m b l in
,

11 Sh e e t of Ope n Fabr ic

tt h c th tctc t t ct
Wh ich For ms Walls
1 Sh ow ing C ellular St ruct ure
'
of C e lls

FI G . 58 — Il l us
. ra in g t h e y po e i al im ag in ar y
or s ru ur e of fair ly g ood

g Wflu y u u
on d u in g m a e r ial .

ne

pr e v
ttin
en t
as sh ow n

the
in Fig 58
flow of t h e el e ct ric
. .

u
“
hile t h e se fab ric w alls w o l d not
”
id t h e w o l d t e n d t o r est rict
it
sil
.

v In t h e m at er ial s w hic h
er for exam pl e , u vy ar e

t h e m esh w o l d b e
t h e b est c on d ct ors c opper
er c oarse possib l ,
,

y or

as
 F U N DAM E N TAL I DE AS 59

ugg u
sac . 3]

s t
es e din Fig 55

u y flu y y fi ugg
In t h e m at e rial s w hi c h ar e t h e poorest
.

c on d ct ors t h e m esh w oul d b e c on siderabl n e r as s

.

est e d in

Fig 57.

of t h e el e ct r ic it
.

v—
,

u
T h s t h e ab ilit of t h e m at e rial t o r est rict t h e flow
—
id t h fough it it s el e ct ric al r esist an c e w o l d

m at erial
v v g v v y v y
b e de t er mine d by t h e cl ose ness of t h e w e a e of t h e c ell w all
A m at e rial h a in in its c ell w alls a fab ric of e r
-

v g
.

c oarse w ea e (Fig 55) w oul d h a e a l ow — er —

littl e e l e ct ric al

ggy v v g u v
.

r esist an c e A m at e rial h a in in its c ell w all s a fab ric of exc ee d

y u
.

in l fin e w e a e w ou l d h a e a hi h r esist an c e In fact t h e w e a e

u g u
.
,

mi h t b e so fi ne t h at t h e fab ric w o l d b e m e r el a se m i por o s -

g g fi v,

des c rib e d in t h e pr e c e din ar t icl eu y

m e m b r ane w h ic h w o l d put t h e m at e r ial int o t h e ins l at or c l ass

y v y v Ob io sl t h e r e m ay be

u u g u y g
.
,

fab ric s of m an ar in de r e es of ne ness of w e a e (Fig .

Th s t h e r e ar e m at e rials of m an de r ee s of r esist an c e

y v y u
.
,

93 A C ond ctin S b stan c e s on th e B asis of th e El e c tr on

v
.

Th e or ar e b elie e d t o b e t h ose s b st an c es in w hi c h t h e el e ct r ons

vu v g u u u
ar e h eld r at h e r l oosel in t h e ir at om s and c an t h e r e for e b e m o ed

w it h r elat i e e ase fr om at om t o at om b y t h e applic at ion of an

,

y u
,

el e ct r ic pr ess r e or ol t a e T h s c ond ct ion c r re nt s (Art

y v Gv u y y
. .

1 O4A) flow r e adil in t h ese s b st an c es .

94 El e ctric it C an Not B e e ne r at e d b y a d nam o a b att e r

g u g y
.
,

or b y any ot h e r de ic e C ont ri an c es s c h as b att e ries (Art

g yfi y y y v
. .

3 2 6) and e ne r at ors (Art sh o l d b e re ar de d m e r el as.

arr an e m e nts w h e r eb el e ct ric it w hic h is alr e ad in exist e n c e

(ele ctr ic it

g
— v u g u g
lls all spac e Ar t 9 0) m ay b e for c e d t o m o e

u
m att er t h e eart h t h e en el ope of air s rr o n din it and all t h e
,
Al l . .

v y y g u
,

h
ot er t hin s on it and in it — m ay b e r e ar de d as an e nor m o s

uv
rese r oir of el e ct r ic it

s it ab l e c on dit ions

u v u
b e m ade t o m o e y
Th e el e ct ric it in t h ese t hin s can n der
.

An d w h en el e ct ric it
,

g v g y u u u y v
.
,

m o es t h er e is an el e ct r ic c r rent Th e r eal f n ct ion t h e n of a .

e n er at or or a b att e r is t o f r nish a pr ess r e el e ct rom ot i e

v
,

for c e or ol t a e (Art 1 02 ) w h ic h w ill c a se el e ct ric it t o sh ift or

.

ctw chc c t ct c t cthc ht ctc c c tt t c

mo e .

NOT E — An t

hc c t c c c wt c c t h c
. e le ri ge ne r a or m ay b e oug of as an el e ri i y for e

pum p ( Fig 53 ) . hi for es el e ri i y t o ir ul a e ar oun d in a ir ui j us as

a ydr auli for e pum p m ay for e a er to ir ul a e ar ound in a yd rauli

Ggy W v
ir ui .

Ene r
95 .

k g g u y.
e n e ra
— g tion
hil e
gy u y
el e
,

pr ope r t o spe a of t h e e ne r ation of el e ct ric al e ne r ,

y
Tr ansmi ssion
ctric it
w hic h sub
c an not
an d

be
C on
.
e ner a e d,
er sion

t
of
it is
El e ctri c al
en tir el

j t is disc usse d at som e len t h nder Art 1 7 8 Th e st d of

e c . .
 60 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T

v y ug y g
. 96

v u
pr a
u gy u
ctic al
gy
ct ric it m ay b e c on enientl t h o h t of as b ein
el e

di ide d int o t h e t h r ee sub s b j e ct s not e d in t h e h e adin t o t h is

ar t icl e b e c a se w h e r e el e ct ric al e ner
-

is se d it is al w a s : (a)
g

g
en er a

uted b y so

w h e r e it is t o b e
m e m e an s

g
or ot h e r ( b) tr ansm itted t o t h e l
t iliz e d and it is th en (c) conver ted into h e at
,
oc at ion ,

t ct c c c t v t
li h t m e c h anic al pow e r or int o som e ot h e r a ent
,
.

cct ct wc c c t
E XAM PL E — E v en in

t c on e of t h e sim ples ele ri ir ui s, a ib r a ing b e l l-

ct c c th t t
ir ui(Fig t h e e l e ri al
. e ne rgy
i ( a) gener at ed b y t h e
s d ry e ll, (b)
tr ans m itted ov e r t h e sm all- ire ir ui an d (c) conver ted in o soun d b y t h e
e le ri b ell . Figs 52 . an d 53 also sh ow exam ples of is genera ion -
rans

v v u
m ission -
and - on version idea .

y u v yu u fi
”
96 Pote ntial m e ans el e ct r ic al l e el as t h e w or d le el is se d

ug
.

in h dr a lic s and c on enientl s bstit t ed for t h e inde nit e

is

gu g qu
”
t er m e le ct r ic al c on dit ion (Pot ent ial m ay b e t h o h t of as
.

anal o o s t o : ( 1 ) pr essur e of ase s (2 ) h ead or level of li ids ,

Push But ton

t t ct c ct c
f lecfnc
'

FI G 59 —G e n er a ion an d m ission of e l e r i al to an e l e ri b e ll

y y
. . r an s e n er gy .

and

Hy
t o flow —
(3 ) temper atur e of h e at

u g .

fr om point s of hi h er pot ential t o poin ts of l ow er pot en

)
t ends —
Ele ctric it al w a s flows or

v
tial .

l e el c auses w at er t o flow
,

u uv g y
dr aul ic pr ess r e or h e ad due t o differ enc es of w at er
Pr ess r es ( olt a es Ar t 102 ) due
,

u v
. .
, ,

t o differ e nc es in el e ctric al pot ent ial c a se ele ctricit t o flow

v gg
.

D iffer enc es in el e ct ric al pot ential s can b e m e as r e d in ol t s (Ar t

g y
.

If t h e differ e nc e of pot e nt ial ( or ol t a e Ar t 1 20 ) b e

u u
.
,

t w ee n t w o point s is re at t h er e w ill be a reat t ende nc t o

pr od c e a flow of c rr e nt b e t w ee n th em

qu g
fer e nc e is sm al l t h er e w ill b e l ittl e t enden c
yy y
If t h e pot e ntial dif
If t h eir pot e ntial s
.

g
.
,

ar e e al t h er e w ill b e no t e nde n c

u u
.
,

In de alin w it h h e at it is ne c e ssar t o adopt som e st ar t in or

u v y ug
r e fe r e n c e point for t h e m e as r e m e nt of t e m pe r at res

zg vz
b e e n ni e rsall a r ee d t h at in t h e c e nti r ade s st e m w e w ill
c all t h e t e m pe rat r e of fr ee in w at er er o
” —
g
It h as

t e m pe r at r e for
y u “
.

no ot h er r easons exc ept t h at it is c on enient and t h at t h e t hing

62 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ ART 9 7

ku z
.

ta e n as er o t
po e n tial and it is t h e s andar d r efe r e n e
t c po e n t t ial

c th cc ct t t
nl e ss o th er w ise st at e d .

m ust
NO TE
be t t
— Sin

at w
ct t h t t tht tt
the
e the
sam e
e ar

po
is, in gener al,
en ial M ud,.
a good
a er , ro

all i
ondu

t c
ks, m oun
h
or, all por
ains ,

tht t c
ions of it
v all eys and
’
s surfa e

t t t th c vt tt v
t h e lik e m ay affe his som ew a , so a po n s on t e e ar

This differe n e of ial at

th h th t t
m ay n ot be at exactly the sam e po e n ial .
po en

diffe r en d oes in e rfe r e wi its on enien ce as a s an d ard For

poin s not .

a or oug e ar or ground conn ec ion conn e c to som e ex ens i e unde r

gr ound piping sys e m .

1 Diff e r e nc e in Le v e l - Valv e Closed -

No Flow

11 Le v e ls Eq ualii eol - Valve Ope n No Flow

GOA — Pr od u ct c t w t h cc c t
Ill Pump Maintainin g Diffe r e nce in Lev e l C ur re n t Flowing

W v
FI G . ion of a ur r e n of a er in a y dr aul i ir ui .

97

u ug u
.

Are C onne cte d b y

h e ne er Tw o Point s
a u
ug u g
C ond t
c or , a
at D ifi e r e nt Ele ctric Pot e ntial s
t ransfe r en c e of ele ctric it oc
u y
c

u g
rs

if by any
th ro h the
s
c on d ct or
it ab l e arr an e m en

y
, pr od
t (Fig
cin an e l e

GOA
ctric c
sh ow s
rr e n t
an an al o
. B ut
gy )

y u
.

s c h as a t
ener a or or a b att e rt h e differ e n c e of pot e nt ial b e

uu
— t h e c rr ent — is
m aint ain e d c onst ant the flow of el e ct ric it

vg v y g vfi y
,

c ont in o s

v
.

9 7A Th e T e rm s Positi ti e Polarit ore Pol ar it and Ne a

u y
.

Positi e Te rm inal and Ne ati e Te rm inal ar e b est de n e d on t h e

fl
b asis of t h e c onc e pt of pot e nt ial
g
An el e ct ric c r r e nt al w a s
ows fr om a point of h i h er pot e nt ial t o a point of l ow er pot e ntial
.
SE C 3] F U NDAM E N TAL I DE AS 63

v
.

A
( t
r . t his th at t h e positi e pole or t er
It follow s fr om
m inal PD ( t h at is t h e bindin post t o w hi c h t h e lin e w ir e is con ggy v g v '
'

ug v fl v
, ,

n e ct e d ) of an el ect ric al e ner

,
d eli erin de ic e (D Fig 60B )
- -
, .
,

is t h e t e rm inal fr om w hi c h t h e c rr ent ow s fr om t h at d e ic e

v g gyu fl
t o t h e e xt e r n al c ir c uit and it s n e ati e t er m in al ND is t h e one
int o w hi c h t h e c rr e n t ow s fr om t h e ext ern al cir c it
e rgy r e c ei in
-
or e ner
For en
c ons m in de ic es t h e positi e t er -
u g vu fl u , ,

v
uu fl g v
,

mi nal PR is t h e one int o w h ic h t h e c r r ent ow s fr om t h e

u
, ,

e xt e r nal c ir c it an d t h e ne at i e t er mi nal NR is t h e one fr om , ,

c ct c t ct c w tth t
w hi c h t h e c r r ent ow s t o t h e e xt ernal c ir c it .

tc w ch t t ct
NO TE — Sin
ve
e, Art 3 6C , t h e
.

ve
el e ron

wh t
urr en

deliv e rin g d e vi
a ually flo s fr om ne ga

t
iv e

c tt wh ch t ct
t o posi i , t h e posi i e rm in al of a e is t h e t e rm in al of a

d e vi iv e

t th
e in t o hi the ele r on s re all y flow , il e t h e n e ga e rm in al of

deliv e rin g d e v i e is t h e e rm in al out of

t t ct c t
a i t h e el e rons flow .

NG T E — R efe r t o Ar s 1 1 2 an d 552 for t h e d e fini ion of t h e posi iv e dir e c

.

ion and t h e ne ga i ve dire ion of urr en . See Art 20 3 for t h e m e

. od of

FI G tt t t t
60 B t t tt t
—
Ill us rain g t h e m e a ning of posi i ve an d n ega iv e e r m in a s l

tt t t t t t
. .

d e no es v
posi i e e r m i n als an d ne g a ive e r m i n al s ) .

de e r m inin g

n e ga iv e c
t ct t t
polari ie s
tt
In Art
pol ari ie s as t h e erm s
5 2 1 t h e m e an in g of positiv e
. . 3 34 fi n d
ar e applie d

an d n e ga iv e dir e
an e xpl an a

to ell s and

ion of r o a
ion
ba
of posi iv e and
e ries

ion is
In Ar t .

explain ed
.

u
u uy g
.

g v
9 8 Atm osph e ric Ele ctric ity

y y g g tm osph ere (th at is t h e

min t e par t ic les of ases apors an d ot h er m att er c om posin it )
.
—Th e a ,

y
,
“ ”
s rr o n din t h e ear t h is al w a s el e ctric all c h ar ed th at is it

H v v
is al w a s in a st at e of el e ct ric st r ess Th is c on dit ion is possibl
due t o som e ext ent t o t h e e apor at ion fr om t h e oc e ansan d ot h er
.
, ,

g v y g gy u y u g g
b odies of w at er ow e er it h as b een sh own t h at t h e e art h
.

(w hich is n e ati el c h ar e d) is c ontin all disc h ar in in to t h e

,

qu u g g fi u
,

qu
at m osph e r e w hi c h is an exc e e din l

u
of dis c h ar e t h ou h in ni t esim al for a sv poor c on d ctor This rate
ar e foot or e en a
.

v
,

ar e m il e of t h e e art h s s r fac e h as b een c om p t e d t o be a

’
s

u y u
,

c onst an t c rrent of o e r am p (Ar t 1 22) for t h e ent ir e

u y g v y vy v
. .

No satisfact or explan ation as t o t h e so r c e of

’
e ar t h s s rfac e .
v

this s ppl of ne ati e el e ctricit h as b een ad an c ed In .

fact , t h e ph enomenon of at m osph eric el e ct ricit h as ne er

64 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ ART 9 9

u g g y
.

bee n e xplain e d . Th t n der an d li h t nin s or m s ar e , in som e w ay

t c t c tv t c c t t t h
or ot h er , assoc iat e d w it h at m osph eric ele ct ric it .

ch c t t w tt t
NGTE — Observ e rs h ave
as 2 0 v ol ts b e t een poin s a foo apar
diffe ren e of po en ial of
n o ed in er ain

v t ch
ases a

ct
w th t h
as m u er i all y in t h e a m osp e re .

th th tv
A diffe ren e of po e n ial as gre a as 2 00 ol ts pe r ft h as been re ord ed . .

Usuall y, in fine ea er, t h e a m osp ere is posi iv ely

tv
arge d in re l a ion t o

Dur ing rainy w ea er it is usually ne ga i e b ut m ay be

’
t h e e ar s surface .

posi i e .

u u g yg
Th e Aurora Bor e alis (Nort h ern Ligh t s) and th e Aur or a
99 .

A str alis (So th e rn Li h t s) ar e ph enom ena w hi c h ar e ob ser e d v

(Fig 6 1 )
is,
th ey
.

n e ar

y
are seen o
alm os ni t
t h e t w o poles of t h e
cc asionall .
e ar th . Fu rt h er
g y
h tl w it hin t h e Ar ctic and An tar ctic c ir c les, t h at
fr om t h e poles
aw a

Th e nor t h ern li h t s and t h e so t h ern u

FI G 61 — Th e Aurora Bor ealis or Nor th ht

ern Lig

g qu y u
. . s.

li h t s
Fr e
g
e ntl
appear ph
t o be t h e
en om e n a e xc ept as t o

t h e A r or a appe ars as a n m b er of dim str ea s or

l ocsam e
at ion

ug k .

k k
'

st re am s of pal e li h t Th er e m ay b e a tin e of r e d or ot h er c olors

u g fl g
.

in t h e st r eam s Th e st r e a s r adiat e int o a fan-li e form as sh own

v W k u v
.

in t h e ill str at ion Ofte n a t rem blin , owin m otion is ob

u
.

se r ab le in t h e st r e a s Th e A ror a som etim es ext en ds o er t h e

g v v
.

e nt ir e sky h en t h e A ror a appears, c om pass needles and

uv
.

—
t ele r aph lines are affe ct e d som etimes o er extensi e areas

g
.

It appear s t h at t h e A r or a oft e n does not affe ct t h e atm osph eric

ele ctric al c onditions o er any port ions of t h e lob e ex epc t th ose
near t h e pole s .

th ct
THE E X PL AN ATI O N
THE O R Y is
by t h e sun .
is : It is b elie v ed
E le r on s
OF

are
thcht ct c t t c t th w
T HE

dis
AU R OR A
a e le

arged
O N THE
rons are
B ASIS
ons an

by all incandes
O F TH E

ly be ing
en b odies
E LE C T R O N
ro

.
noff
This
 t ct th c t t t t c c th
se c 3 ]
. F UNDAM E N TAL I DE AS 65

s re am

t h
of ele

w ch v
n

th
ro s re all y ons i u es a supe r-e norm ous st re am of

va —
tht th
lik e th tw ch a od e

t h
rays ( Art . Ca od e r ays are v isib le in a par ial uum a hi
hi el ops th e — b ut v isi

c th t t t c th th
sur r oun ds t he a m osp ere en ear ey are not

b le in t h e a Th e Aur ora, it is likely, is due t o s re am s of

m osp e re .
ese

ode r ays e n e rin g t h e poles of t h e ear

th th tc th
a C a od e- r ay st re am s are
.

de flec e d b y a m agne i fi eld This is, pr ob ab ly, t h e re as on w h y t h e r ays

t cc t
.

m agne (Ar t

th c t
appe ar only ne ar t h e poles of t h e e ar . Th e e ar is a . 5 1) an d

its m ag ne i fiel d , so it h as be e n suggeste d , pre v en s t he a ode st r m m s

from approa hing t h e ear e x ep ne ar its pol es .

 SEC TION 4

C URRENTS O F ELECTRIC IT Y
uu u
1 00 Ele ctricity in M otion Is C alle d an Ele ctric Curr e nt
.

g
Ele ctric c rrent s are of im m ense c om m er c ial im por t anc e som e
.

t t t t t t
of t h eir sef l propert ies b ein (see also Fig 4) .

me t chc ctt t t h t c ct
(a) Th eir abili y to ransm i pow e r, al m os ins an ane ously, al ong

t t t ttt
alli on du ors of gre a l engt .

t
( b) T eir abili y t o m agne iz e iron and s eel w h en ondu ed around t he
me al ; See Ar t 2 04,

t t t t
em porarily
perm anen ly
“
iron and s eel E lectro . .

”
m agnetism In Fig 62, I a b ar of ir on is sh ow n h a is so m agne iz ed b y a
. .

curre nt of elec rici y in t h e wire w r apped around it h at it suppor s a

w eigh t .

migiiiia
ct c t ct c t
’
fl
qr
II- Re pulsion by Magnet ic Fie l ds
v

— Som e

t t c c
FI G . 62 . e ffe s of ur re n e le ri i y .

ctc ct c c t c th t tt ct thh t c
(0 ) It s abili y m agnetic fi elds (Art 6 1 ) w hi h m ay, ac ording t o
to cre a e

or repel o e r m agne i fi e lds

.

tc cw th t h t th c htct tt c
t h e dire ion of urren flow , e i er a ra .

If t w o ondu ors arrying urren are arrange d as s ow n in Fig .

m agne i fi el ds w ill b e r ea e d ab ou b o

tt c w c ct c t th ht ct
on du ors b y t h e curr e n of ele
t r icit y If t h e l oop i
. the an dl e b e b r ou g n e ar t o t h e piv o e d l oop,

t h e piv o e d l oop ill d e fl e

t c t t c t
I t is r e pe l l e d b y t h e in e r a ion of t h e
.

m agne i fi el ds pr odu e d b y t h e urren s fl ow ing

ct c t t t
r oug t h e t w o l oops .

h c c
This experim en indi a es, in an elem en ary w ay, t h e prin ipl e of opera ion

t h w t t
of t h e el e ri m o or .

c t ct c tt w tt c c t ct w t h
(d) l t s abili y t o gener a e an induced curr ent in a neig b oring ir uit b y it s
ow n v aria ion .If t h e key s o n in Fig b e presse d , an ins an ane ous
.

urre n of e l e ri i y ill b e indu ed in l oop B it s pr e se n e

and ill b e indi
c at ed by a m om en ary flu er of t h e d eli a e m e asuring ins rum e n s ow n .

66
 U or E L E C TRI C I T Y

th tt t ct ct c c t tw
SE C . 4] C R RE N TS 67

Wh en
c w t h e key is re l e ased, ano er ins an ane ous el e ri al urr en

fi rs
ill b e

tct c th t wc ct h ht c t c c
indu ed in B b ut it ill b e in an opposi e dire ion from t h e . Se e Art .

tw t t
45 4 .

( Art 1 55)

c t c t th hth t w
( e) It s ab ili y to ea ondu ors of ig resis an e . t o in an
d escen ce . E le ri i y flo ing in t h e fil am en of arb on or of un gs e n in an

t t t ct ch thc c t
in ande s en l am p ea s it as sh o n in Fig . I and the hi e-h ot fil a
ves for

tct cct t w c ct w t
m en gi lig .

tct tw tct
( 7) It s ab ili y to r ansfer me al b y e le r o- em i al a tion, fr om one of t w o

h t t c
me alli pla es in a ondu ing sol u ion, t o t h e o er pl a e. In Fig . II
i y fl o ing fr om A t o B ill from A

t ct ch c h ct th
e le ri
“
e at me al a ay and deposi it
on B . T is illus r a es t h e prin ipl e ing ( Ar t
of el e r opl a . of el e ro

yping (Art . of el e r olysis of unde rground pipes (Art 383 ) . and of o er

y
el e r o- em i al p en om e n a .

A c u101 .

rr e n
An Ele ctric C urr e nt is
t of w at er in a i
pp e is
el e ct ric it ( ele ctr ons) in motion
w at er in m ot ion in t h at pipe
.

C ond uctors

c t ct c t
I Oene rat ion of Induced Current s
-
1? w Cond uctor II- Elect roche mic al
Transfer of Me tals

FI G 63 — M or e e fi e ct s of el e ri i y

k u y yu
. . urr e n .

Li e w ise , a t of ele ctricit in a w ir e is ele ctr icit (el e ctr ons)

c rr en

gy
anal o

g y u
in m otion in t h at w ir e

ug u
of el e ct ric it

y
In acc or danc e w it h t h e f n dam e nt al
o tline d in Ar t 90 all m att er m ay b e
.

y u
.
,

t h o h t of as b ein perm e at e d or sat r at e d w ith ele ctric it An

v
.

el e ct r ic c urr ent is e st ablish e d w h e n t h is el e ct r ic it is c a se d t o

mo

g
1 02
v
e

v .

u g y
An Ele ctrom oti e For c e or Volta e is t h e n am e

v
u v
mo
ni t
v
w h ic h h as b een
e

y u
-

the
y u
w h ic h
ol t in
dri
i

w h ic h
es
e n t o t h at
or

th e
for c e w hic h
im pels e le ct ric it
ar e m e as r e d ar e
ca
.

disc
ses e l e

E m fs
. .

sse d
.
ct r icit
an d

in de t ail
t he
to

u g u
, ,

in Ar t For t h e pr esent n ot e t h at if an e m f is applie d t o

y y u
.
. . .

a close d or c om ple t e c on d ctin c ir c it , it

( t h e w il l for c e

u u y uu u u v ggu y u
t h e e le ct ricit alr e ad in t h e m e t al or m at e rial of t h at c ir c it t o
c ir c lat e Or flow ar o nd in t h e c ir c it An analo o s ph enom e
non occ rs if a h dr a lic
p m p, w h ic h is d e el opin a h d r a li c
.
68 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u yu u uu y u
. 1 03

pr es

uu
s r e

of w at er
,

uu
is c onne ct ed in t o a h dr a lic c ir c it alr ead f ll
Th e p m p w ill c a se t h e w at er t o c ir c lat e or flow
ar o n d in t h e c ir c i t
.

Th e r es l t is a c r r ent of w at er u u u u
If t h e
or pipe

uv u W
. .

p r e ss r e e xe r t e d b y t h e pu m p is d is c on t in e d t h e c r r e n t of

u
,

w at e r w ill c e ase t o flow ar o nd in t h e pipe c ir c it h en t h e

uv y fl gg
.

so r c e of e m f ( e l e ct r o.m ot i .e f
. or c e ) is d isc o n n e ct e d fr o m an

el e ct r ic c ir c it t h e el e ct ric it w h ic h w as ow in th er ein w ill t h e n

u u vu
,

c e ase t o m o e Th at is th er e w ill th en no l on er b e an el e ctric

g
.
,

c rr e nt It m st now b e ob io s t o t h e r e ader h ow t h e t er m
.

e m f or i inat e d
.

h N
. .

ctct
.

th th t c t c h ch —

c tt t c t
OTE .
-
T h lnl{ of an e . m f . . as som e in g in n
a g ib le m e rely a for e w i
in g lik e t h e for

c
pus es th e ele r ons al on g , som e e e xer e d by a pum p .

Y ou see the effe s of t h e for e an d k now h a it is h e re b ut you anno see

u fi
t h e for e .

G 1 03 .

e n e r al D i ision s
— vy
Al l Ele ctric C rre nt s M ay B e Classi
An ele ct ric c rr ent w as de
W v
u yfi v
ed

ned
into Th r e e
in Ar t 101

v ug u
.

as el e ctricit in m otionctric it is m o e d th en h ene er e le

y
.

t h is m o e m ent c onstit t es an ele ctric c rr ent Th ere ar e as

y v
.
,

w ill b e sh ow n in foll ow in ar t ic le s t h r e e w ell defi ne d t pe s or -

u y
,
,

c lasses of el e ct ric it m o e m ent It follow s t h erefor e t h at t h ere .

, ,

m ay b e t h r ee diff e r en t sor t s of ele ct ric c rr ent s Th e ar e : .

( a) C onducti on curr ents .

(b) Displace m en t currents

u
.

( c) Convecti on currents

k
.

Th ese t h r e e diffe r e nt sor t s m ay be f r t h er c lassifi e d int o sub

u
classes as d es c r ib e d in Art s 1 1 0 t o 1 1 6 Th e t h ree differ ent inds
of c rr en t s a b an d c ar e t ab lat e d ab o e in t h e or der of t h eir
.

u .

vk
g y u
, , ,

pr ob ab le im por t an c e t o r eader s of t h is b oo E ac h is t r e at e d in

u
.

a f ollow in ar t icle Th e in t ensit of any ele ct ric c rr ent can

uu u uu
.

b e m e as red in am per es, Ar t 1 22

u
. .

1 04 A C ond c tion C rr e n t is an el e ctric c rr ent w h ic h w ill

u g
.

flow in c ond ct or w hi c h form s a

a closed cir c it if som e so r c e

uv u u u
, ,

of e m f is in ser t e d in t h at c ir c it As lon as t h e e m f is im

uu
. . . . . . .

p esse d on t h e c ir c it t h e c on d ction c rr ent will flow

r Wh en
u k
.

t h e e m f is r e m o e d t h e c rr en t w ill c ease A w at er c rr ent in

u u u H u
. . . .
,

a pipe c ir c it , Fig 5 2 m a b l i e n e d t o an el e ct r ic c on d ct ion

y e

u u
.
,

c rrent in an el e ctric c on d ct or Fig 53

, en c e any c rr en t in

u
. .
, ,

a c ond ct or is a c on d ct ion c rr ent It follow s t h at m ost of t h e

uv u
.

el e ct ric c rr ent s w it h w h ic h t h e act ic a l m an d l on d u c

p r e a s ar e c

tion c rr ent s sinc e m ost of t he c rrent s in whic h h e is int erest ed

are c on ey ed by w ires .
70 P R AC TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T . 1 0 4A

I Fir st ins t ant II Se cond Inst ant

llI Th ird lnst ant N Four t h lnst omf

‘
‘

h w t ctc t t w
t ct h c ct wtw t t t tct
V Fif h Inst ant YI Six l nsf q nt

c tt
FI G 63 B — S o in g h ow t h e el e r ons pass fr om a om t o a om in flo in g

t t t h wt ct t t w
. .

h r oug a on d u or ( I n I n o ur r e n t is flo in g C ur r e n s ar s in I I and

t ct c t t ct c ct h
. .

e le r ons M , N an d 0 ar e for e d t o r ansfe r b e e e n a om s T h e e l e r on s O f t h e

ct
.

d iff e r e n a om s ar e s o n b y d iff e r e n sy m b ol s in t h e pi ur e so h a it il l b e

t tc ttw t t h t tc th
e asie r t o u n d e r s an d j u s h ow t h e r a ns fe r — urr e n flo w — k
a e s pl a e A u all y ,

ct
.

v
s o it is b e l ie e d all e l e r ons a r e e x a k
l y ali e I n I I I , e l e r ons M an d N a e v

t c t w
, .

assu m e d e m por ar il y , posi ion s in t h e a om s B u t , an ins an l a e r o e r

Q
.
, ,

ele r on s P ,
, an d R ar e for e d al on g b e e e n t h e a om s . T is pr o e ss c on
innes as l ong as t h e urr e n o s)fl .
 C URRE N TS OF ELE C TRI C I T Y

cthv tw t t h h h tt c
SE C . 4] 71

tM e

t th
re ei e w i h his righ h and a b all from h is b or on t h e righ , ea h
n eig
an d t o h is n e ig b or on h is l ef on e

h ch w th c t h
of t h e o er b oys oul d sim ul ane ously

c t h w
of t h e b alls an d at the sam e t im e F w ould b all from b ox D
'

a e ano er .

T us, ea b oy al ays h as fi I/e b alls So l on g as t h e b oys

. on in u e d an din g

flo

hth t wh ct w c ct ctc wh t
b aseb alls al on g t h e lin e , e re w ould b e a urren of t h e sp e re s in g fr om
D to E .

T us ile u rr en t flo s in t he ondu or , t h e pr o e ss is som e a sim il ar

to a su gge s ed in Figs 63 A, . and 63 B . Th e el e rons are , as l ong as t h e

t ct t t wh c t th t c t
ct c ct
FI G 6 3 C ~—B oys in a r ow passin g b ase b all s fr om on e t o ano
. . er ( an al ogous
v
t o t h e m o e m e n of e l e r ons fr om a om t o a o m e n a urr e n O f el ec ri i y
r ons— flow s in a

c h t t c t ct t h t c ct
el e ond u or ) .

fl ow s

t th t ct c ct h th th th
u rre n ,
b eing ransferred b e w een t h e a om s in t h e ondu or .
W en an a om r e e i v es an el e r on from it s n e ig b or on one side , it at t he
im e giv es up an ele r on t o it s n eig b or on t h e o e r side

th c c
sam e Sim ul .

t an e ousl y o er a om s in t h e on du or ar e d oing t h e sam e ing, an d ey

t th
c an do is, pr ob ably, onl y b e ause the str uctur e of ondu ctor materials is
suc h

. h c t
W
th at the atoms
en

flow of b aseb all

the
c t ch s rin g of b oys

urren
can par t r eadi ly wi th thei r
in Fig 63 0 passed t h e b as eb alls t o on e an o
.

from D t o E w as due t o t h e m us ul ar effor s

constituen t electr ons .

e r,

of e a
th e

— P neu m a i tc t ct c t
t ct c ct c c t
FI G . 63 D . an al ogy to a n e g at i ev and a posi i ve el e ri fi a ion .

tc
b oy in t h e s rin g

c ct
.

c
But in t h e ase of th e
t ct t t c ct
ele ri urr en of Fig 63 A, II.

cw hc c t ct wh t th t
t h e r an sfe r of el e rons is n ot d ue t o t h e e ffor s of t h e a om s . Th e ele rons

iv e for

ct t th t t
are for e d al ong the on du or be ause of the el e r om o e applied

AB fr om A t o B in som e

t chc t w th c c c
T for ed th e sam e
I 1
a r oss . ey ar e a w ay a

c
air oul d b e for ed fr om a an on aining om presse d air ( Fig . 63 D )
va k

t h w c tt
in o one on ain in g a uum . It ould be s a ed a th e an T I is n e ga
t iv ely ar ge d i air be ause t h e pr essure of t h e air in it is in e x ess of

t h e pressure of t h e surr oun din g a mosp e re . lik e ise it ould be s a ed t h at

 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y

tth t t ch ch t th
72 [ AR T . 1 0 4B

an k T2 is posi iv ely ar ge d b e ause t h e air in it is at a l esse r pr essur e an

u
a O f t h e su rr oun d in g a m osp ere .

ab l y u
1 043 .

u u y gv v y y v g
Th e Spe e d Or Ve locity of
c h l ow er th an is s all im a ined Th e
m
u
a C ond ction C urr e nt is pr ob
m o in e le c
,

y v u uv y g u u
.
,

t r ons w h ic h c onstit t e t h e c ur r ent m o e e r sl ow l *

per h aps
“
,
”
onl se e r al in c h es pe r m i n t e Th e spe e d of a c rr ent sh o l d

u ug qu v y g
.

not b e c onf se d w it h t h e el oc it of pr opa at ion of el e ct r ic im

p l se s t h r o h sp a c e w hi c h is e al t o t h e el,
oc it of l i h t or

ctct c c
NO TE ctct cc c t c ch th t tth
m il es per se c on d
—I t quires b ut a sm all fra
.

t t tt ct
. re ion of a se on d for a signal r ansm i ed

thc ctct c t t
tth w th ttt t t th t h c
el e r i ally fr om one e n d of an e l e ri ir ui t o re a the o er e n d . T is
fra ion of a se on d is t h e im e in er val r e quired for ge in g t h e el e ron s in
Wi

tt t t w t t w t t th h ht
a ir ui in omo ion . An an al og ous si u a ion is his : th e yd rauli
v al

wt c c t v w
ir ui of Fig . er e oul d b e b ut a s or im e in er , af e r t h e pum p
w as s ar e d , b efore t h e a er mo or ould s ar al oug t h e pum p mig

u fl
be ro a ing and t he a er in t h e ir ui m o ing v ery sl o ly .

1 05 .

u g
A D isplac e m e nt C urr e nt is
t ar il y in a diel e ct ric or ins l atin
a c rr e n

m at erial w h e n
t w hi c h ow s

an e
m om en
m f is

g y W
. . .

im pr esse d c
a r oss t h at m at erial or w h e n an e m f im pr esse d on

k u g u
. . .

t h e m at e rial is c h an e d in int e nsit h en an e m f is im pr esse d

u g y
. . . .

c
a r oss a b loc of an ins l atin s b st anc e a ch argi ng or capaci ty

c rr e n

R e fe rr in u
t w ill
gyy flflow m om e nt ar il
c ell st r ct ure analo of Fig 54 an im pr essed
to the -
in t h e dir e ct ion of t h e e . m f . .

u g v u
.
,

el e ct r ic for c e w ill for c e t h e el e ct r ic it ui d in t h e c ells t o shift

shiftin y flu
u u
T h e el e ct ric it
u u
nt il t h e el as tic r e act ion of t h e c ell w alls pr e e n t s any f r t h er

v g
id in t h e c ells is t h s displ ac e d or

u
.

m o e d — and t his c onst it t es a displ ac e m e nt c rr ent So l on

y k u g
.

as t h e im pr esse d e m f is c ont in e d w ith o t v ar iat ion in in

. . .
,

t e nsit ac ross t h e bl oc of ins l atin m ate rial t h e c ell w alls

u fl Wy y flu flu g g
, ,

w ill r e m ain in t h e st r esse d position B ut t h e displ ac e m ent .

c rrent ows onl w h en t h e el e ct ricit id is shiftin or b ein

displ ac e d
u vu h e n t h ere is no displ ac e m ent of t h e
no displ ac e m e nt c rr e nt
.

y u
B ut now if t h e im pr esse d e m f is
id t h ere is

g u y flu g uu g
. . . .
, ,

r emoved t h e w all s w ill b ir t e o f t h i l a t ic it r e t r n t o t h e ir

y e r e s

v
, , ,

ori inal nst r esse d posit ions A ain t h er e w o ld b e a shiftin

uH g g k
.
,

of el e ct ri c it id b ut t hi s t im e it s dir e ct ion w o l d b e t h e r e erse

m at erial en c e u
of t h at occ rr in w h e n t h e e m f w as im r essed on t h e b loc
p
a ain t h ere w o l d b e a displ ac e m e nt cur
. o f . .

u vu v
.
, ,

r ent — b ut in t h e O pposite dir e ct ion A c onsider ation of t h e .

sit at ion wil l r ender it ob io s t h at w h ene er t h er e is a chan e in

g
NATURE M ATT E R
g
e m st ock an d T r ol and , THE OF A ND E L E CTRI CITY . D Van Nostr a nd . .
SE C 4] C U RRE N TS OF E LE C TRI C I T Y 73

y u
.

t h e int e nsit of im pr esse d e . m f . . a displ ac e m e nt c rr e n t w ill

tch c cht wh ch w whc t c t

flow .

c E I AM P LE
— Th e m om en ar
.

(Art 7 53 ) is
y

tc t tc t c tth c
urr en i flo s en a pe rm it t or or

t ct t c
on d ense r . arged or dis arged is a displ a e m en urr en .

N — For

tctwc c whwh ch t tch c

OTE . an al ern a ing e . m f
. .
(Art . 429 ) ere m ay b e a orr espon di n g

tc c
al e rna ing displ a e m en urren . For a on inu ous (Art 1 08 ) t he .

displ a em e n u rr e n ill b e z e r o en t he st ress in t h e

“
st re ed
”
diele

v u
ri b al an es t h e el e ri for e t o i t he s r ain is due .

v
106 .

t h e m o e m en t of el e ct r icit — e l e ct r ic all

ug y y y g
ction C ur r ent s ar e th ose c r r ent s w hic h ar e due t o
C on e

c h ar e d part ic les
g
v u g
i l — t h r o h ele ct r ol t es (Art 3 3 5) an d ases
( o s)
n or e e ct ons
r

uyv u fiu
. .

An exam pl e of a c on e ction c r r ent is t h e flow of c h ar e d

p

fl
a rt ic l es in m e r c r apor l am ps an d r e ct i er s

1 07 ADire ct C urr e nt is a ni dir e ct ional c rr e nt ; one th at al w a s

.

ow s in t h e sam e di r e ct ion (see Fig u u

S c h a c rr e nt m ay
y .
.

FI G 64 — G r ap h c t ct c t
of a. inuous dir e

vy u y uu u yu g
. . on ur r e n .

ar in int e ns it
(am pe r es) b ut m st alw a s flow t h e sam e w ay

v g v
.

A dire ct c rr ent m ay b e c ontin o s or p lsat in or c onst ant .

hw c t
Re ad Ar t 1 12 Positi e an d Ne at i e Dir e ct ions
.
,
”
.

u u y u g
Em m a — Figs . 64, 65 an d 66 all s o graphs of dir ec t urre n s .

cu u 1 08 A C ontin o
r r e nt— a
.

cuu r r en t t h at
s

yfl g g
C ur r e nt is
al w a s

v
a s e adt
ow s
,

in
or non- p

one
lsatin
dir e ct ion
dir e ct
Th e

uy vu
.

dir e ct c r r en s t se d for com m erical li h tin and pow er se r ic e

ar e

b ut
gu y dir e ct
th e
c
al w a s
rr en s

vuy
t .

flow in t h e
Th eir

u u y
am pe r e

y
sam e dir e ction
al es m ay
an d
n ot

t h e ar e non pul
be c onst ant
-

uu u
”
sa tin . Ob io sl ,
a
“
c ontin o s e . m f . . is ne c essar for t h e

t t c ch c t cc tt h
pr od ction of a c ont in o s c rr e nt .

c t E XAMPL E
values
.
— Fig

thch . 64 ill us

t
ra es

th h
t h e gr ap of a on in uous
k
urre n . Th e

tt cw t h h ct
urr e n an ge fr om se on d t o se ond m a in g t h e urre n gr ap

th
irr e gul ar but e re ar e no r e gul ar pul sa ions in it as ere ar e in t h e gr ap of
Fig 65. In Fig 64, at differe n im es t h e urre n is
. . as ig as 1 00 am p an d .

at o e rs it is as l ow as 20 am p , . b ut it is al ays in t h e sam e dire ion .

74 P R AC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ ART 1 0 9

u u
.

u v gy g g
1 09 .

t im e w it h n ar uu
A C onstant C
in
t is one t h at c ontin es t o flow for som e
rr e n

st r en t h A c onst ant c rr ent m ay b e

u uu u
.

eit h e r al t e r nat in or dir e ct A dir e ct c onst ant c rr ent is also

.
,

h w h ct c t t c t w ch
of c o rse a c ont in o s c r r e nt .

c t c t t c c t ht t t c c t th ct
EX AMP L E .
— Fig
v alue
. 66 s o s t h e gr ap of a dire , ons an urren in hi

t t c t
the urr e n is ons an ly 80 am p . C ons an urre n s are use d c om
m e r cial ly for se rie s ar e and in andes en lig in g se r v i e — bo dire and
al e rn a in g urr e n .

65 — G r ap ct t c th
u gg uu gu yy v y yg uu
FI G . . of a d ir e , pul sa in g urr e n .

c u uk
1 10
t
rr e n
. A P l satin
. P l sat in
C t is a r e l arl
rr e n

c rr ents ar e r ar el
ar

e m pl o
in
ed
orc on tin o s
in pr act ic al

t t c t
el e ct ric al w or .

tht t th t wt th
EX AM PL E —
htt ct ct c v t t cc cc tt
Pr ob ab ly t h e m os fam iliar exam ple of a pul sa ing urren is
.

fl o s roug an ele ri ib ra ing b ell ir ui (Art c

c tc c h t c c c t
a a Ea h .

im e t h e ar m a ure is a r a e d t o t h e m agne t h e ir ui is b rok en an d t h e

urr e n e ase s t o flow

pl et ed an d t h e urren fl ow s again
. t
.

c t t c t
W en t h e arm a ure flies b a k t h e ir ui is com
This pr odu es a ru e pulsa in g urren .

h ct c t tc t
ct c c c t hw t c t
‘

FI G . 6 6 — G r ap
. for a dir e ons an urr e n .

wh ch tt
in t h e
i
t
ele

t
ri

ains a
b ell
v alue
ir ui . Fig 65 .

c t c cc
s

v
o s

c
tt w c c tw th t
t h e graph of a pulsa ing urren

t tt c t
a of 1 00 am p e e ry sec , an d d e re ases t o 60 am
. .

p .

e very se c . If w e s ar at 3 o lo
’
k t he urr e n in t h e ir ui ould at a
ins an b e 60 am p .
, at se c . af er 3 the urr en oul d b e 1 00 am p , at
.

y g u g u
se c . af e r 3 the urre n w oul d again b e 60 am p , and so on
. .

pe r
111
iodi
cyg u g
all

Osc illat in
. An O sc illator
al e r na
t t in in
c rr e nt s are
or O sc illatin
dir e ct ion
sel dom
C

u
rre n

and of de c r e asin am plit de

c
en o n e r e d t
t
is one w h ic h is

by t h e c entral
.
SE C U 4] C RRE N TS OF ELE C TR I C I T Y 75

u g y u
.

s a

o f u
g g ug g y g u v
dis u — u
t tion m an d rin norm al O peration Th e m ay occ r at tim es
t b a c es w h en c ir c its ar e ope ned and c lose d and d ring
r n

li h t ni n st orm s Li h t ni ng disc h ar e c rr e nt s h a e b ee n ge n -
.

g
.

e rally t h o h t t o b e osc ill at or in c h ar act e r b ut th er e i s now a

h w h c t c t
diffe r e n c e of O pinion in r e ar d t o t his point .

th t h t t c c
EXA MP LE — Fig 67 s
imagine a t h e grap t c t . . o

s ar
s t h e gr ap of an os ill a ing urre n
’
s at 2 o l o At k sec af e r 2 a
.
Suppose w e
urre n of .
.

h ct — Gr ap c t
wt cc c t tc t ct
FI G . 67 . of an os ill a ing ur r e n .

t t c
1 00 am p . is flo

c t w
ing in t h e ir ui in a or posi ive di re

v ct
ion
fl owing
. At sec .

tt c ct t
af e r 2 the urr en h as de re ase d to z e r o an d no ur r e n is . At
verse d and is flo

th
se c . af e r 2 t he urr e n is re in g in a or ne gati e di re ion
an d value At

ct t c t t ct th t t c
it s is 80 am p . se c . af er 2 the urre n is again z er o . At
flow ing in ive dire v alue

t
sec . af er 2 it is a or posi ion an d it s is 60
am p verse

c tw h c c t
. T us t h e u rr e n on inues t o re in dir e ion and de re ase in
value un il ab ou se c . af e r 2 it h as die d dow n t o z ero — a is h e re is no
urre n flo in g . T is is an exam ple of an os ill atin g urre n .

h cc t t c t
0 30 60 90 120 I50 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 30 60 90 I20 150

— Gr ap

M gW v gv
FI G . 68 . of a 2 5- y le al e r n a in g ur r e n .

1 12 e anin of Positi e Dir e ction ”

an d
“
Ne a ti e

g u
.

D ir e ction ” — h en w e say t h at “
a cu rr ent is flowing in a

vv g v
.

”
positive, (or this h as nothin t o do w it h
n egative, dir ection
positi e an d n e ati e pol arities

v g vu
Any dir e ction c an b e ass m e d
as posit i e t h e n t h e opposit e dir e ct ion w ill b e ne ati e If t h e
.

gg v u
u g
, .

posit i e dir e ct ion is ass m e d t o b e fr om l eft t o r i h t in a c on d e

k
s all
g g
t or t h en t h e n e at i e dir e ct ion in t h at c ond ct or is from r i h t

uu y u
,

t o l eft
vu
Li e w ise in pl ott in
.

ass m e d t h at t h e
r aph s li e t h at of Fig 68 it is
,

al e s of t h e c r r e nt s t h at ar e flow
ku .
,
76 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

vv u u v z
. 1 13

ing in

g v u
( )
0 l in e w hil e
a

al es of c
(ass m e d) ar e plott e d ab o e t h e er o
posit i
rr e n
e dir e ct ion
ts t h at ar e ow in in t h e opposit e
or n e at i e dir e ct ion ar e pl ott e d b el ow t h e e r o line (Se e also
u flz g .

thB t cw t w t c c ctt th
se c on d not e nder Art 9 7 A ) . .

th
c tt w
from A h
EX AM P LE

urr e n
t flo
r oug
.
—If w e

in g in t h e
assum e

t h e m o or t o
O pposi e t tctv th t cct c t B t
a

is
dire
a

flo
urre n
in g in
ion in
flo
a
ing in t h e
posi i
a
ve or
ir ui , or
dire
ir ui

fr om
of

ion ,
Fig 69

hr ough
en a
.

t h e m o or t o A, is fl ow in g in a nega i e or dire ion .

t t t c tc c t — Am m e

g u v
FI G . 69 . er in a n al e r n a in g - ur r e n ir ui .

gu fly vu
1 13
at r e
.

y g u
l ar in t e r al s
g y
An Alte rnatin
fi t is one t h at r e erses it s dire ction
(Alt er natin c rr en ts w ill b e onl de ne d
C rr e n

k fi u u y k
.

an d b rie disc sse d h er e ; t h e ar e t r e at e d at l e n t h in Se c 4 1

u z v u g g vg z g
.

of t his b oo ) Or t o b e m or e spe c i c : it is s all t a e n as a

.

c rr ent w hich r e e r ses in dir e ction at r e ul ar int er als in c r easin

u fl g u
,

fr om e r o t o it s m axim m st r en t h an d de c r easin t o er o w ith

fl g
t h e c rr en t ow in

y g in on e dir e ct ion an d t h e n w it h t h e c rr ent

owin in t h e O pposit e dir e ct ion sim il arl in c r e asin t o a m axi ,
,

0 008 Q
0” Q
OZS
29
O
(1004
t
zo rfo
'
OOIS
st o
0 021
zt é
o
9
m
0

cc w t t h t
0 90 180 270 360 90 [ 80 270 360 90 I8O 270 360 90 I8O
‘

— G r ap — ave

g g z u u
FI G . 70 . of a 60 y le sin e for m al e r n a in g c urr e n .

m um
r apidl y v yy u
ar
and a ain

u g g u
decr e asin
c rr e nt c ontin es t o
t h s in dir e ction and in str en th (60 tim e s a se c ond
to er o . Th e

g y -

vg u y u v
for a 60 c cl e Art 683 c ir c it ) as l on as t h e c ir c it r e m ains
,
.

cl ose d Fi s 68 and 7 0 sh ow r espe cti el t h e c r es of a 25 c c l e

. .

(Ar t 683) an d a 60 c cl e al t e rn atin c rr ent b ot h pl ott e d t o t h e

.
-
,

, ,
-
y
h w h c ct
sam e sc al e .

al te rn a

dire
t-
c
EX AMPL E — Fig
t c c
in g-
urre n
t h
u rr e nc c
e le
c
ct c ct ct ctt c c c tt t c t c t c th ch c
.

t .

c ri
ir
ir
and

ui s

ui
.

.
II
Th e
s

As t h e
o

yd r auli
y d r auli

e n rifugal
ir ui
anal ogie s

at

pum p, w i
I
of dire
orr espon ds t o a.

orre sponds
and

t o a dir e -
urr en genera or, ope r a es, it re a es a on inuous pre sem
 [ AR T

tt t ttt c t c t t
78 PR AC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y . 1 14

b ra e as t h e al e rn a in g urre n pr odu es at the fil am en m agne ic poles of

G g
al e rn a in g pol ari y .

qu y
70
1 14 .

Th e c uv u g u
r aph s Of

r es
Al ternating Curr e nt s ar e sh own in Fi
of c rr en s t e n o n er e d
c t in practic e ar e fre
s . 68 and

u vu g u u qu gu
.

en tl m or e or l ess ir r e ul ar as sh ow n in Fig I I I and

vvg
.

IV . Th e c r es of c rr ent s pr od c ed b yol d fashione d r e

th e -

ol in -
ar m a t re e ne r at ors w er e Oft e n it e irre l ar How .

0 l
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 |0 ll 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
1 “
Second s Curv e I Seconds Curv e II

’
.

‘
f1
>

h t t c t C urv e III
E 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Cur v e IY

FI G 7 3 — G r ap s of al er n a in g ur r e n s.

v g u g u u v
. .

e er

u ,

k g gt in c rr ent ener at ors pr od c e c r es t h at

m odern al er na t
ar e al m ost t r e si ne curves (Ar t 1 1 6) li e t h ose of F i s 68 an d 70
-

v g
. . .

1 1 5 Furth e r Expl anation of an Alt e rnatin C urr e nt — It is so

gu u y gu y
.

e sse nt ial t h at t h e r eade r h a e a ood c on c e pt ion of w h at an al t er

nat in c rrent r eall is t h at t h e follow in s ppl em ent ar ex

c c t c c c t
p l an a t io n is in c l d ed :

tt th c t t
E X PL AN AT I O N
l am p is fe d b y w tca
.
—C onside r
ba e ry
the
r ou gh a
ir ui of Fig 74 in w hi h t h e in
.

om m u a in g or r e e rsing s v i
andes en

h (four

Incandescent Lamp
(

tt t t c t
II Curr e nt in One Direct ion
‘
1 Current Reversed

h w ch w tch t
FI G . 7 4 — Ill us
. ra in g an al e r n a in g ur r e n .

tt w tchtw w c t w
w ay sn ap or

t t cttt th
flus s it es are form s of r eversing s i es) C urren
ays fl o s fr om t h e
. fr om
Wi
a

th h h w th w tch t
ba e ry al t o t he bin din g pos of t h e b a e ry .

the i urne d as at I t h e urren fl o s in say a posi iv e dire ion fr om A

cth t t th B hth v w t ct
s , ,

cht w tch h t
ar ound r oug t h e l am p t o B . T e n, i t he s i urne d as at 1 1 th e
flo iv e dir e

ctt c t vt th ch tw t h wttch
urren r oug t h e l am p is re e rse d an d n ow s in a n e ga ion ,
a is from rou gh t h e l am p t o A . Ea im e t h e s i is s if ed, t he
dire ion of t h e ur ren r oug t h e l am p is re v ersed . If t h e s i be
shif e d at re gul ar in er als, t h e ur ren ill flow h roug t h e la mp fi rs in one
 U
t ct th th t
SE C . 4] C RRE N TS OF ELE C TRI C I T Y 79

t c
or a posi iv e dire

tch t t
ion for

t
a pe riod and en in t h e o e r or a n e g a iv e dir ec

tc t c t th c ch t w tch t c c t
ion for a pe riod .

Hen e so l ong as t he wi
s is b ein g sh if ed at re gul ar in er v als an al e r

h c t t tw t c ttth h t w ct th t
na ing u rre n w ill flow r oug t h e lam p . If t h e b atte ry is ir ul a ing a
urre n Of 1 am p ar ound
. the ir ui an d the s i is u rne d e v ery 2 se c , t h e .

Bt th B t t t ctB B t
gr ap of the r e sul ing al e rn a in g ur re n r oug t h e l am p ould be a of

Fig; Th e u r re n oul d flow : firs in one (a posi iv e ) dire ion from A

(ne ga ive ) dire ion, fr om A, for t h e

t th t t t ch t wh
to for 2 sec . en in t h e opposi e to
t o A, for t h e n ex 2

w tch t t ct c t ch
ne x 2 se c .
; fr om A to for t h e nex 2 se c ; from
. sec .

and so on . No e, a for an ins an at the e n d of e a 2-sec in e r v al , . il e

v alu e

t w ct th t tht ht t c h t th tth t c t t
t he s i is b e in g shif e d, the u rr en an ge s fr om a m axim um of 1
am p in t h e posi ive d ire ion t o it s m axim um v alue of 1 am p in t h e n e ga
. ,
.

ive d ire ion

t t c tc c t c t w h w
D ur ing is ins an t h e urr e n is 0 (z e r o) ,
. a is, no u rr e n

fl o s durin g is ins an il e t h e gr ap of Fig is a of a .ru e W .

al e rn a in g u rr e n , om m e r ial al e rn at ing u rr e n s al ays av e sin e - v

a e

for m s, Art . 1 77 .

cur vg u v uv
1 16
e
.

or
Explanation
Sin e -
wa
of
e - form
a Sin e
Al te r

(Figu
natin
s 68
C rr e nt —

an d 7 0) is
A sin e

on e t h e con
c r e

fi u v
.

to r of w hi ch follow s a c e r t ain
de ni e t l aw , w hic h , h ow e e r , c an

not

51 7
b e disc
for ug u sse d

de t ails
h er e
Th e
. Se e Ar t
c rr e n s t
.

gv v u
.

from m ode rn al e r nat tin — c rr e nt

t ha al m ost t r e sin e

c t
e n e r a or s e

wa
ca u u uv u
se
e for m s
t r e sine c r e is t h e
a,
. This is desir ab l e b e Fm 7 5 — D ir e c t~cur r e nt
,

w it h z e r o ( 0 ) m ar at
.

k
am
en
m et er
er of

uu gg gu u v k y
se al e .

ide al form (Ar t 52 5) an d b e c a se .

c al c l ations rel atin t o th e m m ay be re adil m ade w h e r e as

I II
gug u
and y
c al c l ations r el atin t o irr e l ar c r
I V, W can

g v u
not

y be e asil m ade
es li e

ith
th ose of Fig
a sine wa
-
.

e-form

u y ugg
.

al e r na
t tin c rr e n t the c rr en t in c r e ases and de c r e ase s r ad all

g u uv
,

as sh ow n in Fi s . 68 an d 70 and not ab r ptl as s es e d t in

t t t
the al e r na
t t in c -
rr e n t c r e of Fig 7 .

ct
el e

ive
c c
EX AM PL E
ri t t ur re n th t
— Im a in e

tc tht t wwh ch w t cc tt h th c t tw t th t h
g
in w
ill im m e dia
ch
e nsity
an

in
ide al
am pe res
am m e e r

) , lik e
(an ins
a of Fig 7 5,
rum e n

.
for m e asurin g
hi is so sensi
v aria

th tc ct th t
a it ely in di a e, in am pe r es, t h e m inu es ion in
flo

th t t c
urr en and i ill also indi a e w e er t he urr en ing r oug it
ve iv e dire Also, im agine

t c th ct
is in posi i a or in a n e ga ion . a
’
on e s e yes ar e

qui k

t t h t t t
sufli cie nt l y s arp and to e n ab l e h im t o re a d is ins rum e n at fr a
(Ob viously, ere can n ot a ually b e an in st ru

c ct t c c t t c t t
t ional in e rv als of a se ond .

m e n so se ns i ive n or e yesso k ee n ) Assum e t is supe r sensi ive ins ru m en .

-

onne e d in o an ( 60 y l e A r t 683 ) al erna ing ur re n circuit t o a m o or

-
.
-
,
 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y

c c tv c c t cth
80 [ ART . 1 16

Fig
at any t.

al e rn a
69
c c
t t c t c c t th th
.

ing-
im e ,
Now
say at

u rr en
re ord t h e r e adin gs at e a
’
3 o lo
ir uit m igh
k . Th e
en
rea

be
h
din gs
Mg o se c
of t h e
e se :
-
. in er

arying
v al , om m e n

urr e n in
ing
is

T im e Am m e t e r r e a din g T im e Am m e t er r e ad in g

cc t k tt
tt tt
’
3 o lo . se c . af e r 3 am p .

M8 0 se c . af e r 3 .
9 4 8 0 se c . af e r 3 am p.

tt tt
af e r 3 see . af e r 3 am p.
“

sec . .

sec . af e r se c . af e r 3 am p .

tt tt
% 3 0 sec . af er 1
54 8 0 se e . af e r 3 am p.

sec . af e r 3 . se c . af er 3 am p.

tt t
sec . af e r 3 . se c . af er 3 am p.

c t
se c . af e r 3 . se c . af er 3 am p .

sec . af e r 3 . se c . af er 3 am p .

se c . af er 3 . an d so on as l ong as the urr en c on

t inues t o flow .

v tt
h c ct c c cc ct ht w
If t h e t
ab o e v alues are pl o
h ey w ill giv e t h e al ern a ing- urr en sin e
y le, ir ui s o n in Fig 7 0
ed, t t c t
h h w th t
t hw h c t c c t tt tt
g p
r a for t h e 6 0-
T is gr aph sh o s
.
a t he . .

m axim um urren in t h e ir ui is 1 00 am p also t h e gr ap and t h e ab ov e .

abl e s o s h ow t h e urr en in t h e ir ui v aries from ins an t o ins an

t t t t t
.

NO TE — As . s ow n in Fig 7 0, . an d e xpl ain e d in e xam pl e under Art 528, it

.

is possib l e t o express im e as it . rel a es t o an al erna ing curren , in degre es as

w ell as in seconds .
 SE C T ION 5

ELEC TR O
HM W M O TIVE FO R C E, C URRENT RESISTANC E AND
’
S LA

v v
O

117
v g
.

g
som e t im es c all e d

u u
Th e Term El e ctr om oti e For ce , abbr e iat ed

u v
ol t a e, el e ct ric pr ess r e, or differenc
and

e of po

v u
”
t e nt ial , is se d t o desi nat e t h e
“
p sh t h at m o es or t e n ds t o

v g y
—
mo e el e ctrons c t o anot fr om th at c a ses el e c
one pl a e h er

it is m er ely
t ricit y t o flow
u ug y u
Note th at olt a e or e m f is not el e ctric it ;
.

t h e pr ess r e th at c a ses el e ct ric it t o flow As

. . .

uy u
.

e xpl ain e d in Ar t 1 2 3 t h er e m ay b e r e at el e ct ric al pr ess r e b u t

.
,

if t h e c ir c it is not cl ose d t h er e can b e no flow or c rr ent of

el e ct r ic it .

IOO Yo/fs 200 /alts

Nofe g Th e lnsfr wnenf and fh e Coil

tt ct c ct c t
of Wire are fh e sam e for Bofh l arn fl
'

I looVolts Pre ssure

- - ‘
li ZOO Vol t s Pre ssur e
— I ll us v ol

Hy u g ug
FI G . 76 . ra ing the e ffe of in r e a sing el e ri pr e ssur e or ag e .

gy g
l ar
pipe
118
,

el
.

t h at
dra lic
is t h e
b y t h e h dr a lic pr ess
nu
y u ugu u
p o
gn ds pe
—
Anal o y of E m f Th e flow of w at er

qu
m b er
r s a r
of
e in c h
. .

all ons

re —
.

pe r se on d,
c
thr o
is de t erm ine d
h

th at

v gu
pr ess
is
r e or u kv g u y y
for c in t h e w at er t hr o h t h e pipe
m e as
A simil ar ele ct ric
red in ol s,
t ca
.

ses el e ctric it t o flow

k g
.

A ol t (Ar t
1 2 0) h as, w h e n spe a in of el e ct r ic it , som e w h at t h e

y u g yug u u qu ug g
.

”
sam e m e anin w h e n Spe a in
“
as h as a pound per squar e inch

g v guv
of h dr a li c s

i e n am o n
A r e at er h dr a lic pr ess r e is r e ir e d t o for c e a
.

t of w a er t
y g v g qu
th ro h a sm all i
pp e t h an t h ro h a l ar e

one

g v
ug u g
for c e
in
a
a

i
i en

e n am o n
tim e
u g v y ug v g
.

t
Sim il arl
of el e
, a hi h er
ct ric it thr o h a sm all w ir e th an
ol a e t is re ir e d t o

th r o
on a
h
c ir c it
a l ar e on e

is in c r e ase d,
in
u u g v g gy
a i e n t im e If t h e ol t a e im pr essed
.

t h e c rr ent w ill b e c orr espon din l

u
inc rease d
u
d o bl e d t h e
6
as sh ow n

c rren t
in Fig
.
. 76 w h erein d o blin t h e olt a e h as
82 PRAC TI CAL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

v Wy
. 1 19

1 19 M ay Be De el ope d in Th r e e D ifi ere nt a s, v 1z
E m fs

H u
. . . .

( a) B y contact of unlike substances eit h er by t h e applic ation of

g
,

h e at or b y c h e mi c al act ion eat applie d t o t h e j n ct ion of t w o

v vy
.

dissimil ar m e t als ( Fig w ill (Ar t 3 1 7 ) en e r at e an

z
. .

h ow e e r it w ill b e r el ati el sm all ; h en c e t h e m e t h od is n ot com

m e r cial .

g u
If a pie c e of c arb on and a pie ce of in c (1 1 ) ar e im
m e rse d in a sol t ion of sal amm oniac an el e ct ric c ell r es lt s -
~

u
u g
,

w hic h w ill e ne r at e an e m f If t h e key is cl ose d an ele ct ric

u u v
. . .
,

c rr ent w ill flow and t h e b ell will rin (b) B y m agnetic flux: .

If t h e c on d ct or (1 I1 b e m o e d up and dow n b e t w e e n t h e m ag

w il l b e e ner at e d g
net pol es so as t o c t ac r oss t h e lines of for c e (Ar t an e m f

This ill st r at e s t h e prin c ipl e of t h e d nam o u g

.

y . . .

g u gy qu
.

and t h e prin c ipl e of t h e c h e ape st w ay t o e n e r at e an e m f if . . .

lar e am o nt s of el e ct ric al ene r ar e r e ir e d ( ) y

0 B di electr i c .

Zin c

3 By Cont ac t

th t ct t c
11 8 3 Ch e m ical Act ion Ill By Magne t ic Flux

yg gu g
FI G . 77 — . Me ods of g e n e r a in g el e r om o i ve for es .

flux
Ill u . St at ic el e ct r ic it

tions ar e t h e e m f ener at e d b y r bbin

s rat
t h e h air an d t h at ener at e d b y t h e slippin of a g . . .

g
—

ug
so c all e d

uy
- — is e ne r a e d t in t his w ay
a c om b t h r o

b el t on a p lle
h
.

fi g g
.

This m e t h od is of little c om m er c ial im por t an c e M ore de t ailed

gv
.

e xpl anat ions of t h e r st t w o of t h e se m e t h ods of e n e r at in a

diffe r en c e of pot ent ial or an e m f ar e i en in ot h e r se ctions

u u
. . . .

1 2 0 Th e V olt Is th e Pr actic al U nit of E m f —It is t h at differ

ug u
. . . .

e n c e in el e ct r ic al pr e ss r e t h at w ill m aint ain a c rr e nt of 1 am

p

v u
.

(Ar t 1 22 ) t h r o h a r esist anc e of 1 Oh m (Ar t A m illivolt

v
. .

is (one t h o sandt h ) of a ol t ; a kilovolt is

-
(one t h o

tt th ch c tt ct c t
san d) ol t s .

E x AMP L E s —O rdin ary, in

at e at a
tv tt t w
c urr e n , s ree r ail
.

v
v
t t w ct
pressure of 1 1 0 ol s, al oug 220 ol s is som e im es use d D ir e
ay ol ages in o n s and i ies are usuall y ab ou 550 ol
e rior,

ct
tt v tt
in an des e n

v
l am p
-
ir ui s usually ope r~

v s.

Th e ol age of an ordin ary d oor-b ell (Le cl anch e ) cell is ab ou 1% ol s .

 E LE C TROM O TI VE F ORC E

t c t h t t ct t
SE C . 5] 83

t
Th e gr avi y
vv t t v h th ct t
g e ne ra ors usually de
ell use d for eleg rap

e l op ab ou
y de
2 or 3
velops ab ou
olts w ile
1 v ol

ose
.

for
E le
e le
r opl a

ro yping
ing

g u
de ve l op from 5 t o 1 0 ol s .

gu
be y
1 21
u
cl earl
y u
. Th e Distin ction B e t we en Volta
n der s ood
t Th e potential (Art 9 6) is an alo
t er m “
e and
”
Potential sh o ld

gu y u
. .

o s w it h t h e h dr a lic t erm level and t h e t erm s electromotive

” “ ”
for ce an d v oltage are anal o o s w it h t h e h dr a lic t er m s
difi er ence-in—
v
” ”
It is
“ ’
level and c orr e ct t o say
pr essur e n ot

u v g
.

”
t h e pot e n tial ac r oss t h e in c an de sc ent l am p is 1 1 0 ol t s In

v
.

” “
st e ad one sh o l d say t h e pot ent ial diffe r enc e or ol t a e

t tw t c twt t
ac r oss t h e inc andesc ent l am p is 1 1 0 ol ts .

NUrn —Vol

t t w t c h wh c c t c
age or pressure b e een t w o poin s in a cir ui is som e im es

spo en k of as difi er ence in potenti al or dr op of potential b e ee n t h e t w o

a e r pipes, w e re a diffe re n e in l ev el pr odu es a pres

c t t c c t cc ct th t ct c t v ct c t
poin J uss . as in

sure and t h e pr essur e pr odu es a flow en t h e fau e is opene d, so a diffe r

vt t
e n e of po e n ial pr odu es e m f and t h e e m f im pel s a flow of ele
. . . ri i y . . .

as soon as t h e ir ui is onne e d so a t h e el e ri i y can m o e Em f . . . .

m ay b e expr essed as a ol age or diffe rence of pot en ial or vice versa .

v
le el . gu v
1 2 1A Dr op of Pote n
. tial m e ans dr op or differ enc e in ele ctric al
Th e m eanin of t h e w or d
“
pot e nt ial
”
is explaine d in
Ar t 9 6
v
“
w hi c h sh o l d be iew e d
t erm s drop Of pot en
re Th e

vg y v
. .

” ” ” ”
tial “
p o t e n t ial d iff e r e n c e
“
l oss o f po t e nt ial o l t s l oss
“

u g u u y
, , , ,
”
and olt s dr op w h ile th e m ay h a e differ ent sh ade s of

u v gg y ju
,

m e ani n s al l indic at e ab o t t h e sam e t h in and can s all be

u
, ,
”
se d inter c h an e abl w ith t h e t er m s
“
st n ot ed V ol t s dr op

u u u g
.

“ ”
and ol t a e l oss ar e som et im es se d t o m e an dr op in pot e n
tial
g u . But it is do btf l wh et h er t h eir sa e in t h is sense is
al t o e th er c or r e ct

v u
u v u
.

Th e pr ess r e due t o differ e nc es of w at er le el c a ses w at er t o

‘

y
el e ct ric it t o flowW g g
flow and t h e pr ess r es due t o differ e nc es of ele ctr ic l e el c a ses

v k v
at er is in Fig 7 7A ar r an ed t o flow fr om

z y
.
.
, ,

t h e l e el L in t h e st and pipe and disch ar ed int o a t an at l e el

-

Q
.

g v gu
G Th e w at e r in t h e h ori ont al pipe P
k u
de cr e asin l e el (pr e ss r e ) as it appr oac h es t h e t an
w ill b e at a c onst antl
This is
, ,

u g g v
.

indic at e d by t h e h ei h t t o w hi ch t h e w at er r ises in t h e pr ess r e

v v
pipes and by t h e pr e ss r e a es

zu k
u k z
T h e r efer e nc e l e el in Fig 7 7A
is t h e l e el Of t h e w at er in t h e t an G w hic h is t a en as 0 ( er o)
. .

g v
-

l e el This m e ans 0 ( er o) pr ess r e Point L as r efer r ed t o

u
. .
,

point C is at a pr ess r e of 1 00 lb per sq in This i e s a dif

u u
. . .
,

fer e nc e Of pr ess r e of ( 1 00 0 1 00 ) 100 lb pe r sq in b e t w een . . .

L and G It is t h is differ enc e in pr ess re th at c a ses t h e wat er to

.
84 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 1 2 1A

vv u y u
.

flow
sam e
. Ob io
le el
sl ,

or pr ess r e
t h er e can be

u
Poin t C is
no

at a s
pr e s u
flow b e t w een t w o point s of t h e
r e of 67 l b per

y
. .

sq . in . Point G is at a pr e ss r e of 0 lb . Th e diffe r e n c e b e t w e e n
th em is ( 67 0 67 ) 67 l b per . sq . in . Sim il arl ,
t h e pr essure

FI G . 7 7 A — Ill us
. t r a t in g d r op in h y dr aul ic pr essur e or po e n tt ial .

differ e nc e b e t w ee n A
u
Th e pr ess r e differ e n c e b e t w e e n B
l b pe r sq in It is du e t o t h is diffe r e n c e in pr e ss
. . .
and D is ( 1 00 50 ) 50 lb per sq in
50
and D is ( 83 50 33 ) 3 3
u
.

re of 3 3 lb
. .

7 7 B — Ill u s tt ct c tt cct
fl
FI G . . ra in g d r op of e l e r i pr e ssur e or po e n ial in a ir ui .

per sq in b e t w ee n B and D t h at w at e r ow s b etw e en t h e se

u g
. .

t w o point s

y ug g
.

Now if ,
ct r ic al c ond ct or AG b e ar r an
an el e , ,
e d as sh ow n

in Fig . 7 7B and el e ct ric it b e for c e d t hr o h it b y

,
e ne r a or t M ,
 86 PR AC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

vv u
. 1 22

Th e
at t h e
ol tm e t er s, w ith c t of L indic at e t h e pot e nt ials
th e

g
ex ep ion

ar io s point s on t h e c ir c it as r efer r e d t o t h e pot e n t ial of u ,

u t er m inal of t h e ener at or M 1 w hic h in t his exam ple is

yg
.

t he

v g
, , ,

ass m e d t o b e at 0 pot e nt ial ( T h e sm all l e tt er s ident if in t h e

v
.
,

olt m e t er s c or r e spond w it h t h e l ar e l e tt er s sh ow n at t h e point s

,

t h e pot e nt ial s of w hi c h t h e ol t m et ers in dic at e

v
.

V ol tm e t er L ( Fig 77 D ) indic ate s t h e pot e ntial differ enc e ac r oss

.

t h e in c ande sc e nt l am p Th e pot e nt ial at t h e poin t B is 1 ol t

v
.

and t h e diff er e n c e or dr op in pot ential b e t w een A and B is 1 O

1 v olt Th e pot e ntial at point C is 1 1 1 ol t s and t h e pot e ntial

v
.

differ e n c e b e t w e e n C and B is : 1 1 1 1 1 10 volts w h ic h is t he

v
,

sam e differ e n c e or dr op in pot e nt ial t h at ol t m e t e r L indic at es

y
.

Th e pot ential at point D is 1 1 2 ol ts and t h e pote ntial difler e nce

b e t w ee n D and C is : 1 1 2 111 1 volt Sim il ar l t h e po

u gu
.

t ent ial differe n c e b e t w ee n D and A is : 1 1 2

, 0 1 1 2 volts ,

w hi c h is t h e e m f im pose d on t h e c ir c it b y t h e e ner at or M 1

u u vug g v
. . . .

1 22 Th e Am pe re Is th e Practical Unit of El ectric C rr e nt Flow

. .

—If a r ess r e of 1 ol t b e im r esse d on a c l ose d c ir c it h a in

-
p p

uu u
a r e sist an c e of 1 oh m

t h e c ir c it
fl ug
ug u
th en 1 am per e (am p ) will flow th ro h
,

C r r e nt s Of w at e r t h r o h pipes ar e m e as r e d b y
.

u k
.

t h e am o nt of w at e r t h at ow s t h r o h t h e pipe in a se c ond

u y u
.

“
Th s we say : 1 gal per 1 0 gal per an d t h e li e

uu y flu ug u u
. . .

In a sim il ar c rr e nts of el e ct ric it ar e m eas r ed

m anne r , flow or
b y t h e am o n t of el e ct ric it t h at ow s t h r o h a c on d ct or in a

k
Th s w e m ay say :
u qu y
“
se c on d 1 c o l om b pe r 1 0 c o l om b s
p e r se

yc

ele ct r ic it
an.d
ju g
t h e li e

( Ar t 10 ) st as a qu y
Now a c o l om b is a c er t ain
al l on is a c er t ain
. an t it

an t it
of

of

H
.

w at e r A t er m am per e h as b e e n applie d t o a r at e of flow of

“ ”

u fl g
.

a cou lom b per second e n c e a c urr e nt of 1 am pe r e or 1 am p

ky y y
. .

is a c r r e nt ow in at t h e r at e of a c oul om b per se c ond It so .

h appe ns t h at in pr actic al w or w e ar e n e arl al w a s int er est e d

u y fl u
in t h e r at e of flOw of el e ct ric it ( am per es) and sel dom in t h e

th t c ct c t c
am o n t of e l e ct r ic it th at ow s ( c o l om b s) .

t t t ct c t w th cth c ct
NO TE — Ar t 1 0,
. . a a oul om b of el e ri i y om pris es, so it h as b ee n

c c t c t
es im a e d, ab ou fi v e m illi on m illion m il lion el e r ons .

EX AMP L E S flo

c t c ct ctc t thth t th c ct v
. If e l e ri i y is ing r oug a ondu or at t h e r ate of
10 oul om b s pe r se c .
,
the ur r e n in t h e onduc or is 1 0 am p .
(2 ) If 40
‘

c c t
oul om b s O f e l e ri i y flow r ou g a on du or in 1 0 se c .
, t he a e r age cur

t t c c t
re n in t h e ondu or d urin g a im e is 40 10 4 am p .

E X AMP L E S — An — in candes l am p

t t t
ordin ary 16 arb on fil am ent en
'

c p

1 6—
. .

re q uir e s ab ou am p . A c p . . ungst e n in ande s e n l am p re quires

ab ou am p S . re e ar c l am ps re quire from 4 t o 10 am p. depe nding on
 ELE C TROM O TI VE FORC E

th c t w t
SE C . 5] 87

h t wh ch ch c
e ir siz e . Th e urren in a t elegraph ire is ab ou § f oo to 91

tt th t t t c t
am p .

—W ver lead

t t h
N OT E .
*
a e t he r e asons i originall y t o t h e oi e of th e

h c t t th v t
m agni u des of t h e am per e an d t h e oh m , ese uni s can now be onsider ed as

c ct
t w o arb i r ary fund am en al uni t s es ab lis ed by an in ern a ional agr ee m en .

c t cc t c c t t ct c
T ey m ay b e onsid e red as arbi r ary uni s in t h e sam e w ay as t h e foot and

c t tth c c th h tU h h t t t
t h e pound are arb i r ary uni s . T eir al ues can b e r eprod u ed t o a fra ion
of a pe r en .
,
a or din g t o de ail e d spe ifi a ion s adop e d b y pr a i all y all
iv iliz e d v alue s ve

t th th c
na ions . Sin e e ir a b een e s ab lis ed b y in e rn a ion al

c t t t t v th c
ag re e m en ,
e y ar e al l e d I n ter n ati ona l E lectri cal ni ts . T e se t w o uni s

(or in h ) ,

t c t tc tt t c
(t h e am pere and t he Oh m ) oge er wi t he foot the second, and

c c
t h e degr ee igrade pe r m i th e de
en e r m ina ion of t h e al ues of all o er el e

and m agne i q uan i ies

vt t v t th
ri .

Th e un i
“
Oh m
”
is re pre sen e d by a ol um n of m er ur y of spe ifi e d
dim e nsions . Th e “
am pe re
”
by a sil ver ol am e e r . Th e
“
ol
”
can en

I High Hydraulic Pr e ssure - No Flow

-

FI G 78thh c t ct c c c t
—S h o w in g h ow
ll - High Elect r ic Pr e ssure

er e c an b e gr e a pr e ssur e an d y e t
NO Flow

no c t th ur r e n in b o

t ct
. .

y dr auli an d e l e ri ir ui s .

c
r e adily

t t ctct cc ct c t
be de erm in e d as t h e produ of t h e am pe re an d t h e
He n e t h e prese n sys em Of pra i al e le ri al uni s is pr ope rly all ed the
oh m
“

th c “
.

t ct c t
am per e-oh m system

sys e m
For t h e pr a i al m an or t h e enginee r
of ele ri al
. e re is b ut one

uni s, t h e am per e-ohm system .

1 23
r el a e

uy u u
t
.

uu y fl g
Th e D iffe re nce B e tw e e n Am pe r e s
t o t h e r at e at w hi c h el e ctric it is ow in
and Volt s — Am per es
w hile
yg v .

t
ol s r efer
to the p

v g u
sh or
t h at c a ses t h e ele ctricit t o flow In
p ess
r

b oth h dr a lic and el e ctr ic c ir c its th e re m ay b e r e at pr ess r e

re

u .

g g y vu u v v
or ol t a e an d y e t n o flow or c rr e nt C onsider F ig w h ere
flow of w at er is pr e e nt e d b y a cl ose d al e ; t h e p m p is m ain
.

u .

u u g ug v v y g k
t ainin a hi h h dr a lic pr ess re and yet th er e can b e no flow or
c rr e nt so l on as t h e al e is close d Li e w ise in t h e el e ct ric
'

c ir c it at 1 1 al th o h t h e d nam o or ener at or is m aint ainin

,
.
,

g
‘
V .K ar ape t ofi T HE M A GNE TI C C I RC UIT
. and TH E E L E C T R I C C IR C UIT , M c Graw -Hill
B oo k C om pany . Inc .
 88 PRA C TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

gg u v g u
. 123

l r i
a hi h e e ct c press r e — ol t a e— th er e c an be no flow of c rr e n t
so l on

gg
V ol t a uv g v u
as t h e sw itc h is O pe n

or el e

k
ct ric al pr ess r e can ne er of it self acc om plish
e
.

y u
anyt hi n

u u
el e ct ric al

l am p b r n or a m ot or t r n
u k y
t h at is ol t a e can not

u
,
n aide d m a e a

C r r e n t (am per es) is al w a s n e ces

, ,

u y H quv v g u
.

sar
—
t o eff e ct el e ct ric al r esul t s t h e c rr en t m a es t h e l am p b r n
and t h e m ot or t r n

H g u
ow e er a olt a e or differ en c e of pot e n
.

t ial (Ar t 9 7) is alw a s r e ir ed for t h e pr od ction of a c r r en t

,

u v g v g u
. .

e n c e t h e fi r st st e p t ow ar d effe ct in any el e ct r ic al acc om plish

u u
m e n t is t h e pr od ct ion of a ol t a e Th en t h e olt a e w ill c a se .

t ct tw v t tt
a c rr e nt t o flow and t h e c urr en t w ill pr od c e t h e r esul t

tc tt t h t cc c t th w w
.

NO TE — Th e dis in ion b e
. ee n ol s an d am per es m ay b e b e er un de r

th h h t th t t w t th ctt w v t
s ood fr om a s udy of Fi g 7 9 . In t h e por
. ion of a ydr auli ir ui s o n at
I a urr en orflow gage A h as b e en arr an ge d . Th e fas er the w a er flo s

r ou g the pipe , a is, t h e m or e a er a flo s, t h e gr e a er w ill b e t h e

pus agains t he v an e . E viden ly t h e de fle ion of t h e ane of A w ill b e

“
Amme t e r

c tt
ll Elect ric Gage s
'

I Hgdraulic Gage s
‘

—Hy dr auli

w t c t c
FI G . 79 . an al ogy il l u s ra in g a m pe r es an d vol t s .

c
c t th t tt tt
proport ion al t o t h e flow of
if t h e s al e of t
c t t t h tt ch
A is pr ope rly m ark e d, t h e poin
a e r or urr en ,
an al og ous

er a a ed
to am pe r es

t ot h e v ane
. He n
w ill in di
e

w c t B h w
a e at any ins an the r at e of flow or urren of w a er passin g h r oug the

th t cwh ch t t h h c tw
pipe at a ins an .

c
Lik e gag e or in di a or c an b e ar r anged as at
ise , a t o s o t h e pressu r e

w th w th c t t th w t th t th ct hc th
a is ausin g t h e w a e r t o flow h r oug t h e pipe oil Th e pipe b e e en C .

and D, i se rv esrt h e pre ssure gage, s oul d b e e ry sm all as om pare d v

w w t tw t th t w
i t h e m ain pipe so at t h e am oun of a er a c an flow r oug is
ill b e in signi fi

w c w t t th h c tw th t
s m all pipe an an d c an b e d isr e gar de d pr a i ally
e r efor e .
,

Ho ver a flo s

c t th t
e ,
som e a e r w ill flow b e e en C an d D an d t h e am oun
ill be pr opor ion al t o t h e pre ssur e b e

B c t h c t t
ee n C an d D, or t o t h e pre ssu r e a

A v an e

wh ch th ct t c c c t
is for in g a er r oug t h e pipe oil . and in di a or sim il ar to a

c t t
at c an be arr ange d at A t o in di a e the yd r auli pressure at any ins an ,

c t c t ct c t th t w th h
i is an al og ous to v ol s .
“

wh c t h w
Sim il arly, in ~
e el e ri ir ui at 1 1 t he am m eter or ur r en me er is
flo

th t c ct c t
arr an g e d t o in di a e the u rre n of e l e ri i y a is ing r oug t he
l am p il e t h e voltm eter or pr essu r e indi a or is arr ange d t o s o t h e push
a is ausin g the el e ri i y t o flow .
90 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T . 1 26

pr e uu v
s
1 26
s
.

re
Th e O h m Is
t is im presse d on a c ir cui t and 1 am p ow s
of 1
th at cir c it h as a r esist an c e of 1 oh m (Fig
ol
th e

A m icrohm is
Pr actical

.
Unit of R e sistance

.
.
.

fl
— If a

; fmoomoo ( on e mill iont h ) Of an 0 11 111 ;

-
a meg oh m IS (0 11 9

ctt c w c
m illion) oh m s
A olum n of m e r ur y
.

l on g an d av in g a r oss cct h c h
t t ct
E xam pl e s .
-
cm .

se ion al ar e a of 1 sq . m m h as . a r e sist an c e of e xa
'

In E n gl is ly 1 oh m .

uni s, th e ol um n oul d be in .
,
or ab ou 3 % ft l on g an d it s se ion al .

c c w
15 44
ar e a
m w oul d b e sq m sq m , It s di am e e r w oul d b e

h tc
. . . .

A NO 1 4, B

t c
in .
pie e of . . S g age ,
. oppe r ir e 3 80 ft . l on g h as,
A piece of No 1 0 B

w t t c c wh t tw
r ou g l y, a r e sis an e of 1 oh m . f S gage
. c: . copper

v t w
ft lon g h as a
. r esi stan ce o f alm ost pr eci sely 1 ohm . Th e re sis an e of 1 0 ft . of

Ge rm a n-sil ve r

h w
ire t h e d iam e e r of a le ad pe n il is ab ou 1 ohm . A 2 % in -
.

h av e

w v t
ib r a in g b ell ill or din ar il y a r e sis an e som e er e be e en 1 54 an d

c t h
3 o m s depe n din g on h ow it is oun d ;

a sim il ar 5—
in b ell il l h a e a . r e sis

y fi
an e of ab ou 5 o ms .

1 26A R e sistiv it is spe ci c

k
.

r e sis ant ce Th at is, it is t h e re

ufi g vg
.

sist an ce of a b loc , of t h e m at e
c onsider ation h a in a r ial n de r

u u
,

spe c i e d len th an d c r oss se c -

t ion al ar e a Th s t h e r e sist

t c
.
,

c t th h
an c e in O h m s of a 1 in c b e of -

k
.
, ,

FI G 80 — 1 v ol p u fo 1 a m at e r ial fr om one fac e t o t h e

r e ss re r es

v y
. .

,
am p r e of
e urr e n ou g a r i r es s

t an c of 1 O h m
O pp osrt e f ac e m ay b e t a e n as

v yv v u g
e .

t h e r esisti it of t h e m at e rial

u
.

In pr actic e it is Ofte n c on enie n t t o spe c if r e sisti itie s in oh m s

fi g qu
,

p e r c ir c l ar m il foot ; se e T abl e 1 4 3-
R esisti it ie s of ins lat in .

m ate rials m ay b e spe c i e d in m e oh m s per s ar e in ch m il as in -

T able 1 3 2
1 27 W .

h at D e te rm ine s
u ug
R e sistance — Al th o h pipes offer

u y u u
. .

opposi tion or r esist an c e t o w at er flow in m c h t h e sam e w ay as

do c on d ct ors t o ele ctr ic it flow t h er e is no nit of r esist an c e

y u y
,

t o w at e r flow th at c orr espon ds t o t h e nit (th e ohm ) of r e sist an c e

t o e le ct ric it flow
ugTh e am o nt of r esist an c e offer e d t o w ater
.

flow t h r o h a pipe or t o el e ctr ic it flow t h r o h a c on d ct or

g u ug u
u
is de t erm ine d b y som e w h at analo o s pr oper ties of t h e pipe
vw thy th ct c t w t
‘

N OTE

l on ge r t h e
.
—Wi th c t
an d of t h e c on d ct or r e spe ct i el ; see T ab le 1 2 8

w ir e
a e r ain

or pipe , t h e
p r e ssur e

l ess t h e flow
,

t i bo
an d
el e

the
ri
i y an d
.

a e r flow , t h e

sm all er t h e diam e e r of t h e
 ELE C TR OM O TI VE F OR C E

w
SE C . 5] 91

wire
tc or pipe , t h e less
t h fl
t e ow —
t cc
an d vice ver sa . Se e Art
tc . 1 33 and follo in g

g Hy
ar i l es for m ore de ail ed inf orm a ion on e rning resis an e .

and
1 28 . Pr ope rt ie s D e te rm ini
El e ctr ic C irc its u .
n Fl ow of C urr e n ts In dr auli c

v yg y
1 29
t ricit y flow
.

ar
Th e R e sistance s, Th at Difle re nt
r eatl
M ate rial s Ofi e r to ele c
No m at erial is a perfe ct c ond ct or and
H v u
v v y
.
,

no m at erial is a perfe ct insul at or ow e e r som e m at erials

u y yu y
.
, ,

t h e m e t al s for inst an c e h a e er sm all r esist anc es and t h erefor e

v
,

c ond ct el e ctricit so r eadil t h at t h e are c all e d conductors

( A r t .

vy g
O t h er m at e r ia ls s c h a s w o o d
l e ast w h en m oist r el ati el hi h r esist an c es an d are t h e refor e
an d s l a t e h a e at

fiy
,

v u gy
,

c al led semi or partial conductors Glass por c el ain paraf n and

y u g
.
, ,

c ert ain oth er m at erials h a e s ch hi h r esist an c es th at t h e are

p r a ct ic all n

gv u
o n c o n d ct i n h-
e n c e t h e

Tabl es 1 43 and 1 3 2 sh ow t h e r el ati e r esist an c es of som e m a

t e r ial s an d T ab le 1 57
ar e c all e
,
d

i es t h e re sist an c es of differ ent si es

i n s u lato rs

v z
.

H R efer t o t h e a t h or s AME R I CAN EL E C TR I C IAN S

’ ’
of c opper w ir e

u
.

AND B O O K for ot h er r esist an c e t ab l es

k uu u
.

1 30 C ond ctance is in a sense t h e Opposit e of resist an c e

.
, ,
.

Th e m h o ( oh m spell e d b ac w ar d) is t h e nit of c ond ct anc e

g y u u
.

R esist an c e r e pr ese nt s t h e opposition th at a cond ctor offer s t o t h e

p a s sa e o f el e ct r ic it w hi l e c on d ct an

or e ase w it h w hic h a c ond ct or c ond ct s el e ct ric it

c e r ep r ese n t s t h e r e adi
Conduct
n ess

u y
u u
.

ance num er ically expr essed i n m hos is the reci pr ocal of r esi stance

q vv u u
,

i n ohms T h at is t h e c ond ct an c e of a c on d ct or in m h os is
.
,

e u al t o 1 di ide d b y t h e r esist an c e in O h m s of t h e c on d c t or

g v fi
.
, ,

T h e r el ati e c on d ct anc es (as c om par e d w ith c opper) of t h e

‘

u
c om m on m et als ar e i en in T ab l e 143 Conductivi ty is spe c i c
c ond ct anc e and is expresse d in m h os per ni t ol m e C on
duct iv it y is t h e r e c ipr oc al of r esist i it vy u v u fi
w hi c h is de ned in
.

t c c ct cct c w h tc
Art 1 2 6A Th at is : Condu ctivi ty
. . 1 Resistivi ty .

oh Ex AM PL E s
ms
m ho
SO L UTI O N — It s
.

Lik e wise , t h e
.
.
-
Wh a
.

c ct c c h
is t h e
ondu
ondu tc
ondu
an e
an e of a

an e
1
of a
its
oil
ire av in g a r esis an e of

r esistance

vin g
a
1
a re sis an e of
2 56
20
2
or
 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T

h tc ct c h
92 . 13 1

O ms 1 20 $6 0 or m ho . Th e condu an e of a r od a vin g
a r e sis an e of oh m s 1 m ho .

gv
13 1
n am e
.

i en t o t h at cl ass of s b st an c e s t h at ar e er poor con u

M ate rial s, som e tim es c all e d diele ctric s is t h e
Insul ating
v y
u y qu
,

duct ors .

ug
t ricit y t h r o h w hic h el e ct r ic it yH v
Th er e is n o m at erial t h at is ab sol t el opa e t o el e c
can n ot b e for c e d th er efore

u u y qu
, , ,

th ere is no perfe ct insul at or ow e e r c ert ain m at erials ar e

.
,

s c h poor c on d ct or s t h at t h e ar e O pa e for all pr act ic al pur

v g y g ugv u u
poses and h e n c e t h ese ar e c all e d insu l at ors
h a e e xc ee din l hi h t h o h m e as r ab l e r esist an c es
T h e se m at e rials
T abl e
.

u g
.
, ,

13 2 in dic at e s t h e r esist an c e al es of som e of t h ese m at e rials .

1 32 R e sistance of Ins latin M at erial s — ’

.
(F ow nnn s PO C K E T
BO O K ) .

M at e r ial

Asb es os tt
tt c
Asb es os and m uslin, oile d
C o on, single ov e ring
.

tttt c c v
.

v k

tt c v h c
Co on, sin gle o e ring, soa e d in par affin .

Co on, d oubl e o ering .

ke d

c
Co on, doubl e o er ing, s ell a

Mi
Mi
cc t c t
Fib e r,
a .
re d v ul aniz e d

flexible

cc tt t
ani e lo h ,

Mi flexible

t
ani e pape r ,
Mi ani e pla e flexible

c t
Oil ed cl o h

w
Oil e d pape r, doub l e
B r o n paper
Par affi ne d paper
oa

S h c cc th
el l a

Silk ,
ked lo
v

ccv h c
singl e o e rin g 0 00 1
.

Sil k , k ed

c h c
single o e ring , s ell a
Sil k , d ouble v
o e r ing
Silk , d oub l e ov e r ing k ed

h h h c tc
, s ell a

o h A m e go m
ms for ch t th c
q
a s uare in of m a e rial
O ms .

.
T is
000 in in. i kness
v
olum n gi es resis an es

.
in m e g
 94 PR AC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

W u v
. 134

h er ein I c rr ent in am pe r es , . E the in olt s .

R the r esist anc e in O h m s , .

FI G . 8 1 — Th e Oh m
.
i

’
s t
ch ch c
l aw e q u a ion s ch t .
( Fr om pr e par e d b y T h e
ar D a id v

h c c t t t ct c
R an k en Jr . S ool of M e an i al T r ad e s, St L ouis ) . .

cct h
NorE

nom en a
'
.
—O m s l aw

ir ui , of t h e v ery im por an gene r al l aw i tt

is m er ely a spe ifi s a em en , as applied t o t h e ele ri
’

go e rns al l p ysi al ph e wh ch v
T is ge ne r al l aw is : Th e r esult pr oduced is dir ectly pr oporti on al to
.
hc
the efi or t and i nver sely pr opor tion al to th e o This gene ral l aw
pposi tion .

Vol ts

h t cct
X lI- Wh at Re sist ance f or La mp ?
g ‘z
h C urr e n t Th r ough
III- How Many Volt s t o Ring Be ll ?
pt
-
i
0!

—O m

c c t ct c t c h c tc
FI G e xa m pl e s ; par
’
. 82 . s l aw s of ir ui s .

ht
applie s

h t c t
t o all ir ui s : el e ri ,
m agne i (Ar t .

tht h c
yd r auli , pne um a i ,

tc h
ea ,
et c .

EX AM PL E ( Fig .
—W a ur re n w il l flow r oug a oil h av rn g a

v ol UTI O N — Sub

t t c c ct
r e sis an e of 5 o m s if t h e im pre sse d e . m f is 1 00
. . s? SO L .

st it ut in g in t h e form ul a I E R 1 00 5 20 am p .

EXAM PL E ( Fig .
— Wh a is t h e re sis an e of an in ande s en l am p
 ELE C TROM OTI V E F ORC E

th w tcht t w wh t
SE C . 5] 95

flo v ol is im pressed on it ? SO L U

v t c
h
r oug hi 1 am p . s en 1 10 s
— E

tht t t h ct c h tc h
TI O N Sub s i u in g in t h e form ul a R I 1 10 1 1 1 0 oh ms .

EXAM PL E ( Fi g 82 , I1 I .
—How m any ol s w ill b e re quired t o for e

am p roug an el e
. ri b ell aving a re sis an e of 2 O m s? SO L U
— Sub s

gv m u
TI O N i u in g in t h e form ul a E I X R X 2 1 v olt .

See foll ow in
1 35 Th e Ab o
g u
ar

e
t icl es
Sim
for f
e
r t h er
Form of O h m
e xam pl es

s
.

Law Applie s O nl
’

u y
v g Wfi
.

to D ir e ct -
curr e nt C ir cuits and t o al t e r nat in - c rr e nt c ir c i ts

u ugg gu u
h a in no inductance (Ar t 4 7 1 ) or per mi tt an c e (Art
se d for al t er n at in

g -
c
.

t cir c it s t h e l aw sh oul d b e m odi e d

rr e n
.

g
h er e

cu
as s est e d in t h e

yu g
rr e n s t
y k k
se ct ions of t his b ook r el atin t o al t ernatin

u
v
.

1 36 In Appl in O hm s Law it is e as t o m a ’
e mist a es nl ess

u y W
.

c ert ain pre c a tions are O b ser ed Th e law is . appl i ab l e c to an

en tir e c ir c it or t o onl a por tion of a c ir c ui t HE N A P PL I E D .

T O AN E NTI R E C I R C UIT : The cur r ent (am peres) in the entir e cir cuit
equals

ance ( ohm sW
them f (volts) acr oss the
) f
o t
e

he e
.

n tir e ci r
.

cu it
.

.
entir e cir cuit divi ded by the
HE N APPL I E D T o A POR TI ON
resi st

Vol ts

Gravity Cell; E ME =I Vol t ;

. .

1 Gene ra t or C ircuit
‘

FI G . 83 .
—O h m
’
s l aw applie d to en
n
t cct
Grav it y C e l l C ircuit

ir e ir ui s .

O R PAR T O F A C I R C UI T : par t of a cir cuit The curr ent in a cer tain

equals the voltage acr oss the sam e par t divided by the r esi stan ce o
f

uu y
that sam e part
g v
T h e e rr or s in t h e applic ation of Oh m s l aw
g
’

g
.

s all arise fr om c onside rin the ol t a e of one part and t h e

—

t c t cct
r esis an e an
t c d am p a e
e r of a differ ent part or vi ce ver sa .

— t
EX AM PL E

t c c c c
An e n ire t h w c
—Wh a w ill b e t h e urr en in t h e ir ui of Fig .

ct
SO L U

t t thc t c c t
TI O N . ir ui is s o n . It is om pose d of a dyn am o, l ine w ire s
and a r e sis an e m f de v el ope d b y t h e

t
oil . Th e e . . . d yn am o (do n ot onfuse
t h e e m f im pr e sse d b y t h e dyn am o on t h e lin e ) is 1 2 0 v ol s

t c c tt t
h is w i . . .
Th e .

r e sis an e of th e e n ir e ir ui is t h e su m of t h e r esis an ce s of dyn am o, line

h t c tt w c c t ct tc t t
w ire s and r esis an e oil Sub s i u in g in t h e form ul a ( a) : I .
E R
12 = 1 0 am p .

EXAM P L E —W a urre n ill flow in t h e ir ui of Fig . SO L U

TI O N .
—Th is again is an en ire ir u i . Sub s i u in g in t h e form ul a (a)
l = E + R 1 1 + 3 5 = 0 2 8 am p .
 P RAC TI C AL E LE C TR I C I T Y

thw w w tw t tcc
96 [ AR T . 136

ea ch h
EXAMP L E

ohm ,
of t h e lin e
— Wi
ire s of Fig 84
tt t
10 am p . flo
ill b e t h e v ol age or drop a r oss
SO L UTI O N —Ba cl] h as a r e sis an e of
e n ce , sub s i u in g in form ul a ( 1 0 ) : E I X R
.

10 X
.

1 volt
ing ha
.

ct
FI G w th h
8 4 — C al ul a in g vol t s dr op in m ot or fe e d er i O m
’
s l aw

th c c t tw w tch
. . .

t w ht t t c c c t
Th e d rop in b o lin e w ire s
v ol
or in t h e ir ui be e en th e s i an d the

t tc c t t
mo ors oul d be 2 s .

EXA MP LE .
—W a is t h e re sis an e of t h e in an d e s en l am p of Fig .

It is appe d to a 1 1 0- v ol ir ui an d the am m e e r r e ad s am p . Th e

85 — Appl yi n g O m h ’
l a w t o por i on
-
Ii

t cct
Wire Re sist ance
of ir ui s

chwt t t h t th tth t c
FI G . . s .

b r an ir es are so s or a e ir r e sis an ce can be n e gl e ted SO L UTI O N

—Sub
. .

s i u e in t h e form ul a R E I 1 10 22 0 oh m s .

h FI G 8 6 —O m
’
l aw appli ed to a t
por ion of a cct
ir ui

t t t ht t
. . s .

an e
ch
EX AM PL E

c th t h
in t h e b r an
a tt can
— Th e m o

b e pe rm i e d in t e b a
h r n
k es 2 0 am p an d t h e drop in v ol age
or of

w ir es s oul d n ot e xcee d 5 v ol s
conduc ors
Fig

SO L U
.

W a is t h e gr e a e st r e sist
TI O N —Sub sti ch t
a

.
.

.
t
98 P RAC TI C AL ELE C TRI CI T Y [ ART

u g g
. 1 38

y uz g
ch ed l e
(Art 1 3 8) gg and

ar e r apidl
c om parison
s
of all of t h e w ir e

pe r se din sh eet -m e al t
a es

w ir e
. M icr om eters
a es for t h e

W y
.

det e r mi nat ion of Wir e Si es

W u u u yu u ggg
.

138 M icr om eter s Are Now

. idel U se d for M e asuring
ir e an d w ill do b tl ess l t im at el s per se de m e as r in a es

u u y u ug y
for t h at p r pose
s r e e asil Wu u y Fig 87 B sh ow s a m ic r om e t er t h at w ill m e a
an d acc r at el to
.

in
.
,

h er e m ic r om e t ers

u v u
.

ar e se d for m e as r in t h e wir e diam e t ers ar e s all expresse d

v g g
,

in t h o sandt h s of an in c h This is a c on enie n t and acc r at e

y u ufi
.

m eth od Som e c on c e r ns h a e c e ase d t o u se w ir e a e s and now

.

spe c if all w ir e diam e t er s in t h o san dt h s of an in c h

u
.

1 3 9 A C ir c lar M il is b y de ni t ion t h e ar ea of a c ir cle

u
.
, ,

( one one t h o sandt h ) in in diam e t er Fig 88

-
(A m il is
.
,
. .

o ne one t h o san dt h — ih ) -

uu y u u
Di m
.
a e fer

Th e ar e as of el e ct r ic al con duc
t ors ar e s all m e as r e d and

u v u e xpr esse d in c ir c l ar m il s b e

c a se t h e c ir c ul ar m il is t h e

“ W W W,
uv y qu m ost c on enie n t
p
ar
r p o se T
as t h e s
h e a r e a
ni t for t hi s

s o f c ir

ar es of t h e ir di
c les .

am e t e r s Th at is t h e ar e a of a

uv g
.
,

c ir cl e of a diam et er of in .

( 2 m il s) is fo r t im es t h e ar e a

of a c ir c l e h a in a diam et er

t tc fi
-
III S t iec of 0 pp on 0 er
B B us ar Sl l T of in ( 1 mil) eeIt follow see . .

FI G 88 — I ll u a in g t h e mil
. .
q u ar s r
t h at sin c e s
b y de nit ion a e

u
,
an d t h ul a mi l
.

e Ci r r .

C ir cl e of a di am e t e r of m .

is 1 cir m il a c ir cl e of a diam e t er of in h as fo r t im es t h e

u v
. .
,

ar e a of t h e in diam e t er c ir c l e an d t h er efor e h as an ar e a
-

y qu g
.
, ,

of 4 cir m ils Th s it is e ide n t t h at t h e ar e a of any c ir c le

uv g v g u
. .

can b e e xpr esse d in c ir c ul ar m il s b y m er el s arin it s diam

e t er

inc h
u
,

u u
w hi c h m st h ow e er b e e xpr e sse d in t h o san dt h s of an
,

Th e ad ant a e of e xpr essin c r oss se ctional ar eas of r o nd

,

u u qu
.

c on d ct ors in c ir c ul ar mils is a de c ide d one To c om p t e t h e

u u y u
.

c r oss se ctional ar e a of a r o nd c on d ct or in s are in c h es a

-

u y y qu
som e w h at t e dio s c al c l at ion is n e c essar B ut t o c om p t e it s .

c c
ar e a in c ir c l ar m ils it is onl ne c e ssar to s ,
ar e t h e diam e t e r .

te r w
EXAM PL E

t
oul d w . fi Sln ce
b e : 3 7 5 X 37 5
in (5 m ils) in diam e
. er
( 37 5 m ils) t h e

w oul d b e : 5
ci r m ils
X5
.
ar e a of a

Lik e
ir le
ise , t h e
25 cir mils . .
in in diam e
.

are a of a cir cle

 u v g
SE C . 5] E L E C TR OM O TI VE F OR C E 99

(
1 40
o e
n - uu .

th o g
A Sq uare M il is t h e
san d

u th )
qu u
in l on
ar ea of a sq

Fig 88
ar e h a in
Ar eas of sq
sides

ar e or r ect angu

qu u g y g gu g
. . . -
,

l ar c ond ct ors tim es m eas r ed in s ar e m ils Areas

ar e som e .

in s are mil s ar e c al c l ate d b y m ul t ipl in to et h e r t h e l en t h

inc h . u v u g g
and t h e b r e adt h of t h e r e ct an l e e xpr esse d in t h o sandt hs of an

qu
In act al ar ea a c ir c ul ar m il is ab o t ei h t t ent h s as r eat
,
-

ct w w
as a s ar e m il as is e ident fr om Fig 88 . .

EXAM PL E — Th e . ar ea of a r e an gl e in . ide an d2 in l on g
. oul d be

M u u M
500 X sq . m i ls .

1 41
Ve r sa b y u g
. Sq uar e
u
sin gvil s
one of t h e
M ay B e R ed
for m l as t h at
ce d t o Cir c l ar
ar e i en b elow
il s or Vic e

Sq m ils
. Cir m i ls . X

Cir m ils.

sq in
ms
. .

CW " ”

ct cc
( 1 5) Sq in . . cir . m ils

EX AM PLE .
—Th e se ional area of t h e b usb ar in Fig . II , is in ir ul ar

3 X V4
m 771 118

ct t hw
. .

in cc
EXAM P L E — Th e
ir ul ar m ils :
se ional are a of the s eel t ee , s o n in Fig . V, is

1 42 A C ir cular M foot is t h e
il t c ond c t or A wir e h a in
-
u gu ni vu g
u
. .

a se ct ional ar ea of 1 cir m il an d a le n t h of 1 ft is a c ir c l ar

y
. .

m il foot of c on d c tor
-
T h e r esist an c e of a c ir c ul ar m il foot of a
.
-

m e t al is som e t im es c all e d it s specific r esistance or pr efer abl

r esistivi t
y ( Art 1
e nt c ond ct ors ar eu g gv
2 6a) R es
. ist an c es of c ir c ul ar mil fee t of differ
.

i e n in t h e acc om pan in T ab l e 14 3 an d yg -

u
H
,
’
t ables sh owin m ore c om pl e te dat a appear in t h e a th or s
AME RI CAN EL E CTRI CIAN S ’
ANDB O O K .
1 00 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y AR T 1 43

v
.

u
1 43 . Appr oxim at e —
R e sisti itie s Spe cifi c and Re l atiV H f
C ond ctor s .

R es ist iv i t y , in oh m s .
p Rel at iv e
c on d u c t r es is t
i v it y i v it y
( as c om ( as c om

par e d pa r e d
w it h w it h
c oppe r ) c oppe r )

Sil v e r , pur e an

n e al e d 0 . 0 9 674 1 0 8 60
.

C oppe r , ann e al ed

C opper h ar d
,

1 0 74 5
. 1 02 2
.

1 6 03 1
.

3 4 59 5
.

58 7 0 2
.

74 128
.

8 1 1 79
43 3 10

O
5 1 00 5
.

1 2 7 8 00
.

6 8 4 000

u u
.

Th
1 43 A Th e R e sistan c e

u
By C onside rin
s,
.

Ar t 12 7.
g
,
Th e
th e
Fact or s
r esis an t
Of

c e of
W u
Any C ond ctor M ay B e C om p t e d
hi ch D e te rm in e R e sistan c e
any c on d ct or w ill vy ar w it h
.

(a) Th e m ater ial (b) Dir ectly as the length of the

o the con ductor
f

u
.

cond uctor ( )
0 I n v er sely as th e a r ea of t h e co n d u cto r ( e t em
T h

ug u y g g u
. .

pe r a t ur e o f t h e c on d ct or Ar t 1 4 7 is a l so a fa ct o r b
,
u t t hi s
. m ay , , ,

s all b e disre ar de d) Th at is t h e l on er a c on d ct or is t h e

u gy
.
, , ,

r e at er it s O pposit ion or r esist an c e w ill b e Th e sm aller in c r oss

u
.

se ct ion al ar e a t h e c on d ct or is t h e r e at e r it s r esist an c e w ill b e

gu
.
,

Re sist an c e of c on d ct ors t o el e ctr ic it flow is in th ese r espe cts

y g
, ,

an al o o s t o t h e r esist an c e w h ic h pipe lin e s off er t o w at e r flow ;

see Ar t

ul a w e
1 28 .

ha v
B y pr operl c om b inin th ese fact or s int o a form
e
.

( 1 5 a) (O h m s)
an d

( 1 5aa) (in c h e s)

W vyh erein R
r esis t i it (Ar t
r esis an e

.
t
I2 GA) of t h e
c of t h e

c ond u u
c on d ct or in Oh m s p
ct or ; if A is expr e sse d in s
.

qu th e
ar e
‘
Int e r n at ion al T e xt b oo k C om pan y— E L E C TR I C A L H A N DB O O K
’
E N GI N E E R S . Se e t h e
AM E R I C A N E L E C TR I C I A N HA N DB O O K
’
au t h or s
’
S for a m or e com pl e t e t ab l e .
 l 02 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T . 1 45

( 8)
1

an d
d 2
X R c m X R
(1 8a)
.

( Oh m s pe r cir m il ft -
)

W vy u u
. .

l l

h er e in R

k
r esist i it
r e sis an e of
t c on d ct or in oh m s p
c
u
th e
in oh m s pe r c ir c lar mil foot of t h e m e t al c om posin
ro nd
-

g
, .

g
u qu
t h e w ir e as t a e n fr om Tab le 143
c ond ct or d
l l e n t h in feet O f t h e
diam e t e r of t h e c ond ct or in mil s 2
diam e
.

gu , ,

ug g u
. .
,

t e r in m ils s ar e d or w h at is t h e sam e t hin

, is t h e se ctional ,

ar ea Of t h e c on d ct or in c ir c l ar m ils

ug fi uk
.
,

See Art 14 7 r e ar din c orr e ct ions t h at .

m st in r e ne d w or b e m ade for , ,

t tc
c h an es in t em pe r at r e .

piec
th t
EX AM PL E
e of iron
—Wh a

tt c
w il l b e t h e
w ire , at 7 5 deg F . .
r esis an e of a

de g .

t t t tt t
a is % 0 in . in .
) in diam e e r an d 400
— Th e
is; ft l on g ?
.

mil-foo
SO L U
of
T I O N.

his wire ,
resis an e per cir
ak e n fr om T ab l e

X X
cul ar

225
“

Now sub s i u ing in t h e

X
143 is O h m s.

50 for m ul a R (p l) d 2

400 ) (300 3 00 )

u
oh m .

u C ond
1 4 5 To C om p .

t
c or s

gu u
te th e Re sistance
Th at Ar e Not C ir cular in
Of

th t c
F m
h h t qu 8 9 — C om par ison
of C r oss se ction
— Fir st fi r e t h e ir ar e as
-

qu u
, .
.

c e n t igr ad e an d F a r e n ei
in s ar e in c h es and t h e n r e d c e t h is

uv ug u g v
e m om e e r s al e s
r .

s ar e i n c h ar e a t o C i r c l ar m i ls as out

l ine d in Ar t 14 1 T h e n pr oc ee d sin t h e for m l a ( 1 6) i e n in

u u y
. .
,

Ar t 1 44 t o O b t ain t h e r e sist an c e al e

gy y z
. .

1 46 Th erm om et e r Scal e s — T h er m om e t e r s ar e s all c ali

y zg
. .

b r at e d in acc or dan c e with e ith e r t h e C e nt i r ade s st em or t h e

F ah r e nh eit s st em In t h e Fah r e nh eit s st em t h e ero is 32
.

deg b el ow t h e fr e e in point of w at er and t h e b oilin point of

gg y g ,

z zg y
.

w at e r is 2 1 2 de g (se e Fig In t h e C e nti rade s st em t h e

u g u v yu u g
. .

er o is t h e fr ee in po in t O f w a t er an d t h e b o il in point is 1 00

gy g yg k
de g
l ar el
. Th e C e nt ig r ade s st e m of m e as rin

in e n in e erin w or
e l e ct ric al m ac h ine r
t em perat r es is se d
and al m ost e xc l si el

Th e Fah r e nh eit s st e m is t h e one in c om

.
in r at in
y u vu
m on use in t h e U nit ed St at e s A t em perat re al e in one sys .
SE C 5] E LE C TRONI O TI V E F OR C E 1 03

u g v u
.

t em can

t e m dire ct l
be
yre d c e d to t h e c orr espon din
fr om a tabl e or by sin form l as
al e in t h e
*
u gM u o th e r sys~

y
y
.

1 47 Th e R e sistanc e of AlI Pur e t

e al s In c re ase s as Th e
'

u
.

Be c om e Hot ( Fig — Th e resis an es O f t c c ert ain allo s do not

u u
.

inc r ease w it h t h e t e m per at re . Tabl e 14 3 sh ow s th at the re

sist ance of a c ir c l ar m il foot -

of ann eal e d c oppe r is ab o t
oh m s at

w h er e u
uv u qu y 3 2 de g F
e xt r e m e acc
. . an d is
tial it is ne c essar t o not e t h e
ra

t em pe rat r e at w hich any r esistanc e al e is t a e n w hen t h e

c is esse n
O h m s at

,
y
v uk k
75 d eg F . . Th e r efore ,

y u
r esist an c e

g
al e is

u
ot e d In pr act ic al w or w it h w ir e par t icu
l arl in o t side an d inside w irin g c h an es in resist an c e due t o
ch an es in t e m pe r at r e ar e so sm all r el ati el t h at t h e nee d
.

,
gvy y ,
,

not be c onsider ed Th e O h ms in c r ease in resistanc e pe r oh m

.
, ,

66 66 | 04
De gr e e s Fa h r e n h e it

h h t c c t cc th t
+ 20 + 30 + 40

twc c ct ht h
t t t c t ct t
De gr ee s Ce nt igr ad e

hc ct wt
FI G 90 — G r ap s s ow in g the m il foo of oppe r of
r esi s an e pe r cir ul ar

ct cc c w tth
. .

diff e r e n on du ivi i es at diff e r e n e m pe r a ur es ( I t is usu al t o spe ify a .

s oft - dr a n oppe r s all av e 9 8 pe r c e n on d u i vi y an d ar d- dr a n C oppe r 9 7

g u
.

pe r en . He n e om m e r c ial oppe r ir e h as ab ou
, ese on du iv i i es ) .

for ea

fi y u
c h de r ee rise in te m per at r e is c all ed the tem per atu re coefi
cient of r esi stance (A c oe f c ien t is a m ltiplier ) S c h coe ffi u
u fi
. .

cie nts ar e de t e r m in e d e xpe rim e nt all

*
for differ ent m et al s An

y
.

ab ridge d list is sh ow n in 14 9 For all p r e m e t als t h e c oe f c ie nt .

is pr act ic all t h e sam e an d i s 0 004 pe r deg for tem er tu res i n

p a

u fi y ug
. .

de gr ees C entigrade an d 0 0023 per de g for tem per atur es in degrees

v g fi
. .

F ahr en heit T h e t e m pe r at r e c oef c ie n t O f an all o is e ne r all y

.

t c t w h
l e ss t h an t h e a e r a e O f t h e c oe f c ie nts of its c onst it e nts

wh tc t t t t c
Q
.

EXAM PL E If t h e

c tt c
r esis an e of a pu re m e al ire is 2 0 O m s at 60 d e g C
-
. .

w ill it s appr oxim a —

c t ch
a e re sis an e b e at 90 d e g C ? SO L UT I O N Th e dif . . .

fe r e n e in e m pe r a u r e is 90 60 3 0 de g . Now re sist an e of all pu re m e a ls

in r eases ab ou oh m pe r de g C . . rise for ea oh m origin al resis an e.

AM E R I C AN E L E C I B I C I A N S H A N DB O O K
'
Se e t h e
’
aut h or s
‘
.
1 04 P RAC TI C AL E LE C TR I C I T Y

h c c w X
[ AR T . 1 48

h hw
er e fore

He n
for
c
t c wh th wc c t
a

h w .

X
3 0 d e g C rise t h e in r e ase pe r oh m
. oul d b e 0 00 4 30 .

ct
e t h e in re ase for 2 0 O m s oul d b e 2 0 0 12 2 4 oh m s .
:
. .

t t ct th t tc
T er efore , the r esis an e at 9 0 de g C . . oul d be 20 oh ms .

Art 2 50 s o s a form ul a
. e reb y e se al ul a ions can b e m ade dir e ly .

tt c tc c c t t c
No e also Art 1 53 for an . e xa me od of de er m inin g r esis an e s at diffe r

c
e nt t e m pe r a ur es .

N or E — Th e r e sis an e of arb on in re ases as it s e m pe ra u re de r e ase s

y u u
.

an d de r e ases as it s e m pe r a ure in r e ase s.

po u y
n
1 48
d e d
. Allo s with Z er o Te m pe rat

y
Th at is, t h e
y
c on d ct ors c om pose d of r e sis an es of
t c
re C oe flicie nt s can be com

u u fi
.

t h ese allo s r em ain pr actic all c onst ant at all or din ar t em per a
.

y g
t r es Th eir t em per at r e c oe f cients are

g g g
M anganin an all o of 84 par ts c opper 1 2 part s nic el an d 4 k
For exam ple

u
,

u y v g
, ,

par t s m an an ese all b y w ei h t h as a n e li ib l e t e m per at r e c oef

u y
, ,

fi cie nt for pr a ct ic al p rposes Oth e r allo s h a in sim il ar pr op

g
.

e r t ies ar e pr od c e d Th e r esist an c e s of m ost all o s in c r e ase

u
.

with t h eir t e m per at ur es b ut t o a l ess de r e e t h an do t h e r esist

an ce s of p r e m e t al s

u .

1 49 Appr oxim ate Te m pe rat r e C oe mcie nt s of C ond ctor s

. u *
.

( A) a (B ) a

C on d u c t or

100 C
° °
. 2 12 F .

Sil v er , pure anne al ed

h wct
C oppe r , ann e ale d “

c
C oppe r , ar d-d r a n

Al um inum (9 7 5 pe r . en .
pu re ) ”

(v e ry

c
Zin pur e )
Iron Wi r e .

Ni k el

h h
t
P osp or-b ronz e
Ger m an sil ver .

Pl a inoid

150
T e m pe rat uy k
. TO Find th e R e sist an c e of a C ond
re , Approxim ate M ctor at Any O r dinar
e th od b ut s f c ientl
uu fi y u
acc r at e for
y
all or dinar

form l as u are
w or Se e Art . . 1 52 for t h e exact m et h od Th e .

( 1 9) Rh Rc [a X RAT}. ( O h m s)
‘
Int e r n at ion al T e xt B oo k c om pany
— E L E C TRIC AL E N G I NE E R
’
s H A N DB O O K . Se e t h e
AME R I C AN E LE CT RI CI AN HA N DB O O K for
’
aut h or s m or e c o m pl e t e
'
S a t ab l e .
100 P RAC TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T . 1 53

gu g
Exact Te m pe ratur e C oe ffi cie nt s for C Oppe r
g
*
1 53 . .

a c han e in r esist an c e per de r ee C enti r ade for each oh m

at t e m perat r e 15 .

I ni t ial

M
1 54
gu g
Te m pe rat ur e Rise s in a C ond u uct or C an B e D ete rmine d

u
.

by e asurin th e R e sistanc e Of th e C ond t

c or w h en c ol d and

w h en h ot b y sin t h is for m la :
R2 R1
X RI
t ( d eg C )
. .

a
ST AN D AR DI Z ATI O N R UL E S Am er ic an I ns t it u t e
, of E l ec r ic al E ng in ee rs .
 EL E C TROM OTI V E FORCE 1 07

W ug
SE C . 5] .

h er ein R2
r e sis an e , t
u c in
r esis an e , t
oh m s, at
c in O h m s, at se ond

init ial t em pe rat re T

c
u fi
t em perat r e R I
c h an e of
.

u
.

t e m pe r at re , a c oef cient fr om Ar t .

1 52

t t
EX AM P L E
at init ial
— Th e
t em per at

t c c t h t t
re .

h ht t t
r e sis an ce of a set of coils m easure d 20 ohm s at a r oom

c
e m pe ra u re of 20 d e g C Af . . er arrying urr e n for a fe w our s t h e resis

W v erage

x
an ce m e asure d O ms . a w as t h e a e m pe ra ur e r ise in t h e
oil ? SO L UTI O N .
— Sub st lt ut e in the form ul a T ( R2 RI )
(a x RI ) 2 0) 20 ) 1 0 de g

y u
.

aver age tem per atu r e rise .

F or
2 5 de g C
beco me s
.
or dinar

. u. v u
c om m e r c ial est im at es a r oom t em per at re of
(7 7 de g F ) is O ft en ass m e d and t h e ab o e for m la t h en
.

R2 R
(2 3 ) ( de g C )

W u g g
X R25
. .

h e r e in T in c r e ase in t e m perat re , in de r ees, C e nt i r ade

uH u v
.

R2 r e sis an e , t c in O hm s, h ot R 25 0 r esis an e ,
t c c ol d at r oom

u ug W
.
,

t em per at m e d t o b e 25 de g C
r e , ass

y u uv g
. .

1 55 e at Is D e el ope d in Any C ond ctor th r o h hic h

y
.

Ele ctric it Fl ow s and t h e t e m pe r at r e Of t h e c ond ct or is r aise d

th er eb
the
v y
.

r esis an e t u Th e h e at
c by t h e
r e pr ese n s t
c rre nt
t h e l oss due t o t h e o
Oft e n t h e am oun t
e r om in

Of
c
h e at de
of

v v u u
.

v el ope d is er sm all an d is not not ic e ab l e

— b ut it is pr ese nt
n e e r th el ess

v If th e r e is an exc essi e c rr en t in a c ond ct or

u
.

h e at m ay b e de elope d m or e r apidl in t h e c ond ct or t h an it can

‘

y uv ,

p o ss iy H
bl m el t
—
b e dissipat e d th en t h e c on d ct or w ill b e c om e ery h ot an d m ay
e at is di ssipat e d b y air cu rr e nt s ( convecti on) an d
'

g
u u k y u u
.

b y r adiation It is t h e r efor e oft e n d esir ab l e t o so arr an e a con

.

d ct or w hic h m st b e e pt c ool t h at c ool air can c ir c l at e ar o nd

qu u
,

it a nd th e h eat can b e r e adil r adi at e d from it

yg g ug y y v yu u
.

Oft en t h e prin c ipal r e ir e m ent of el e ct ric al c ond ctors is

t h at th e b e l ar e e n o h t o c arr t h e ne c essar c rr ent w ith o t

g
b e c omin t oo h ot for safet

u y u u
Tabl es h a e b een c om pil e d (Art
1 56) indi c atin t h e safe c rr ents for differe nt siz e c on d ct ors
.

u u .

y v u t c
.

Th ese sh o ld al w a s b e c ons l t e d b efor e a c on d ct or is sel e ct e d

t o c arr a gi en c rr e nt

t wh c t c — Fuse s o e r a
.

h t t t th de v el ope d in h e m b y cur

c c t h t c t c th tc c t
Ex AM PL E s .
p e be ause of the ea

v wire m el s and e r eb y t h e

ht w t t
re n ; en the urr e n be om es e xcessi e , t h e fuse
v

t ct c h t c
ir ui is au om a i all y ope n e d in ase of o e rl oad . In andesce n l am ps pro
e ir fil am en

ht c t
d u ce lig t b e ause s ar e e at ed hit e h ot b y t h e passage of
curre n . El e ri ea in g de vi es ope ra e b ecause t h e resis ors h ere in are
e a ed by t h e passage of urr en .
1 08 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

Wg
. 156

1 56 D im e nsions,
W g
. ei h ts and R e sistance s of Pur e , Solid
Am e r ic an ir e Ga e or

Ar e a

0 0 00
000 0 40 9 64 0 00 1 3 1 , 7 90 0
00
0 0 3 2 4860 00 0
1 0 2 8 9 30 0 20 0
2
3
4
5
6

No 6 . an d l ar g e r c on d u c t or s w h e r e t h e y ar e t o b e u se d in in t e r ior w or
, or ar e t o b e k
st ru c t ion , sol id w ir es u p t o a n d in c l uding N o 00 c an b e u se d b u t for l ar g e r c on d u c t or s
.

C al c ul at e d on t h e b asis of Dr . M at t h ie se n ’
s s t an d a r d , 1 m i l e of pu r e c oppe r
n am e l y ,

V al u e s of r e sist an c e g iv e n in t h e w ir e t ab l e s of t h e Am e r ic an I nst it ut e of E l e c t ric al E u

t h ose t ab ul at e d ab ov e .
This d iff e re n ce is so sm a ll as t o b e in c on se q u e n t ial in pr act i c al
.
1 10 PR AC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART 1 57

v g
.

poin
1 57
t
.

of
C ontact R e sistance is t h e

g u c ond ct ors in se r ies Th e reat er t h e

c ont act of t w o u u re sis an e
t c de elope d at t he

g
.

cl am pin pr ess re b e t w e en t h e c on d ct ors in c ont act and t h e

g
r e at e r t h e ar e a O f c ont act t h e l e ss w ill b e t h e c ont act r e sist anc e
,

If a c ont act h as a hi h r esist an c e e xc essi e h e at w ill b e de el ope d v qu v .

v yg
,

th ere at C er t ain safe cu r rent densities ( am per es per s ar e in ch )

k gH k
.

h a e b ee n e xperim e nt all det er m ine d for c ont act s of diffe rent

in ds : slidin sc r e w e d sprin and t h e li e (se e t ab l e in AM E R I CAN
’
E L E C T R I C I AN S
g
AN D B O O K )
,

v
,

Th ese safe densit ies sh o l d n ot b e u

u u v
.

e xc e e de d or e xc essi e h e at in will r esul t See Ar t 605 for

gu G u gg
. .

”
B r sh C ont act R esist an c e
” “
B r sh R esist an c e an d
“

u quv gy
.

1 57A V olta e . radie nt

*
is t h e ol t s dr op per nit l e n th of
c ir c it It is se d m ost fre entl in c onne ction with h i h

y y gu
.

ol t a e ph e nom e n a b ut does not

n e c e ssar il r el at e sol el t o s ch

u gu
.

”
F or e xam pl e w h e n a c h ar ed ,

6600 V ’ ” O
c ond ct or C (Fig 9 DA) is se pa

u
.

r at e d fr om r o n d b y a diel e ct ric

v v or ins l at or t h e pot e n t ial of C

ab o e t h e pot e n t ial of G m ay b e
,
'

gv e xpr esse d in ol t s w h ic h m ay b e
desi nat e d b y t h e l e tt e r E Th s u
v
.
,
FI G {30 ° V O l t ag e
if a ol t m e t e r V c onne ct e d as
'

u v v
,

sh ow n r eads ol t s t h e n t h e

y uv g z v gv gg
, ,

i l f C l d be ol t s ab o e t h at of t h e e ar t h w hic h
'

p o t e n t a o w o ,

is al w a s ass m e d t o b e er o Th e a er a e olt a e r adie nt is .

t c t t th v
Ob t ained b y di idin t h e pot e nt ial difi er ence b y t h e dist an c e

t ctt c t th thc t tw t
.

EX AM PL E —If t h e dis an e I in t h e ill us r a ion w e r e 30 ft

. en t h e a er age .
,

v ol age gradien for ese ondi ions oul d b e :

t t t tw t w
30 220 v olts per

tt c ct c t th t t t
ft . T h e diel e in sul a ing m a e rials m ay b e m e asure d in volts
ri s re n g s of

per unit length Th e v ol age gr adien at any poin in an insul a in g m a e rial

.

m u s n ot e x e ed t h e d iel e ri s reng of h a m a e rial or it ill b re ak do n

u g G
or ru p ur e .

1 57B

dist rib
.

fr om t h e ab ov e discussion W
Th e Eq ation s for V olta e

u g u v g
r adie nt C alculation s follow

u
h en t h e ol t a e dr op is niform l
t ed al on
.

c ond ct or (or ins l at or )

u y
v
a an

1
? ( ol st pe r ft . or pe r in .
)

( 3 b)
2 E = GXl
E lectr ic J ou r nal .
SE C . 5] EL E C TROM O TI VE F ORC E 11 1

E
(ft or in )

Wg vgg g v u v
G
. .

h e r ein G olt a e r adien t in olts

per foot Or olt s pe r in c h

v g
,

l en th dependin on w h e t h er I is m eas r e d in fe e t or in in c h es

u g
, .

E in ol s,t im pr esse d c
a r oss t h e len th l of t h e c on du c

t or

vu u u
c onsider ation l

yu
n de r

v ug
l e n t h in in c h es or in fee t O f t h e
por tion of t h e Con d ct or n de r c onside r at ion
.

G w h e n expr essed
in ol t s pe r in c h reall r e pr ese nts t h e olt a e im pr esse d on a
,

.
,
,

y
,

l ih c b e of t h e c ond ct or or diel e ct ric n der c onsider at ion

-

g G
.
,
“
and is som e t im es c all e d
* ”
t h e el e ct ric int ensit at a point

u u y
.

157 O Tw o O th e r Form ulas for V olta e r adie nt , w h ic h are

v u u v
.

im portan t b e ca se of t h e t r th s w h ic h th e disc l ose can b e de

ri e d (as sh own b el ow ) fr om for m las w h ic h h a e pr e c e ded

u u
.

Th e se for m las w hic h st at e w h at Karapet oif c alls t h e Ohm s “ ’

”
law for t h e nit c ond ct or are

(23 d) G p X U

v
an d

(23 6 ) ( t
ol s per in )

W vy v g g v u g u
.

h erein G olt a e r adien t in olt s per inc h len th p

y u qu u vy
.
,

t i it of t h e m ate rial in oh m s per inc h c b e

r e sis U
,
c rr en t .

densit in am pe r es per s are in c h

, 7 c ond cti it in m h os .

i c h c be

X th t t th
pe r n .

D E RI V ATI O N O F AB OVE EQU ON — Now fr om

X th t t t t
ATI S Fr 0 m (23a) G E /l .
, .

t X X X
( 1 5aa ) l A ,R / p; e n sub st i u in g is e xpression for l in ( 2 3 a ) , G
p/ A X R A I / U;

h X
E But from . en su b s i u in g his
expr ession for A in t h e for m ul a j us U/ I

X cc X U wh ch t
pre ce din g : G E p R .

Now fr om U/ I X R T h e

v
E = I X R; e n ce G = I X R X p .

“
I R
”
e xpressions an el out l eaving G p ,
i is e qua ion
( 23 d) ab ov e . Form ul a (2 3e) m ay b e de ri ed b y a sim il ar proce ss .

K ar ape t ofi , in h is T HE E L EC T R I C C I RC UIT .
 SE C T ION 6

W W
ORK , P OGY Q ER , ENER TOR UE AND EFFIC IENC Y
WW k v u g
158
uork is t h e o er c omin of opposit ion thr o h a c er t ain ug
ug v Wk
.

dist an c e or is m eas r e d b y t h e pr od ct of t h e opposit ion

uug u vv g g
.

t im es t h e spac e t hr o h w hi ch it is o er c om e or is also .

m eas r ed b y t h e pr od ct of t h e m o in for c e t im es t h e dist an c e

W kk
th r o

w or
or uu u
h w hic h t h e forc e act s in o er c om in

k u
can

is t h e g u
b e m eas
am o n t
r ed
t h e opposit ion

of w or
in foot -

done in
po n ds (ft
r aisin
.

a w ei
A fgoo pound

ht
t-

of 1 lb
Of

a
.

v g ug
.

dist an c e of 1 ft . Also, a foot po nd is t h e am o nt of w or k done

-

in o er om in c a for c e of 1 lb t h r o h a dist anc e Of 1 ft

. .

1 Lif t ing We ig ht
w 11 Eng in e Cylin d e r
”

— E xa m pl e s k

wX t t t t
FI G . 91 . of or .

wt c t c
ExAM PL E s
k done
. If a

w t w h w
e igh of 6 l b is lif . ed a dis an ce of 8 ft .
(Fig .

w X X t t t tt
the or w ill b e 6 8 48 ft -lb . .
( 2 ) If 2 0 gal of w a er are pum pe d
.

ve r or k d on e b y t h e

t t c
a i al dis an e of 3 2 ft .
( 1 gal . of a er e ig s 8 l b ) t h e .

ttt w
pum p il l b e 2 0 8 32 ft lb .
-
.
(3 ) If t h e pis on in a s e am engin e
v els

X
ra , during a e rt ain in e rv al , 1 % ft .
( Fig . 9 1,II and the o al pr essu r e
on t h e pis on is lh .
, t h e w or k d on e during h a in v al
er ould be

g k qu kgy
ft .
-
lb .

gy
1 59
done , t h e
. Pow e r is
r ea er t
ra e

ku
t of

t h e pow er th at w ill be
k
doin w or .

re
Th e fast er
ir ed t o do it
th at w or
En e r
is

u
.

h as t o do onl w ith w or ,
w hi le pow er h as t o do wit h w or an d

hw w t
—
t im e foot po -
nds and m in t es .

ct t t c
a
M
er ain

an ce in l min
L E Ss

dis
—If
‘

an e

.
it re

in 2 m in
q uires
.
,
10
20 h p
or se po

. ill b e
er

re
t o raise a l oaded
quired t o raise it th e
ele v a or

sam e dis
 PR AC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u u
1 14 . 1 62

v Hy
wh en t h e
ol t
gy
c rr en t in t h at c ir c it is 1 am p . an d the e . m f is 1
.

vu
.

uuu y u u
.

1 62 . dr aulic Analo of El e ctr ical P ow er — It is

. ob io s

fr om t h e pict r e cir c it sh ow n in Fig

of t h e h dr a lic

gg y u
.

th at t h e pow er o t p t of t h e w at er m ot or will depend on : ( 1 )

u uv
the pressure e ner ate d b y t h e r ot ar p m p; an d ( 2 ) th e volume

th at is t h e all ons per min t e p m pe d or for c ed t hr o h t h e w ater ug .

,

m ot or

u u M ore pow er w ill b e de el ope d b y a 20 gal per min flow

.

v
at 1 00 l b per sq in press r e t h an at 50 lb per sq in pr ess r e
. . .

F r th er m ore m or e pow er w ill b e de el ope d w it h a 1 00 lb per

.
.

. .
.

u .

v
.
,

sq in pr essur e b y a 40 gal pe r min flow t h an b y a 2 0 gal pe r

u
. . . . . .

min flow. Th e pow er de el ope d b y t h e w at er m ot or depends

.

th en on t h e press re and on t h e flow .

w cct
I Powe r in
‘

a Hyd r aulic C ircuit 11 Pow er in an Elect ric Circuit

°

FI G . 9 3 — Po
. er in ir ui s
.

gu g g
In t h e
an al o o s
u uu v
el e
ct ric c ir c it sh ow n in Fig I t h e c ondit ions are
Th e r e at er t h e el e ct ric pr ess r e ( ol ts) im pr esse d
.
,

ug g u
.

o t e
n h m ot or and t h e r e at e r t h e flow ( c o l o b s pe se c
m r o n —
d or

v
am pe r es) t h r o

g y u gu u g y
pow er de el ope d b y it u u u
h t h e m ot or t h e r e at e r w ill b e t h e am o nt of
,

In t h e h dr a lic c ir c it at I if t h e p m p

k
.
,

e ner at es a h dr a li c pr ess r e m c h r e at e r t h an t h at for w hic h

g g
an d if t h e g u
g
e ne r at or in I I u
t h e w at er m ot or is desi ne d t h e w at er m ot or w ill b r e a dow n
,

en er at es an el e ct r ic pr ess r e m c h

u k
r eat er t h an t h at for w hic h t h e el e ct ric m ot or is d esi n e d t h e

u
el e ct r ic m ot or w ill b r e a

v
dow n In b ot h c ases I an d I I t h e
,

u u v y
.
, ,

flow of c rr e n t is det erm in e d b y t h e pr ess r e and if an e xc e ssi e

inju
pr ess r e c a ses an exc essi e flow t h e m ot ors will prob ab l b e
r ed .
,
 WORK AND POWE R 1 15

v u H H u
SE C . 6]

g
1 63 Eq ui
En lish an d
TR I C
.

R E V IE W
t Val e s
al e n
M e tri c Units
.
.
for
.
Pow e r
M .
Expr e sse d in Vario s
ob ar t , in GE NE R AL E L E C

1 w at t is eq ual t o .

1 kw is eq ual t o
. . .

1 E ng l ish ( an d
Am er ic an) h p . . .

l C on t in e n t al h p . .

l kg -m pe r se c
. . . .

1 ft -l b pe r
. .

1 kg -c al per
. . sec .

1 B t u pe r sec

qu
. . . .

1 64
t h e pr od
for m ul a :
.

u v
Pow e r in El ectr ical Dir ect - cur r e nt C ir cuit s is
ct of ol t s and am per es . E xpr essin g t his
e

r ul e
al to
as a

(2 4 ) P I X E (w atts)
but -

sin e c (Art . 1 34 ) I E / R, it m ay also be t t

s a ed t h at
E E 2

and also sin e c (Ar t . 134) E I X R , it m ay b e s a ed

t t t h at

Wv v g u
(26) P = I XI X R = I 2
XR (w att s)
h e r ein I t in am pe r es E olt a e or
c rr en in

v qu v y y
.
, ,

ol t s R r esist an c e in oh m s P t h e pow e r in w atts

u y gfi g u u
. . .
, ,

Th e ab o e t h r ee e at ions ar e er im por t ant (Th e m ay

u u
.

b e s b j e ct t o m odi c at ion for alt er nat in c r r ent c ir c its Art -

v v u u
.
,

In appl in t h ese for m l as t h e sam e c a t ions (Art 1 3 6)

v g u u y
.

’
m ust b e Ob ser e d as wit h Oh m s l aw Th e al es of c rr ent

uv u u
.
,

olt a e and r esist an c e se d in any on e pr obl e m m st all appl

u
t o t h e sam e c ir c it or t o t h e sam e por tion O f a c ir c it
tions of t h e ab o e t h ree f ndam e nt al form l as are :
V aria

P
.

E
116 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y (Am . 1 65

(Oh m s)

I
w ct c t c c t
La m Circ uit II Motor C irc uit
“

p
“

— Po in dir e

w ttt t t c c c tX
FI G . 94 . er - ur r e n ir ui .

EX AM P LE —HOW m any

X t w tt t
. a s ar e ons um e d b y t h e in an de s en l am p in
—
UTI O N Sub s i

t
Fig . SO L . u e in t h e for m ul a P I E
v ol

w tt X wX v t tt t
56 am p . 1 10 s 55 w atts .

EX A M P LE .
— HOW m any a s are a enk by t h e m o or Of Fig . How
m any k il o a s? How m any h orse po er ? SO L UTI O N -
Sub s i u e in t h e

w tt
.

for m ul a P I E 70 am p . 22 0 ol s w atts.

a s

w tt
kw .

a s

t t wh tt t t w t
h p .

746
.

7 46

—In

X X X X
librAM P LE r the r ansm ission line of Fig 9 5 . a w il l b e t h e po e r l os
In t h e lin e w ir es t o t h e m o or ? SO L UTI O N — Sub s i u e in t h e form ul a
P 1 2
R (40 40 ) + 0 3) 9 60 watts .

— Po w t t
yg
FI G . 95 . er l oss in a r ans m is s on i li ne .
( C urr e n in li n e w ir e s is 4 0 am p .
)

1 65 In Appl in th e Eq uations of Art

.

curr e nt Pr ob l e m s, it m ay b e t h at c e r t ain

m ade t o Ob t ain t h e vu al (Art

. 1 64 t o Alte rnating
c orr e ctions sh o

In
ug ld be
ener al ,
g pow er
corre c . e .
 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T 1 68

yv g qu
1 18 .

or dinar

re app e a r s as h e a t p o w
olt a es an d
er a n d h e
c
a t
i
s
es

t h e
T
c
h
fr e
on
e

d
w a

ct
tt
o
en
s

r s
p
a
o
n
w
d
e

t
r

h
l
e
o

t
s
.s

hin
P
s uu ,

g ,

j c t
u
ad a e n t o h e t m T h e h e a t f r.o m t
u g j
h e c on d ct o r s is di s si p a t e d

tt t t
in t o th e air and s rr o ndin Ob e cts
w c tX
.

X w Xtt
E A M P L E
—
— W h a is t h e p o e r l oss in t h e in can d es e n l am p of Fi g 96 I
X .
,

t ht t wh t
SO L UTI O N S u b s
. i u e in t h e fo r m u l a P I R 2

4 74 w atts

t t tht
98 98 .

lam p fil am en i e-h ot

w ct w t t t
This 4 7 4 a s appe ars as h ea raisin g the to a

w th t t c t
e m pe ra ur e an d e reb y pr od u ces li g .

X
E AMP L E — Wh a is t h e po erl oss in t h e in du iv e indin g O f Fig I
—
.

i an al e rn a in g ur re n of 3 a m p ? SO L
. U TI O N S ub s i u e in t h e.
for

g Hu
X = 9 X 7 = 6 3 w
m ula (26) : P = 1 2
XR ( 3 3 ) 7 atts .

k yy t M t i K il w tt d in o P ow —Th e
1 68 Ra in o o r s n o a s an rs e e r .

u
.

il ow att a d t
n h e h o r se po w e r a r e b ot h n it s o f p ow e r F or .

m an ea s
r m ot o rs w er e r at e d in h orse p ow e r b e c a s e m ost of

A C Gene r a tor
. .

1 Loss in a n Inca nde scent La mp

“

t t w tt w c ct
II Lo s s in a
Win d ing
— Ill us

u
FI G . 96 . ra in g a s po er l oss in on du ors .

uk k v
nit t h an w it h t h e il ow att

g v
t h e possible p r c h aser s of m otors w er e m or e familiar w it h this

u u
M ot or s ar e n ow , h ow e er, r ate d in

u y g
.

il ow atts b e c a se t his is t h e m ost c on enien t l o ic al an d a cc

vu u u u H k
,

ra e t ni t . A kilow att m eans pr e c isel the sam e thin t h e w orl d

o er w hil e a h or se pow er does not (see T abl e en c e in t h e

f t re the o

u
w att s m e c h anic alv g
t p t s of el e ctric m ot ors w ill b e expr essed in t h e ilo

k pow er a ail ab l e at the sh af t For pr actic al

k g
.

p r pose s, t h e h oI se- pow er ratin of a m ot or m ay b e t a en as

1 69 y
four-t h ir ds
y gg kk
En e r g is c apac it
of

y ugy
it s il ow att ra tin
for doin
.

w or Any bod or m e di m

gy u u
. .

w hic h is of it self c apab l e Of doin w or is said t o posse ss en er

u u
.

E ne r can be e xpr e sse d in foot po -

nds or in ni s t t h at c an be

c c t t w c
red f
c ed t o oot po
-
n ds .

Fk
e n e r gyc ct w w wc
A Ma

be
A m ovin g pr oj e
s

a use
— A

v
.

c c c lo
in un
k sprin g

in ding it
il e possesses
ha

en e rgy
ill d o
h as b ee n

be
or

ause it
oun d up or
k in driv in g t h e
can o e r com e
lo
oil ed posse sses
k me
the
h anism
resis tan ce
.
 WORK AND PO WE R

th w ch t
SE C . 6] 1 19

age ttt t
o ff e r e d

ba cth by th e
e ry

w c air ,

ct cby
posse sse s e ne r gy
ar m or plat e ,
be
et c

ause
.
,

it
an d

can
us

pr odu e
do or k
el e
. A
ri al
ar ge d s or

e ne r gy to

y H gy y
mo kinds of k
’

ope r a e a or or t o d o m any o er or .

1 7 0 Energ M ay B e Transform e d into Ene rg of

of O ne Sort

g
.

Anoth er Sort — eat ene r in c oal m ay b e t r ansfor m e d (b ut

_
gy
e r at or in t o el e ct r ic al en e r gy
not w it h ou t a c er t ain l oss) b y a b oil er a st e am e n in e an d a ge n

fl g Th e e n e r posse sse d b y a st r e am
,

g y u
.
,

of ow in w at er m ay b e tr ansform e d b y a w at er w h e e l an d a

gy
,

e ne r at or int o el e ct ric al en e r g Th er e ar e defi ni t e n m eric al .

t h t
r el at ions b e t w ee n t h e differ en t sor t s of e n e r .

ft -lb
.
EX A

h
M P

ct
L E

cS

.
—
tl
In ele
.

ri al
B t . . u .
(B r itish
u ni s , e n e r gy
ther mal u n it, a uni
is e xpre sse d in w att- hour s
of ea e n e r gy

or
)
in ki lowatt
7 78

gy k
hour s . T us, 1 kw -h r . . ft -lb . . h p -h r
. . .

171 A Kil ow att our

-h
r e pr e se n s t the ener expen de d if w or

u k
.

is done for 1 h r at the r a e of

t 1 kw 1 kw hr -

uH
. . . .

ft -l b h p -h r A w att hou r is -
one- th o san d th of a il o

u gy
. . . . .

w att h o -
r. 1 w att h r ft lb - -
h p -h r

k
. . . . . .

172 A . or se - pow e r h o r repr e sent s t h e e ne r e xpe n de d if

w or is done for 1 hr at the r a e oft 1 hp 1 h p hr -
'

u u y
. . . . .

ft lb -
w att h r -
kw -hr

u y y
. . . . .

1 73 Tor q e — Applied tor que is a m e as re of a t en den c to

qu u u g g
.

p od
r c e r ot ation Resi sting torq ue is t h e t en den c of a b od t o

u u y u
.

r e sist r ot at ion T or e is t h e m e as r e of a t r nin or t w ist in

gv u u qu qu v u
.

effor t an d is s all e xpr esse d in pounds feet or in po n ds for c e at a -

i e n r adi s dist X lbs T or e m ay e xis t e e n if t h er e b e n o

u g g u
. .

m otion Th s in Fig t h e t or e at t h e c ir c m fe r e n c e of

u v gg qug u g
. .
,

t h e dr m is 50 lb so l on as t h e w ei h t is s ppor t e d w h e th er t h e
.
,

dr m is m o in or st an din Still It is ass m e d t h at t h e h oistin

u g y
.

r ope h as n o w e i h t T or e is som e t im es e xpr e sse d as t h e pr od .

u c t of for c e int r od c in t h e t e n den c t o r ot ate t im e s t h e dist an c e

t t t c
fr om t h e c en t e r of r ot ation t o t h e point of applic ation of t h e for c e .

c cc t X
b ri k w all w oul d b e 1 00 lb 1 2 ft
.

lb ft t t th
EXAMP L E —In Fig 9 7 I I t h e or que e n ding t o urn t h e ylin de r in t h e
.

(In som e e x b ooks is

.

.
,

. .
-
.
-

yqu u k
w oul d, ina ur a e l y, b e expr esse d as ft -lb . .
)

is
Th e
t or
u y c linder
e

u u g
Pr ob ab l qu
can n ot

f
t rn an d n o w or

t h e b e st w ay Of expr e ssin
don e , yet th er e
t or e is in
c oul d b e

y g v u
.

for c e) and r adi s

“
t er m s of press re ( or Th s 1 00 lb or ce at

uu y u u y g
. .

”
1 2 ft r adius Or din aril the e xpr ession is i en for ni t or 1

k qu u
. .

ft r adi s B eca se of t h e fact t h at m an w r it e r s an d en in e er s

u g g
. .

err one o sl e xpr e ss ni s of t b ot h w or an d t or e in foot -po n ds

a c onf sion som e t im es exis s r e ar din

t t h e distin ction b et w een
 1 20 P RA C TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

y u
. 1 73

t he t w o

(ft lb -
.
)
.

w h ile qu
Wo kr

t oru
y u gv u u
(Ar t 1 58) is pr oper l
.

e sh o ld b e expr esse d
e xpr e sse d

in po nd
in foot po
s fe e t (lb -
-

.
nds

t ht t w th c
or pr efer ab l in po n ds at a i en r adi s .

EX
5 0 lb .
AM P L E

an d
— In H g
t h e l ooseth c .

sid e
9 8, t h e
wi
ig
a for
side of

e of 1 0 lb
t h e b el
. Th e
is pull in g i a for e of

r ad ius of t h e pul l ey is 2 ft .

Se ct ion

Wor k a nd To
w t
I II An Exa m le of Tor ue
p
'

q ue q
'
r

— E x am pl e s of

c t t ht t t h t
FI G . 97 . or k an d or q u e .

c t c c wt ct t t
Hen e the or

k
c c t
q ue produce d b y t h e

ct
ig side en din g t o urn t h e s af in t h e
q

ct t c t c c w
ou n er - lo ise dire ion is : 50 lb X 2 .
ft . 1 00 lb -ft . . Th e or u e of

kw ise

ct th
t h e l oose side en din g to ro a e t h e pull ey in t h e lo dire ion is :
iv e que—in k

th
1 0 lb . X 2 ft 2 0 lb ft
-
. Th e e ffe or the oun e r - lo ise
ion—is
. .

ving t h e

h ct v
dire en : 1 00 lb -ft . . 2 0 l b -ft. . 80 lb -ft . . O r, sol prob
l e m in ano er w ay : 5 0 lb . 1 0 lb .

t or que is : 40

t
40 lb . T en the e ffe i e

v t
lb X 2 ft
. . 80 lb -ft . .

EXAMP L E — Th e

ht th tch wh ch
. m ot or ar m a ure of

Fig 99 is d e
. el opin g 240 lb -ft . . or que .

h t h tt w ct
T en t h e pr e ssure on t h e pinion an d ge ar
ee at t h e pi line i is 6 in or .

ht tt t t ht
alf a foo a ay fr om t h e e n e r of the
mo or s af is : 240 1b -ft . .
ft . 480
9 8 — S ow in g h ow q

w v
F ro . . or q u e is lb . Th e or ue e xe r e d on the s af of
e xe r e d b y a b e l

t ct t th t ct w th th tt
the ge ar is : 4 80 lb x 2 ft 960 lb -ft
. . . .

Th e po e r ( Art 1 59 ) de el ope d b y t h e
.

—in ion —

t th tct c w h w
gear is no gr e a e r fa i is a t rifle sm all er due t o fri an a de
v el ope db y t h e pin ion for t h e re ason a t h e ge ar m ak es fe e r r e v ol u ions
k —

t w ct
pe r m in u e a n d o e s t h e pini on T h e r a e of d oin g or t h e o rse po e r

—oi t h e pinion and of t h e ge ar are pra i ally t h e sam e Se e Art 677 on

.

ct c t v t
. .

Mo Horse Po

t t tc h
“
or er .

EXAM PL E —Fig 1 00 indi a es h ow an el e ri m o or de el ops or q ue

. .

This is rea ed m ore full y in Art 62 7 an d foll owin g ar i l es It is t h ere s ow n

. .
 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

t c c t hwh c h
1 22 . 1 74

N
to m o
h is s
w tw
h w w
or E
'

c.

ve
oulde r
c
oul d t
—Th e diam e

oul d
c th
be h wh ch
m ov e
er of

i e the
the

oul d
ir l e h r oug
r adius

be e
L . He n
qual t o :
e,
i h his s
t h e dis
twi ce L m ulti pl ied by
an e
oulde r w oul d
r oug
h ave
i

of Push

tt — Ill us t
fu u g v vu k
FI G . 101 . ra in g t h e id e a of or q ue .

If t h e orce be e xe r t s on t h e le er is r e pr ese n e d t b y F , t h e w or
h e w o l d do d
X g u
XF-
.
r in

D e n ot in
ea ch re ol

t h e n m b er of
tion
re vu
w oul d b e : 2 X distance L
ol tions h e m a k es

c t
uu u u u k u
FI G . 1 02 .
— O ne om m on arr an g e m e n of a pr on y br a ke .

pe r m in t e by t h e n m b e r of foot- po nds of w or h e w o ld

u
do pe r m in t e
w o ld b e : 2 X L X
d c e th is h or se pow er it is n ow n e c e ssar
2 X L X
y v X F X
t o di ide b y
r .
pm
. . To
th u
re

s:

X F X r .
pm
. .

3 3 0 00
(h or se pow er )
SE C 6] WORK AND P O WE R 123

u u g k
.

yv g g
t
This for m l a is
pes of e n Wé u g
ines an d
se d for fi n din
m otors
t h e br a
h en r nnin
e h orse pow er
a test
k k
t h e b ra
of all

u uk gu
.
,

le er is ar r an e d ( Fig . 1 02) tb b ar a s al e,
c S, of som e in d, an d

t h e pr ess r e pon h e s al
e xe r t e d
t c e is r e l at e d b y m e ans of t h e

g
to e th er . v u v u g fly
sc r e w , R, on t h e b r a e w h e r e t h e e nds of t h e b an ds ar e j oine d

E ac h tion of t h e en in e
re ol w h eel E is e q uiv a

u u k
, ,

le n t t o one c om pl e t e r e ol t ion of t h e m an (or of t h e sc al es)

ar o n d t h e w h eel

u u gy
gy
Inp t is t h e e ner
.

u
Th e sam e w or w oul d b e done in e ith er c ase

v or pow er s pplie d t o a m ac hin e

.

u vg uu u k
.

Output is t h e se f l e ne r or pow er de li e r e d b y a m ac hin e .

Inp t is w h at oe s in O t p t is t h at por tion w hic h c om es out

gy
.

an d w hic h is a ail ab le for se ful w or

u u g gy u
.

1 7 6 Th e e mcie ncy of a m ac hi n e is t h e r at io of its ne t e ner

gv y u gy u u vu g
.

( p
or ow er ) o t p t t o it s r oss e n er (or pow er) inp t No .

m ac hi ne i es out as m c h pow er or e ner as is d eli e r e d t o it

H y u vu y
.

Th er e is al w a s som e l oss due t o fr iction or n se f l h e at in

v
.

e n c e a pe r pe t al m ot ion m ac hine is an im possib ilit

-
Th er e

y u
.

ar e al w a s n a oid ab l e fr ict ion and ot h er l osses e e n in t h e m ost

p e rfe ct l c on st r-
c t e d m a c hi n e s

u u u qu u u k qu uu
.

Re fer t o Fig 9 3 : If t h e w at e r m ot or w er e frictionl ess it s pow e r

.

o t p t w o ld e al it s pow e r inp t Li e w ise t h e o t p t in

u uy
.
,

h orse pow er at t h e b el t of t h e m ot or w o l d b e e al t o t h e pow er

m ot or g
inp t t o t h e m ot or if t h er e w er e no l osses of pow e r w it hi n t h e
Act all t h er e ar e losses som etim es lar e ones in b ot h
kg
v
.
, ,

w at er an d ele ct ric m ot ors an d in all oth er m ac hines In m a in

u u qu u
.

ele c tric al e stim at es it is oft e n c on eni e nt t o c onsider t h at t h e

y v y g y qu v ug fi
m e c h anic al pow er o t p t of a m ac hin e is e
Ofte n t h e ar e er ne arl e
al t o it s inp t

al b e c a se t h e e ffi cien c ies of el e c

gv g
.

fi y
t rical m ac hines ar e hi h

u
T ab l e 1 7 7 u u
Ef c ie n c y Som e a er a e e f c ien c ies ar e i en in
is s all
.

e xpr esse d as a per c ent a e

yv u u vu y
.
,
“
th s ,
the efi ciency of a cer tain m otor is 80 per cen t ”
This .

m e ans t h at onl 80 per c e n t of t h e el e ctr ic al pow er r e c e i e d b y

g fi u
.

t h e m ot or is deli er e d as sef l pow e r by t h e m ot or at t h e p lle .

St atin th is de nition as a form l a

ou tput input losses

38 fiici ency
e
output losses input

output input X e fi ciency

 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y

th t
1 24 [ ART . 177

N O TE

EX A M P L E
a

t
w t c c th t t t
— If t t
—i nput output losses
45 kw is supplied t o a m o or and it s ou pu is found t o b e
.

fi
.

t c c
h p, . . ha is it s e f ie n y ? SO L UTI O N r fl Sc e 1 h p kw , . .

h p . . X kw , en sub s i u ing in t h e for m ul a (3 8 )

.

v g u M
efi ciency out put input 45 90 per cen . fi
ef ie n y .

1 77 . A e ra e E ffi cie ncie s of Som e C omm on e ch anical and

El e ctric al Appar at s — Se e al so Fig 1 02A . .

M ac h in e

M E C H AN I C AL APP AR AT US

t ch ch c c c c c c fi

tc tc t w t c c ch c c c
S e am e ng ine (m e ani al ef ie n y ) .

Gas e ngine (m e an i al e ffi ie n y ) .

Wa (ov e r all e ffi ie n y)

t c c c c
er urb ine

Re ipr o a ing pum p ( a er and m e ani al e f fi ie n y ) .

C e n r ifug al pum p (ov er al l effi ie n y ) .

Fan (ov e r all effi ie n y ) .

E L E C T R I C AL AP P AR AT U S ( OVE R AL L E F F IC I E N C IE S)

Ge ner a
Mo t t ors, m e dium an d l ar ge

t t
ors, m ed ium an d l ar g e .

Tr ansform ers
Sm al l m o or s, fan m o or s .

h h w
F I G 1 0 2 A — G r ap s s o in g e f ie n ie s of
l oad s
. .

fi
c
cth c c tc t
P

c e r C

ariou s m a
e n t

fi
Of

in e s at diffe r e n
( T h e e f ie n ie s of t h e s e am ur b in e , t h e ste am e n gine an d t h e D ie se l
.
Lo a d

v ch t
e n g in e ar e the e rm al ef ie n ie s fi
T herm al eflici ency ( M ec ha n ica l w or k
.

outpu t) ( N et heat in put) .

1 26 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

y
. 1 80

gygy u
1 80
El e ctric al Ene r
.

gy
O th er Kind s of Energ
t Som e with o p
C an Not b e Transform e d into
Loss of Ener — F or exam le

g g u
.
,

all o f t h e e ne r t h at t h e b el t of Fig im par t s t o t h e

g fi y
.

e ner at or w ill n ot b e im par t e d b y t h e e ne r at or t o t h e c ir c i t

w ire s

u y u
c e nt and gy
If t h e e ner at or h as an e f c ie n c
.

gy u
ft lb of e ner
A
( t 1 76) of 9 0 pe r
r

is im par t e d t o it b y t h e b el t in
-
.

u
. . .

an h o r onl : X ft lb of e ner w o ld be -

fi y v v fi y
. .
,

im par t e d t o t h e c ir c it w ir es in t h e h o r See Ar t 1 76 on

g v fi y u
. .

“
Ef c ie n c
”
No m ac hine or de ic e can h a e an e f c ien c as
.

r e at as 1 00 per c e nt M ost m ac hines h a e an e f cien c m c h

gy
.

l e ss t h an 1 00 pe r c ent .

Also w it h t h e dry c ell of Fig all of t h e c h e m ic al e ner

gy vgy u
.
,

of it s el e m e nt s (Ar t 3 73 ) c an n ot b e t r ansfor m e d int o e l e ct r ic al

u
.

e ne r w hic h w ill b e a ail ab le at t h e c ir c it w ir e s Th e r e ar e .

c e rt ain losses of ener w it hin t h e c ell w h ic h b e c a se of t h e ,

Me ch a nic a l Ene rgy Transfor

t ct c t th
Int o Elect r ica l Ene r lI- Che mical Energ Transfor me d
,
gy
Int o Ele ct r ical ne rgg

— T r ansfor m a ion ki nd

u z g ug y
FI G . 1 03 of o er s of e n e r g y in o el e r i al e n e r g y .

na t re of t hin s, can n ot be e lim ina e d, t th o h th e m ay b e

m inimi
1 81 Gv ed

To gyu.

u y
e ne r a e u t M st Be
El e ctrical Ene r El e ctricit

uy
.
,

—
For ce d t o M o e , t h at is an el e ct ric c r r en t a c rr e nt of ele c

ug u g y
,

—
t ricit y m st b e est ablish e d In Ar t 90 it w as not e d t h at

g u gy W g v gy y
. .

el e ct ric it m ay b e t h o h t of as a m e di m or a e n c for t r ans

m itt in e ne r h e n w e ener at e e n er w e for c e som e of

u H g
.

— —
t his m e di m e l ect rons t o m o e Ele ct ricit in m otion con

gy u u ug u
.

st it ut e s an el e c t ric c rr ent (Ar t en c e t o e n er at e e l e c

u ug u v g y yu u
.

t rical e ne r a c rr e nt m st b e for c e d t h r o h a c ir c it B ut as .
,

o tline d b el ow a ol t a e is al w a s n e c essar t o for c e c rr e n t

g
,

t h r o h a c ond ct or t h at is t o est ablish a c rr ent

G g u u
.
, ,

1 82 Th e E stab lish m e nt of a Volta e Is th e Fir st R e q uir e m e nt

gy g y W
.

fo th e e ne r ation of El e ctrical Ener y

r — It sh o l d b e n derst ood

g u gy vu g
.

th at el e ct ric al e ner can not b e e n e r at e d dir e ctl h e n it is

y
.

desir e d t o ene r ate e ner a ol t a e differ e n c e of pot e ntial, , ,

el e ct ric st r e ss or pr e ss r e ( th e se fo r t e r m s ar e pr act ic all synony

 GE NE RA TI ON OF ELE C TR I C AL E NE RG Y

u u u fi v v kv g ug
SE C . 7] 127

mo s ) m s t rs t b e de el ope d Th e ol t a e w ill , if a s it ab le

u u y y g
.

close d c ir c it (Art 1 85) is pro ided eep in m otion alon t h e

v g g y u y u
.
,

c ond ctors of this c ir cui t a s ppl of el e ctric it so l on as t h e

.

ol t a e is im presse d
er e d as b ein

and w h en a v g
This s ppl of el e ct r ons m ay b e consid

ug v u gy
.

alr e ad in exist e n c e in t h e c on d ct or s of t h e c ir c it

ol t a e is appli e d t o t h e cl ose d c ir c it t h e s ppl is

u
u u
,

set in m ot ion an d it r e m ains in m ot ion so l on as t h e ol t a e is

gy
el e ct ric al e ner

y v
applie d an d t h e c ir c it is cl ose d

v u gy u
As o tlin e d in Ar t 181

u
is de el ope d w h e n an el e ct ric c rr e n t is m ain
. .
,

t ain e d

uW g v u v
Ob io sl.

g g
th en el e ctric al e ne r
u ug
is a r es l t of an ele c
,

tric pr ess r e or ol t a e for c in an el e ctr ic c rr ent th r o h a

,

c ir c it for a i e n period of tim e

fi v v gu g
h en th er efor e it is desir e d t o ener at e el e ctric al ener gy .

g
, , ,

the rst st e p is t o de el op a olt a e b y one of t h e m et h ods de

sc r ib e d in A

uug
rt 1 84
v gyg g
Th en if a c ond ct or is so arr an e d as t o
. .

form a cl ose d c ir c it so t h at t h e ol t a e can for c e t h e el e ct ric it y ,

gy gy g v u u
,

t o c ir c ul at e t hr o h it el e ct r ic al e ne r will b e e ne r at e d Ele c

fl
.
,

t rical e n e r c an n ot b e de el ope d in an O pe n c ir c it th at is , ,

th er e can b e no e ner e ner at e d nt il c urr e nt ow s ; t his follow s

ct wc t t t th t w w
fr om t h e st at e m e nt s of Ar t 1 8 1 . .

— If 1 0 3, I , b e

t c c t c th t c t
EXAM PLE . an el e ri gen er a or , for e xam pl e a of Fig .

d rive n ill de v el op its v ol Ho ver

w ct t hc t t c cth tt
at it s r at e d spee d it ra e d age . e ,
it ill
d e v el op no e n e rgy unl ess it s e x e rn al ir ui be l ose d, a is, unl e ss urr en
flo (It d oes de v el op a slig

cct c w th th t c t ct c
s . t , n e gligib l e am oun of en e r gy , a n e cessary

t t th
t o ex i e i self, b ut it pr odu e s n o en e r gy for t h e e x e rn al ir ui unl ess t h e

t th t c c t ct c
)
“
ir ui is l ose d . It foll o s en , a ,
sin e ge ne r a ion of el e ri al

hc c t tc t t wh t
”
e ne r gy r e ally m e ans “
r ansfor m a ion of e n er gy , if e re is n o ene rgy

t
genera ed er e is n on e r ansform e d from m e h ani al in o el e ri al ene rgy .

d eliv ers

c t t t th th tt t
T e refor e , t h e b el n o e n e r gy t o t h e gen er a or en the e x e rn al

quired

t w th t
ir ui is open , e x e p t h e n e gligibl e am oun of ener gy re for t h e

t t ct c
ex i ion of t h e ge n e r a or
a .

It is e vide n , de v el op a v ol

th th t c t t w th t
en , a a ge n e r a or c an age i ou ge n e r at
devi ces for ge ne r a ing el e

t
ing e n e r gy . Th is is rue of any of t h e ri al

e n e r gy All of em can , e or e i all y at l e as , de v el op v ol age i ou

Mu g
.

gen e r a in g en ergy .

to Be
flow
1 83
G .

(Art
Tw o C ondition s
e ne r a e d , t u t h at
c on ditions ar e t o r e pe at : ( 1 ) Ther e m ust
. Th ese
is,
B e Fulfill e d if El ectrical Ener y Is
s t
if an el e ct ric c rr en t is t o b e m ade t o
,

be developed an ele ctr ic pr essur e dif er ence of poten tial e m f or , ,

. . .

voltage; and (2 ) a su itable path ( closed ci r cu it) m ust be pr ovi ded

thr ough w hich

pr essur e
t h e pr oduction
. Th ese
electr ic cur rent

u
c onditions ar e anal o o s t o th ose ne c essar
Of h ydr a li c e ner in a h dr a lic c ir c it
can

g u
gy y u
be cir cu lated by this

u y electric

.
for
To
128 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u u u y u u ugu
. 1 84

pr o d ce a flow of w at er th ere m st be : ( 1 ) A h dr a lic pr ess re

u
at h — i c a d ct or H m e thr o —
or h e ad ; and ( )
2 a p e
pp , a n l h

M G g gy
,

w hic h t h e w at e r can b e for c e d b y t h e pr ess r e

v
.

1 84 D ifi e r e nt e th od s of e ne r atin Ele ctrical Energy

u v g
. .

As abo e no e d, t t h e initial t
s e p, if el e ct ric al e n er is t o b e ge n
e r at e d,

t h at
is to pr od c e an e m f
t h e diffe r e n t m e t h ods of de
. . .

vg g gor

u gy
el opin
ol a e t . It foll ow s, th e n
as o tline d
,

in

u
Ar t 1 1 9 ,
. are also t h e m eth ods of ene r a tin el e ct ric al en er .

Th s: ( )
a By C ontact of Dissim ilar
Substances (Ar t .

M E T HO D S OF D E V E L O PI N G (b) B y C hem ical Action (Ar t .

E L E CTR O M O TIV E F O R C E S ( c) B y Friction of Dissi m ilar

Substances .

( ) y
d B E le ctr om agnetic I ndu c

v th th
tion (Ar t .

NO TE
t th
m e r cial im por
.
—If t h e ab o
an ce
e four m e
ey
ods ar e arr ange d in t h e or de r of

( 1 ) E le ctr omagnetic I nd uct ion (2 ) Chem ical

are : ,
eir com

th t tht
Act ion , (3 ) C ontac t of Dissi m ilar Substances (4) Fr iction of Dissi m ilar ,

t ct t c
S td> sta nces .

wh ch ct thc t wh t th t c c t tt ct
It is pr ob ab l e a me ods ( a) , ( b) an d ab o e , ar e all m e r ely m anife s
t at ions of t h e d e v el opm en of e m f due t o . . . con a of dissim il ar sub s an es

ifi call y

t h tw th
i is spe n o ed in m e od (a) . It is an e xpe rim en all y e s ab

ver

h th t th t t ct c th
lish e d fa a ,
en e t w o dissim il ar sub s an e s ar e pl a ed in con a ,

an e . m f is
. . e s ab lis ed be ee n em .

v e four

t t cwh ctc t w ht c t w
It s oul d be un de rs ood a ,
fun dam en ally, t h e ab o me ods are
m e rel y m e ods of d e v el opin g e . m fs . . or el e ri pressure s . Th e

t t w t t c
if a sui ab l e on du or b e pr ov ide d, w ill e st ab lis a urr e n an d e ne rgy il l
urr en fl o s T h e am oun of e n e r gy de v el ope d , assum

w ch w t t c tth tt cw h t
b e gene r a e d en .

in g a con s an pressure or ill b e pr opor ion al t o t h e am oun of el e

fl o s An d, in a fl o s w ill , b y O m s l aw

wh ch
’
t ricit y hi . urn , t h e urr e n
( Art . b e in ve rsel y pr opor ional t o t h e resis an e of the cir cui upon
i the e m f is im pressed
. . . .
1 30 P RAC TI C AL ELE C TRI CI T Y [ AR T

u u u u
. 1 87

c r ren t of ele ctrons t o cir c it Ele ctric al

pr ess r e can b e c r e ate d in se er al oth er w a s th an by e n er at ors
flow
v y y ug
ar o nd in t h e .

z
u y uu u g u
.

Se e Ar t 1 84 F or inst an c e an ele ct ric b att e r of s it able si e

. .

u u
,

c o l d b e s b stit t e d for t h e ener at or G of Fig 1 0 5 an d th is

g
.
, ,

b att er w o ld cr e ate an ele ctric al sh or r ess r e j st as t h e

p p ,

e n e r at or doe s .

FI G . 1 05 .
— A sim pl e el e ct c c c t
ri ir ui .

1 87

u
u u
ne ct e d
. A Se rie s C ir cuit is
in
u
t ande m as in Fi s
dra lio c ir c it is Sh ow n in Fig
g
one

.
in w hic h t h e
1 06 , 1 0 7 ,
1 06 . Th e
and

o
c om pone nt s ar e

t h er ill
10 8 .

s ra
A se ries

t tions Sh ow
c on

hy

c c t th t t t c c c
se r ies el e ct ric c ir c it s .

t t t ht t t c t t c c t w
ExAM P LE s —Se rie s ir ui s fin d
. eir m os im por an om m e r ial appli a

t tc t t th c ht
ion in se ries s re e lig in g sys e m s usin g se r ie s in an de s en or ar e l am ps
an d ar e se l d om if e v e r u se d in h is oun r y for t h e r ansm ission of po e r A .

con s an urr e n gener a or or som e o

-
er de vi e is use d for se rie s lig in g

h cc c t —A

cc ct t hc t c w w t t tcc t w tht h
F IG . 1 06 . s e r ie s y d r aul i ir ui .

de vi flo

cc c tct t t t t t t c c c t
ir ui s . T e se es il l m ain ain th e urre n in g roug the cir

ui at som e e r ain v alue b ut ill au om a i all y v ary t h e v ol age im pre ssed

( Art . 1 0 2 ) on t h e ir ui in pr opor ion t o t h e o al r e sis an e of t h e ir ui

g qu
so as t o k ee p t h e urre n ons an .

v g k188 Th e Volta
t
.

v g u u H
c om pone nt s of t h e c ir c it
ol a e s a r oss t h e c
e of a
en c e if it is
Se rie s C ircuit e als the sum of t h e

u u g u ugv W u fi u v
.
,

desire d t o now w h at ol t a e m st b e im pr e sse d on a se rie s cir

c it or on a ro p of de ices c onne ct e d in series t o c a se a ce r
, ,

t ain c r rent t o flow t hr o h it : e m st rst asc er t ain t h e olt s

 U I TS 13 1

u u yg
SE C . 8] E L E C TR I C C I R C

re q

v g g u
c h c om ponent by m ltipl in t h e r esist an c e of t h e
ir ed by
c om pone nt b y t h e c rrent
gv
olt a es adde d t o et h er w ill
ea

v g qu All of t h e c om pone nt
i e t h e t ot al olt a e r e ir e d

t c c t c c t
.

E X

h
A

tv
M PL

t
E

t—
c
Eacll

t h .

w c c t
.

t t c c t c
of t h e eigh

t
in andes en l am ps in t h e se rie s ir ui of

th h v t ch
Fig 1 07 h as
. a r esis an e of 4 o ms . T h e line ir e h as a o al r esis an e of

W
h ht
1 oh m . a ol age m us b e im pr esse d on t h e ir ui t o for e a urr e n of
SO L UTI O N — Th e ol age r e quir ed b y e a

v t c w v t
5 am p . r oug it ? . l am p w ill ,
I X R

vt c c tt h t tt
b y O m s law, b e : E 5 X 4 2 0 v olts per l am p
’
.

For t h e e ig lam ps, t h e ol age ne essary ill b e 8 X 2 0 1 60 ol s .

T h e ol age r e q uir e d t o for e t h e urr e n

t t cct c t c t
h r oug t h e lin e w ires w ill b e
E I X R 5 X 1 5 volts for wire Th en adding t o ob ain o al v ol .

quired : Hen

c h v t th c t
age r e 1 60 5 1 65 v ol s . e, t h e genera or m ust im pre ss
v ol

t c t t th h h c ht h tt
1 65 s on the ir ui t o ause 5 am p . t o flow .

Thi s pr ob l em oul d a e b ee n sol ve d by addin g oge er the om pon e n

r esis an es h us : 8 X 4 32 o m s ; 32 O m s 1 oh m 33 o m s, o al .

Now m ul iply is 3 3 o m s b y t h e urren 5 am p 33 X 5 1 65 volts . .

FIG . 1 07 .
— Ase r ie s e l e ct c c c t
ri ir u i .

par

u
s O
1 89
f t
. Th e C urre nt in
u
cir c it (aft er t h e r st fraction Of an inst ant aft er t h e
the
a
fi
Serie s Circuit w ill be t h e

u
sam e at all

ug
v g v
c rre nt c om m e n c es t o flow ) Th e sam e c rrent w ill flow t h ro h
all c om pone nt s or de ic es t h at ar e c onne ct e d in t ande m or in
.

se rie s

ug u
.

y u
Th e ol t a es and re sist an c es of differ ent se ries c onn e ct e d
c om ponent s m ay b e and pr ob ab l are different but t h e c rrent
, ,
-

t h c c t t t
th r o h e ac h m st b e t h e sam e .

t
EX AM PL E
c t t
h c t c cc tt t c th t t t t t t th
.

t—It is ev iden in t h e ydr auli series cir ui of Fig . 1 06 h a t h e

th t
gal lons pe r m in u e ( urr en ) flow m us (assum ing a th e im pre sse d
kep

t th tth h ct c c c t
ydraulipressure is ons an an d a t h e pipes are full ) , b e t h e sam e

t t th
at all poin s of t h e ir ui pas poin I m us b e e ual t o
. Th e a urr en

t w thc c th c ctt c ct t ct c t c
pas any o e r poin as J or K Sim il arl y in t h e el e ri ir ui of Fig 1 07 ,
. .

if 5 am p is ow in g r oug
. fl
at L, 5 am p m us al so b e owing pas all o er . fl
u M N W
t t c ct c
p o in s in t h e ir i as for in s an e at a n d h e n dir e - urr e n el e .

t ricit y o s rou g fl
a on du or it s a ion is us as if it spre ad out and pe r j
m ea e d all por ions of a ondu or sim il arl y t o t h e w ay in w hi h w at er m ay
fil l a pipe .
1 32 PRAC TI CAL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ ART

qu
. 1 90

190 .

of t h e r e sis an e s of
t c
Th e R e sistance of
t h e c om ponen ts
a

It is e ide nt fr om F ig
Serie s C om bination
v e als the sum

v
u g ju
.
, .

10 8 for inst an c e t h at t h e t w o ele ct ric b ell s in series w ill h a e

gu v u
, , ,

ass m in t h at b ot h b ells ar e st t h e sam e t w ic e t h e r esist an c e ,

of one b ell C onne ct in de ic es int o a c ir c it in se ries in c r e ases

.

c c t c c t cht t
t h e resist an c e of t h e c ir c it .

the
r e sis an
ht
EX AM PL E

tt cc
e ig

e of
— If
l am ps h as
in t h e

1 oh m , t h e
tt cc hc t c c t w c
se ries in

a r esis an e of

r e sis an
an d e s en

e
4
of t h e
o ms
l am p ir ui
an d

om pl e e
t h e lin e
ir ui
of

,
Fig 1 07

ex
.

ire h as
l usiv e
ea

a o al

of t h e
of

re sis an e of t h e gen e r at or w ill be : -

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1

u
33 oh ms .

1 91 Par all e l C ircuit s, som e t im es c all ed m ul t iple or Sh n t

u
.

v u
cir c ui ts, ar e t h ose in w hich t h e c om pone n ts ar e so ar r an e d t h at
g g
the
It
c t di ide s b e t w een t h em ; se e Fi s 1 09 1 1 0 1 1 1 and 1 1 2
r r en

foll ow s t h at c on d ct ors so arr an e d in a c ir c it t h at th e r e g u .

, , .

tc cct
y g u u
FIG 1 08 — A se r ie s e l e c r i b e ll ir ui
‘

. . .

as m an
u pat hs for t h e
said t o b e ar r an e d in par all e l or m l t iple
th er e ar e c on d ct ors m ay be
c rr en t as

A par all el c ir c it is
,

u
u g g
.

t h er e for e a divi ded ci rcuit (Art Th e principal dist in ctions

u u y
.

be t w ee n se ries an d m l tiple pr actic al li h t in an d pow e r c ir c ui ts

v g u u
,

ar e : ( 1 ) In a se r ies c ir c ui t t h e c r r en t is a t om at ic all m ain

u ug v
,

t aine d c onst ant an d t h e ol t a e im pr esse d on t h e c ir c it t o for ce

vv
t h e c r r e n t th r o h

v gy
ar ie s ; ( 2 ) in a pa u ug
ar ies as t h e load c on ne ct e d t o t h e c ir c it

r all el c ir c ui t t h e c r r e nt t h r o h t h e en e r ator gu
y
,

ar ies w it h t h e l oad an d t h e olt a e im pr essed on t h e c ir c it is au

u u ug u g g g
t om at ically m ain t aine d pr actic all const ant Ne arl all pow e r
t r ansmission c ir c its and int e rior li h tin c ir c ui ts ar e par alle l cir
c its h e nc e a th or o h nderst andin of t h e par allel cir c ui t is
.

Hy gy
,

esse nt ial

g u
.

1 92 A dr aulic Analo to a Par all e l C ir cuit is sh ow n in Fig

v u ufi y g ug
.
.

1 09 ; t h e c orr espon din ele ct ric c ir c i t is Sh ow n in Fig 1 10 . .

Th e b el t- dri p menp for c es t h e c r r e n t of w at e r th r o h t h e

c ir c uit . If pipes P I and P 2 ar e suf c ie ntl l ar e , th e re w ill be

134 PRA C TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 1 92

y u u ju u g
.

ugu
T h e h dr a lic
g u g g u gy
cir c it st desc r ib e d for dist r ib t in

th r o h t h e pipe c oils is in e ner al anal o o s t o t h e ele ct r ic

w at e r

yu u uu v u uu
, ,

c ir c it sh ow n in Fig 1 1 0 for dist rib tin ele ctric al e ner

. In .

t h e h dr a l ic c ir c it t h e b el t dr i e n p m p c r e at es a pr e ss re -

gy u uv u yy
th at c a ses t h e c rrent of w at er t o flow In t h e el e ctric c ir c it
t h e e ne r at or c r e at e s a pr ess r e th at c a ses el e ct ric it t o flow
.

u u
.

Th e h dr a lic pipe c oils r e c e i e w at e r at a pr actic all c onst an t

,

p r e ss r e as do t h e e l e ct r ic l am ps T h e dr op in pr ess r e in t h e .

—A par all el ( or m ul t ct c c t
u
FI G . 1 10 . ipl e) ele ri ir c ui .

g
pipe in c r e ases
vol t a e
as

in t h e m ains in c r e ases
the c rr e n

u
t of w a e r

as uy
t
the c
in c r e ases
rr e n
.

yy
Th e dr op in
t of ele ct ric it in
c re ases

vgg u y
. th er c ir c it t oo m an pipe
If in ei

v
l am ps ar e c onn e ct e d b e t w e e n t h e m ains t h e dr op in pr ess r e or
ol t a e w ill b e e xc e ssi e an d it will t h e n b e n e c essar t o inst all
,

yu u
c oil s or t oo m an

l ar e r s ppl pi pes or w ir es t o m aint ain t h e pr ess r es ac r oss

e ac h of t h e c oils or e ac h of t h e l am ps at pr act ic all t h e sam e y

ct c c ct
vu u u
FI G . 111 — Ele. ri b el l s on n e ed in par all e l .

gk
al

t h e pr e ss
e .

u
It is
re

gu u u
ass

u
m ed t h at t h e p m p is of am pl e siz e t o m aint ain
ac r oss it s o tle t s P 1 an d P 2 at a c onst ant pr ess r e

re

Li
ar dl ess of

e w ise ,
the m a

v gg
t de of t h e
it is ass m e d th at t h e ug ni l oad th at is im pose d on it
e ne r at or is big e no h to
.

w c
m aint ain a c onst ant t er m inal ol t a e for any l oad .

c
of
EX AM P L E

Fig 1 09 . .
.

c
— In

tc t w th c
Th e in t c
v t t ct c c c cht h
Fig 1 1 0 t h e
.

an de s e n
ire s W
l am ps A, B
1 and W
av e
2

an d
orr e spon d

C
t o t h e l arge pipes
orr e spond t o t h e pipe

cc c t h t vt
oils . For illus ra ion , t h e pre ssur es in ol s in hi s el e ri ir ui
b een m ade t o or respond i t h e pr e ssure s in poun ds pe r square in in t h e
h ydr auli ir ui . T e re is a ce r ain drop in ol age, as sh own, in t h e w ires
 U
th t ch th t th c t t c c t th t t
SE C . 8] E LE C TRI C CI R C I TS 1 35

of el e t ri i y t o t h e lam ps

ct c
a arr y th e u rr e n But t h e w ires ar e b ig
.

rela iv el y sm all and a t h e v ol ag es im pr e sse d on

c c ct t vt t w
e n oug a is l oss is
all of t h e lam ps b y W 1 an d W are pra i all y t h e sam e As m ore lam ps a e
2 . r

W1 and W t h e ol age drops in h ese wires ill

c tw th tv t vt t t t
onn e ed b e w ee n wires 2

in r e ase .

Lam p C r e e iv es onl y 1 00 v ol lam p B , 1 02 ol s and lam p A, 104 v ol s

ct c t t c th
s; .

ol ages are gr e a e r h an are pe rm issib l e in

c th t c
( The diffe ren ces b e ee n ese

th c
pra i e and are use d onl y for ill us ra ion .
) If c is m u h dim m e r an

and B , it is an in di a tion a W 1 and W are t oo sm all

2 In pra t ice se v e r al
.

ousand l am ps m ay all b e conne t e d in parall el t o one gener at or ; if t h e w ir es,

t t c t cct — D is r ib u ion aparall el

c c h th w ct
FI G . 1 12 . of ur r e n in ir ui .

w cth t t vw t
orr espon din g

c c c wh
t th tt ht
to

t
W 1 W
ill b e no pe r e p ible
an d e, large en oug
are er e

tht
t th v t c
diffe re n e in t h e b rillian ies e y are all lig ed It fol
Of t h e lam ps en .

th c c t
lo s a t he ol age im presse d on a ir ui b y a b a e ry gene r a or or o er

ol age n e e ssary at m o ors,

tw
sour e m us al ays b e som e gr e a e r an t h e

l am ps or o e r r e ce ive rs

c th t c cw tht w ht c
This is n e essary t o pr ov i de for a e r ain un av oid
.

”
ee n t h e sour ce an d t h e

t
“
ab l e dr op ar loss of voltage in t h e con du ct ors b e
r e e iv e rs How t o al ula e ire Siz es b y t h e O m s l aw prin ipl e so as t o
.
’

k ee p is v ol age dr op i in perm issible limi s is discussed in t h e au h or s ’

AME R IC AN E LE CTRI CI AN S HANDB O O K

’
.

tc c ct c t c t II Cur re nt III Re s is t a nce

' ‘

— V ol vers

Gv u
FI G . 1 13 . ag e , u rr e n an d r e sis an e of p ar all el - onn e e d re ei .

1 93 Th e Voltage Acr oss a ro p of C onductor s C onne ct e d

gu yv u y y u
.

in Paralle l is t h e sam e as th e ol age a r oss e a

t c ch m em b er of t h e

ro p This is pr e c isel
t r e onl w h e r e a ll of t h e c on d ctors

W uy
.

j oin t h e m ains t h at ser

e t h em at exactl t h e sam e poin t as in ,

Fig l l 3 1 h er e t h e c on d ctors t h at ar e in par all el do not

v y g v y yu y
. .
,

c onne ct t o t h e m ains at e xactl t h e sam e point as in Fig 1 1 0 ,

.
,

t h e olt a es ac r oss t h e c on d ctors w ill not b e exactl t h e sam e

t c ct
but t h e m ay be er ne arl t h e sam e .

FR AMPLE .
-
In Fig 1 IS, I t h e
. v ol age a ross A, B , C an d D is e xa ly t h e
sam e .
 6 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 1 94

u Gu u
.

194 Th e .

qu u Total C rr e n t P
to a ar all e l -
c onn e ct e d ro p of C on

ct v tv w h w t ttt
duct or s e als t he sum of the c rr e n s t in t h e c on d ct or s .

cc
cipl e
X
E AMP
.
L E

t
S —
c
cct c ct c c t th
Th e
T h e urre n
. in Fig
urren ill us r a te his prin
al ues S o

al ue s sh o n on Fig 1 1 2 also Sh ow t h e dis rib u ion of

M t
n

t ht c v c t t tt
.

c t ch w c t c w ct t t ct
u r r e n in a pa r al l e l -
o nn e e d ir ui o o r s,
e a ing d e i e s or o h er .

r e e iv e r s r e q uirin g e l e

tht w t th t c t t
r i al e n ergy for e ir O pe r a ion oul d b e sub s i u e d

l am ps if t h e pr ope r u r r e n v al u e s e r e

th
for t h e in an de s e n sub s i u ed for
No

th t t
ose s o n . e a the ur r e n in t h e m ain ondu or s de r e ase s

o ar d the e n d of the run . Th e v ol age at the en d of t h e run is l ess an

G uu
a im pr e sse d b y t h e ge ne r a or .

u qu
1 9 5 Th e R e sistance of
duct or s is
t he
.

c on d ct ors
e al

.
t o the
a Par all e l - conne cte d
c ipr oc al of t h e sum O f c ond ct an c es of
re

A par allel c onne ct e d r o p of c on d ct ors con

-
gu u
ro p of C on

c c ct cth cct ct c
st it ut es a divided cir cuit (Art .

ct
EXAM PL E .

h
ar e r e spe
—Th e r e sis an

v
t t h e par alle l - onn e e d
e s of

i el y 2 , 4, 6 an d 8 o m s T h e su m of .
on d u

e ir
ors of

on du
Fig
an e s
.

I Pa ra l le l Se r ies C irc uit

cct
II Se r ie s Pa ra lle l Circuit
“

F IG 1 14 — P ar all e l -
se r ie s an d se ri e s- pa r al l e l ir ui

h c c c ct
. .
.

h tc
1 1 1 1 25 25 24
5 4 B + 5 24
m os (Art . Th e re ipro al of
271 25
T e r e for e , the re sis an e, fr om C t o D, of t h e g r ou p of on d u ors is

v u
oh m .

yu q
1 9 6 Adding R e ce i
.

gv g t in Par all el t o a C ir cuit

er s or

is r e all e ui v alent t o in c r e asin t h e c r oss-se ction of t h e im a in ary

C ond c ors

an d t h e uu uv
c on d ct or form e d by all t h e r e c ei ers in parallel b e t w een t h e
side s of t h e c ir c it T h at is it is e q i alent t o de cr eas

v u g y
.
,

ing t h e r e sist an c e of t h e cir c it .

1 97 A D i ide d C ir cuit (Fi s 1 1 3 and 1 14) is r e all one for m

.

y u v
.

of a m ul t iple c ir c it (Ar t Th e dist inct ion b e t w ee n t h e t w o

g u u
.

”
sor t s appe ar s t o b e t h at as or dinaril se d t h e t e r m di ide d
“

gu g u u
, ,

r e fe rs t o an isol at e d r o p of a fe w c ond ct or s in ar all e l r at h e r

p
t h an t o a r o p Of a l ar e n m b er Of Widely dist rib t e d con

uu
d uct ors in par all el
.

g u
.

1 98 To C om p t e th e Re sistance of a Div ide d C ir cuit or of a

Num b e r of C ond ctor s in Parall e l , t h e follow in for m la, w h ic h
138 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TRIC I T Y [ ART 2 0 1

qu g v v gu
.

re

n e ct e d
irin
ac r oss
50 ol s e a

a
t
500-
ch
olt
,
and

r ailw a y u
t h en t h ese
c ir c it
se r ies ro ps ar e

u
con

u u
.

201 *
A Se rie s- parallel or a Se rie s- m ul tiple C ir c it (F ig

v u u
. .

c onsists Of a n m b er of m inor c ir c its c onne ct e d in par al

l el an d se e ral of t h ese parallel c ir c it s c onn e ct e d in se r ies

u u
Or a
se rie s par allel c ir c it c om prise s a ser ie s c onne ction Of a n m b e r of
-
u .

m lt iple c ir c it s

v
’
.

202 Kir ch ofl s Law s, so c alle d in h onor of t h e m an w h o de el -

vy v
y
.

’
ope d t h e m ar e de ri e d fr om Oh m s l aw and ar e
,
er im por t ant .

T h e ar e : ( 1 ) At any point in a cir cuit the sum of the curr ents

aw ay f
dir ected tow ar d the point is equal to the su m of the curr ents dir ected
r om the point T his l aw is ill st r at e d b y Fig. u .

1 “

Fir s t La w

— ch w t II Sec ond La w
'

u u y
FI G 7 I ll us r a t in g K ir offs
’ ’
. 1 1 . la s .

c u
w h e r ein I
rr e n s,

Expressin
t
g
por
the
tions
this l aw
t ot al c
of t h e

as a u
t from t h e b att er
rr en

g
m ain c rr e nt in t h e
for m l a, r eferrin
.

m inor
t o Fig 1 1 7 , I :
i 1 , i 2 , i s,

.
c on d ct ors u
et c .

( 2)
4

(43 ) I ii is

or

(44 )
u u ( am p )
is i; .

Sim ilar for m l as can be applie d t o any c ir c it Th e se c on d

f
.

l aw is : ( ) In
2 any closed cir cuit, the sum of the I R ( cu r rent X
r esistance ) dr ops ar ound any one path is equal to the e m . . s . im pressed
T h e r e h as b ee n som e c onfusion r e g ar d ing the m e anings of t h e t e r ms par all el
“
e xac t
”
an d
“
se r ie s ser ie s
-
par all e l . T h e d e fi ni t ions as ab ov e g iv e n r e pr e se n t t h e b est O pinions

t h at it h as b e e n possib l e t o sec ur e . M r St e in m e t z
.
, c onsul t ing e ng ine e r of t h e G e n e r al
E l ec t r ic C om pany , and M r L am m e , . c h ie f e ng ineer of t he West ingh ouse C om pany ag r e e on
t h e ab ov e d e fi nit ion s . I t is u nd e rst ood t h at a m aj orit y of t h e Am er ic an I nst it ute of E l ec
t r ic al z
E ng ine e rs St andar di ing C om m it t ee fav or t h e abov e g iv e n d e fi nit ions .
 ELE C TRI C C I RC UI TS 13 9

u
SE C . 8]

on that path See Fig

yg u . for an ill stration

. This l aw .

g
e xpr esse d as a for m l a (a simil ar form ul a c an be w ritt e n for any

c ir c uit) , appl in t o t h e [ l e tt erin of Fig b e c om es .

y
E [ 1 X R1 1 2 X R2 13 X R3

2 03 .

b y th e E ol v u Hy
Polarit
tion
of
of

u v
Dir ect- curre nt C ircuit s C an Be D et ermine d
dr oge n at th e Ne gati e C ond cto r — As ug .

ti vy
sh ow n

el
.

u vg
in Fig 1 1 8 , if t h e t w o ends of c ond ct ors c onne ctin r espe c
t o t h e sides of a c ir c it , h a in im pr esse d on it a dir e ct

t t t c h —D e

u v g y v u y g u
FI G . 1 18 . er m in a ion of pol ari y by pr ese n e of y dr og e n b ub b l es .

c rr en t dipped in a essel Of w at er , h dro en b bbl es

ol a e , ar e
t

g v
t h e n e ati e
u u u fl
w ill for m b ut onl at t h e end of t h e c ond ct or th at c onne ct s t o
side Of t h e c ir c it Th e c rr ent ows t ow ar d
uv y
g v g
.

t h e wir e e nd on w hic h t h e b bb l es form This also c onstit t es a

u u y
.

m e th od W
of de t e ctin a dir e ct e m f h ere t h e olt a e is er

y uv g ym g
. . .

—
l ow s c h h
as t at p od c e
r d b y a prim ar c ell— it m ay b e neces
sar

k
cie nt l y

ta
t o dissol e som e com on sal t in t h e w ater t o render it sufli

u k
c ond ctin th at h dro e n w ill be form ed C are m st b e
en t h at t h e w ire ends do not t o c h and m a e a
“
sh ort- c ir c it
. uu .
"

”
See Prac t ic al T est s for Pr ov ing Pol ar it y
al so ar t icl es in SO UT HE RN E N GINE E RS , Fe b
“

r uary and M ar ch issues, 1 9 1 7 .

 SE C T ION 9

ELE C TR O M AGNETISM

204 y y
C urr e nt El e ctricit Al w a s Pr od u yM g u
ces a a ne tic Fie l d

W v
.

or , in ot h er w or ds, el e ct rons in m ot ion al w a s pr od c e a m ag

ne tic fi el d .

yg u
h e r e e r th er e is a
c urren t of ele ctricit th er e m st Conduct or Ca r ry/175 Cum-
mi

g u
,

al so be a st ream of m a ne t ic l in es

g fi u
of for c e — or a m a ne tic c r r ent .

Th e m a ne tic el d pr od c e d b y
Hor iz orr/a / He ce
'

FI G . 1 19
a c on du
t
. c ct t
ct c c t c ct c t t c ct
—M agn
or
e

ar ryin g a
i h spe ru mt c
urr e n
ab ou

. spe
FI G .

ru m
120
of
.

fi
S
el d
0

ab ou
w in g
a
m ag n e i
on d u or

u u y uy g g u
arr yi n g urr e n .

a c t Of ele ctricit alw a s lies at r i h t an l e s t o t h e c rr en t

rr en

y
'

th at pr od c es it Th e t r th of t h ese st at e m e nt s c an b e de m on
. .

c
expe rim ent s for inst an c e :

ct
st r at e d b y m an

hc w
,

t
EXAM P LE If a on du or b e ar .

h t c
r an ged as s o n in Fig 1 1 9 . an d , t h e

ke y b ein g l ose d , ir on filin gs are

t c ctct w
sif e d

on t h e oriz on al ar db oar d , a m ag

tt cc c c ct wth c
ne i spe rum ( Fi g 1 2 0 ) il l . form .

Th e dir e ions of t h e lin e s of for ce

c t c t
ab ou the on du ill b e in

t c ct c
or con

ct c c t c ct c th c c t
ce n ri ir l e s . Tw o or r ee d ry e lls

FI G . 12 1 — M ag n e
. i e ff e of a on Win SUPPIY su ffi ie n urr e n . If a.

h c t th t
du or ar r yin g ur r e n . on du or arryin g t h e urr e n ( Fig .

tc w c tc th h c ct
1 2 1 ) of t w o or r ee ells b e dippe d in
ir on fil in gs som e of t h e filings w ill ad e re t o it in di a in g a it n ow h as
m agne i pr ope r tie s If t h e urr e n e ase s t o flow r ou g t he ondu or ,

g u W yg
.

the filin gs ill drop off .

20 5 Th e . Ma n e tic Fie l d Ab o t a Str aigh t ir e c ar r in cur

re n t w ill b e som ew h at as indic ate d in Fig 1 2 2 . . If t h e dire ction of

1 40
142 PRA C TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

g g ug g u
. 207

ne e dle w ill sw in

v
as at 11 If t h e
to aposit ion at
dir e ct ion of flow
ri

v
th r o
ht an

h the u
l es t o t h e
c ond
c on d ctor
ct or b e r e

g fi g
.

erse d, the c om pass n ee dl e w ill re e r se as at 111 Thi s Sh ow s

u u
.

t h at t h ere is a m a ne t ic eld a flux of lines Of Or a m a ne tic “

gu u
,
” —
c r r e nt assoc iat e d w it h t h e c on d ct or

u u yg
.

2 07 Th e C orr e ct C onc e ption of a Fie l d of M a ne tic Fl x

uu u g
.

Ar oun d a C ond ctor C arr in —

C ur r e nt f It Sh o l d n ot b e

u
d ct or pe rm e at e onl y
ass m e d t h at t h e c ir c l ar lin e s of for c e e nsh r o din

g g
t h e spac e im m e diat el
t h e c on
adj ac e nt t o t h e yu y
c ond ct or as dia r amm e d in Fig 1 22 Act all t h ese lines
p e r m e at e all spa c e e xt e n di n ou t
fi
fr om t h e c on d ct or t o an infi
. .

k u ku
qu
,

nit e dist an c e B ut t h e el d b e c om es w e a er an d w e a e r — as

yg u u
.

the s ar e of t h e dist an c e — as t h e dist an c e fr om t h e c r r ent

c arr in c ond ct or in c r eases Th at is t h e c ir c l ar line s b e c om e

.
,

Ar r ow

th t ct t c c t ct
I Right Hand Screw
‘ -
Iii Cur rent Fl ow fi m bols
-
111 Ha nd Rul e for
g

w c
Rul e ~ Fie ld Dir e ct ion .

FI G . 124 .
- Me ods of d e e r m inin g di r e ion O f m agn e i fi el d , urr e n dir e ion
k v

u u
b ein g n o n , an d v i e ers a .

f r t h er
inc r e ases
an d furt h er
Fig 1 22 is
u y apar

u
onl v
t as

g c ond ct or
t h e di st an c e fr om t h e
an ill st r at i e dia r am b e c a se t h e uv
u
. .

actual c onditions c o l d n ot b e r e pr e se n t e d in t h e spac e a ail ab l e

for t h e ill st ration

y u fi uuu y
.

k
In pr act ic e t h e el d s all b e c om e s so w e a a Sh or t dist an c e

u fiu
,

aw a — —
fr om t h e c ond ct or a fe w in c h es t o a fe w fee t t h at it

fi
e xc e pt w it hin t h e ol m e of spac e v u u u qu y g
c an b e ass m e d for all pr act ic al p r pose s t h at t h e r e is no el d

it e c l ose t o t h e cond ct or

u u
.

Also t h e el d is dist rib t e d n ifor m l alon all por t ions of a

,

c ond ct or in w hic h t h er e is t h e sam e c rr ent in am per es See

M g u
.

Ar t s 2 2 6 an d 56 for de fi ni tions of a line of for c e ” “

g W fi y g g
. .

208 R ul e s for th e D ir ection of a a n e tic Fie l d Ab o t a

u fi
.

Str ai h t ir e — T h e el d alw a s lies at ri h t an l es t o t h e con

.

d ct or as Sh ow n in Fig 1 22 T h e dir e ction of t h e el d b ears

. .
 EL E C TROM AGNE TISM 1 43

u
SE C . 9]

t he

k
sam e r el a

g
tion t o th at of t h e c r rent th at t h e dire ction of

ug g
r ot ation of a ri h t h and sc r ew (Fig: 1 24 I ) b e ars t o it s for w ar d
-

y
flu g g
,

or b ac w ar d motion If a mare th r o h w hi c h ele ct ric it is

u fi g
.
,

ow in is so r aspe d (Fig w ith t h e ri h t h an d t h at t h e

gy g u
.

th m b points in th e dir e ction O f t h e c rr ent flow t h e n ers w ill

ku g u
,

i t i t h di ct i f t h m t ic fi l d d i If
‘

p o n n e r e on o e a n e e an v ce versa

g fi k
.

on e loo s alon a c rr ent c arr in c on d ct or in t h e dir e ction

-

of t h e c rr ent t h e dir e ction Of t h e m a ne tic

,
el d w ill b e cl oc

w ise t h at is in t h e sam e dire ction as t h e h an ds of a w atc h

W u
.
,

2 09 A C om pass C an b e Use d to D e term ine th e Dir e ction of

u y fl g u
.

th e Curre nt Fl ow in a ir e — If t h e c om pass is pl ac e d n der a

kg fl
.

c ond ct or (Fig 123 ) in w hi c h e le ctricit is ow in fr om so th t o

v u
.

n or th t h e nor t h see in e n d of t h e nee dl e w il l b e d e e ct e d t o t h e

,
-

w est If t h e c om pass is pl ac e d o er t h e c on d ct or t h e nor t h

.
,

Force Lines

t t ct c t
Flowing in Sa me "
9 i n Opposit e
D‘re d 'on Direct ions

1 2 5 —Ill us

g flu v
FI G . . ra in g a ion of par all el urr e n s.

see

flz u
kin end of t h e nee dle w ill be de e ct ed t o t h e east If t h e
dir e ction of c rr en t flow in t h e c ond ct or is r e er se d t h e dir e c
g y
.

g y g g
,

tion of de e ction of t h e ne edl e w ill b e rev erse d c orr espondin l

u ygu
.

A m a neti ed nee dl e al w a s t ends t o pl ac e itself at ri h t an l es

see in

ne t ic
k fig
t o a c ond ct or c ar r in c r r en t Th e n or t h th at is t h e n or t h
en d of t h e nee dl e w ill poin t in t h e dir e ction of t h e m ag

el d
,

This dire ction can b e de t er mine d b y any of t h e r les

.
,

u
u u u yg
.

of Art 2 08

ug fi
. .

21 0 Law s Of Action B e tw e e n C r r e nt s — C on d ct or s c arr in

g uv y u
.

c r r e n s r r l
t att act o repe eac ot h h e r— o r n —
t e d t o b e c a se Of t h e

by t h e action of t h e c rr e nt s u
m a ne tic elds (lines of for c e) e ne rat e d ar o nd t h e c ond ct ors
Th e se t h r ee e r im port ant law s .

h
ar e

1 . Par al lel currents flowi ng in the same direct ion attr act . T is is dem on
 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI CI T Y

tth ct cc t t c cw t
1 44 [ ART 2 1 1 .

ct thct cct
b y t h e e xpe rim en of Fig 1 2 5, I
st r at e d

t h e sam e dir e ion in b o con du

lik e s r e
Wh ere t h e urren s ar e flo ing in
t ct t tch c ct
.

ors, t h e lines of for e e n d t o e n ir l e b o h

.

c h
ond u ors and on r a e d rub b er b ands dr awing t h e on du or s

tw w c t ct t c cc th c
oge er .

tth th t
2 . Par alle l u rr ents flow ing in opposite di rect ions r e pel as s ow n in Fig .

Th e opposi e l y flo in g urr en s gen er a e lin es

ir ul ar of for e

t t
ab ou em a ar e s irl in g in t h e sam e dir e ion , h en e ey r e pel .

C urr ent s m a ki ng an
3 . angle w ith each other tend to become par al le l and to

th c ww w thc t t t t t w c
flow in the sa m e d ir ecti on . This l aw is dem ons r at e d by th e e xpe rim en of

Fig 1 2 6, I
. an d 11 .

All of t h e r ee a b ov e l a s m ay b e in orpor a e d in o on e s a e m en , hi h
al l ed M ax Any tw o ci rc uits

c
ell s l a
’
is on e of t h e SO - s, us : carryi ng curren t

t end to so dispose the mselves that they will include the largest possible number

M
of li nes of for e com mon to th e two .

21 1 . Anoth e r of axw e ll s
’ ”
Law s : E ver y electr omagnetic

system tends t o ch a nge its con figuration so that the exciting circuit

Cond uct or

tt tc t
1 O g
“
ri ina l Posit ion .
ll flnal Posit ion
'

III Two Sole noid s

”

FI G — Ill us in g t h e m ag ne i
126 pr ope r ies of sol e n oids.

f
. . ra

will
dir ection
em br ace

uy g u
the m axim um num ber of lines of
Thi s m e ans t h at c arries c r r ent
will alw a s t en d t o t r n shift or dist or t int o s c h a posit ion or,
any

,
c oil or l oop w hic h
or ce in a posi
uti ve

sh ape t h at t h e r e at e st possibl e flux w ill b e e n c l ose d b

y it an d

vy v y
th at t h e flux line s w ill all b e in t h e sam e dir e ction Thi s l aw

u g vu y g
.

is e r im por t ant b e c aus e it expl ains effe ct i el t h e Ope r ation

of el e ct ric m ot ors ( Ar t 625) m e as rin instr m ent s and ot h er
.

u fi v
.

esse nt ial ph e nom e na Th e l aw applies t o e er ar r an em e nt

fi u y y u
.

of c l ose d c ir c it s an d m agnet ic eld irr espe cti e of w h et h e r t h e ,

el ds ar e pr od c e d w h oll or part iall b y t h e c ir c it or b y ot h er

h t tt
m e ans .

t c t t ch t thth tt c t c c ht w h w
EX AMP L E S —In Fig . 12 7, t h e elix an d t h e m agn e iz ed kni
—t h e
ing n eedle
—

ct th t tt t c
e nd to urn in o su posi ions a the i in g ir ui
ex elix ill
en l ose t h e m axim u m flux and so a the flux d ue t o t h e elix il l b e in t h e
sa m e dir e ion as a due t o t h e kni in g n ee dl e . In h is ase t h e flux is
146 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

u u u u
. 2 13

w h en t h e c ond ctor is b ent into a loop (b e c a se t h e c ir c l ar lines

of for c e all w h irl ar o n d t h e c on d ctor in t h e sam e dir e ction) all
of t h e lines enter at one fac e of t h e l oop an d le ave at t h e oth er
u
uv
fac e of t h e loop This c r eates a nort h pol e at one fac e of t h e
.

l oop and a so th pole at t h e ot h er fac e (Art 2 1 5) in acc or danc e

with t h e pr o isions of t h e r i h t h an d r l e of Ar t 2 1 6 Th e g -
u .

. .

l ines of flam e

III Iron Cor e

-

I: Air Cor e
—Ill u tt c h
uu g
FI G . 1 30 . s ra in g e fi e ct of an ir on or e in a e lix .

c ond ct or of Fig 12 9, I mi h t b e c onsider e d a h elix (Art 2 13 )

H vg u y
. .

of 1 t rn

u g
.

213 A elix is any c oil of wire h a in c ir c ul ar t r ns an d c arr

yg vy g g
.

ing c rr ent ; Fi s 1 3 0 131 and 1 32 Sh ow exam pl es Som e

a

g
. .
,
”
tim es t his term h elix is applie d onl t o a spir al h a in a le n t h
“

r eat er th an it s diam e t er an d c om pr isin b ut one l a e r of w ire ,

I
lie /ix of ns u/at e a'

1 ‘
End Vi e w II lla gnei ic Spect r um
'

—Th e
' '

t c ct h
III '

Sid e Vi e w

k v
FI G . 131 . m ag n e i Spe r um of a e lix .

fi g y u
“ ”
but in t his b oo t h e w or d h elix w ill m e an any c oil as ab o e

de ne d . A
v yg u u g
t erm is en erall
sole noid

u u y u
is,
n derst ood a

h elix t h at h as er c onsider ab l e l e n t h as c om par e d w ith it s

as th e ,

g vu y
,

di am e te r an d a l ar e n m b er of t r ns
,
s all w o nd c l ose t o ,

et h er It m ay h a e m or e t h an one l a er of w ir e A toroi d is

g u H v u
. .

a h elix b e nt into c ir c l ar for m as in Fig .

21 4 M a n e tic Fiel d of a
. e lix — If se er al l oops or t rns of .

wi r e are so w o nd as t o form a h elix ( Fi g 1 33 I ) a c onsiderable .

,
 ELE C TROM AGNE TI SM 1 47

u u u
SE C . 9]

g
m b er of t h e flux line s pr od c ed by eac h of t h e t rns w il l
e n c ir c le t h e e ntir e h elix inst e ad of e n c ir c lin onl t h e t ur n t h at gu y g
e n er a es t th em Now if t h e
g
t ur ns ar e w o nd as
y cl ose t o e th er
c

as is possible ( Fig . a rea t m an m ore of t h e line s w ill

“B IZ" 10 9 8

Long - Z l nc h Dia m e
'
I Z z Inches Long t i nc h Dia met e r
'
f -
11
‘

TaInc hes t er

14 13 I2 ll IO
Area =

c c c t ch h
— Heli es t
III 5 Inc hes Lon - I Inc h Dia m e t e r
“

y g y
Fro . 1 32 . arryi n g urr e n (ea elix h as 1 6 ur ns) .

en

u vuy fiu ul
u
c ir cl e t h e entir e h elix ; t h e w il pass th r ou h t h e c lindric al

g
spac e inside of t h e t r ns an d r e t r n in t h e spac e o t side of t h e

t r ns Ob io sl t h e el d at N or at S is st ron er (in Fig

.
,
.

l ines O F f ar ce
LIh as of For c e

1
"

Tur ns Expa nd e d

133 .
— I l l us tt
ra in g in cr e ase in flu x d ue t o c t th t
Ill T ur ns Cl ose d
l osin g
-

og e er th e ur ns of a

gg u
sol e n oid .

133 ) at

g u u
II t h an atws w h y arr an in t h e t rns
I . Fig
cl ose t o e th er c a ses m an of t h e li es t o e n cir cle t h e e n tire
h elix
.

Th e c rr e nt c ir c ul at e s in t h e t rns sh ow n in t h e dir e c
.
y sh o
n

uu
t ions indic at ed by t h e arrows and prod c es t h e cir cular lines of
 48 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

u u u
. 215

to g y
for c e ill
u t
s ra e d

uy v t
t h er Sinc e t h e c ir c l ar lines abo t 3 h a e a
e
.

u u
C onsider

z
th at t r ns 3 and 5 ar e p sh ed c l ose
dir e ction s c h

uy gu z v
.

t h at t h e oppose t h ose ar ound 5 t h e w ill t end t o ne t r ali e ,

e ac h ot h er if 3 an d 5 ar e p sh ed c l ose t o e t h er It is e ide nt

fi y uu g
.
,

t h e n t h at t h er e is a t enden c t ow ar d t h e ne trali ation of t h e

,

eld b e t w ee n t h e adj ac e nt t r ns of a h elix t h at ar e c l ose t o e t h e r

u u
.

M an of t h e lines of for c e m st th er efor e flow in spac es w hi ch

g
, ,

ar e n ot b e t w e e n adj ac e n t t r ns h e n c e a c onsid er ab l e n m b er

g fi v u
,

of t h e l ines e n er at e d b y a h elix e n c ir cl e t h e e ntir e h elix Th e .

t ot al m a ne tic eld de el oped b y t h e c r r ent in a h elix is ob v i

g v u u
,

ousl y due t o t h e c om b ine d act ion of all of t h e l in es of for c e

H
,

e ne r at e d b y e ac h of it s indi id al t r ns

ug u y g
.

2 1 5 Pr ope rtie s of a
. e lix or Sol e noid — A h elix or a solenoid .

( Ar t 2 1 3 ) t h r o h w hi c h c r r ent el e ctric it is passin h as all

gfl g y u
.

of t h e p r ope r t ies of a per m ane nt

m a net Thi s can b e sh ow n w ith

gv
.

the oat in b att er appar at s of

Fi s 12 6 an d 12 7 A nor t h pole

u
. .

is de el ope d at one e nd of t h e

u h elix an d
in a cc or dan c e
a so th pol e at t h
w it h t h e h an d
eo th e r
r le
,

t c
of Ar t 2 08

t t t c t t t
—Han d r ul e for de t er m in
. .

FI G
—Th e
.

ch w h t c tt cct t ct c t t th ht wh
i ng t h e pol ari y of a sol e n oid . Ex AM P L E s . zm c and oppe r i n

the es -
ub e of Fig . 12 7 on s i u e a

tt ct t t t t c w ct ct c h t ctc
ell ( Art 33 0 ) .

'
t a for es a u r r en of el e ri i y r ou g the el ix . Th is
elix ill b e r e pe l l e d or a ra ed by ape rm an en m agne or ill r e pel and

j us v es e xa

wt th hth h c ct ht w
a ra a pe r m ane n m agne as if it e r e one i self It b e a . ly
lik e a m agn e . If, as in Fig 1 2 6, I ,
. a ondu or arrying ur r e n is pl a ed

hht c ct th th t c c t hth
ab o e an d par all el i the elix, the el ix w ill im m edi a e l y s w in g ar ound

a nd assum e a posi ion at rig an gl e s to the on d u or as s o n in II . Wh en

t wh c w
the el ix an d on du or ar e in t h e posi ion of I , t h e urr e n s in e m are at

th t h c c t h t
rig an gl e s t o on e an o er an d e ir lin es of for e oppose (see and rul e s of

hh w th w tt ctc t c th th c ct
Ar s 2 08 an d 2 1 6)
. ich ause s t h e h elix t o s in g ar ound .

Assum e n ow fl oa

t ct
a a el ix arryin g urr en is b r ou g t n e ar the in g

th t th th w t t t wh
el ix as at II I . If t h e urr e n s in bo el i e s ar e in t h e sam e dir e ion , as

th ht t th
s o n, ey ill a ra . If t h e u r re n in on e is in t h e opposi e dir e ion
to a in t h e o er ey
'

ill r e pel —j us as do per m anen m agne s en

H ug g y H
eir lik e pole s are b r oug oge er .

21 6 Th e an d R le for D e t erm inin th e Polarit of a e lix,

g fi g
.

Sol e noid or El e ctr om a n e t Is : If ( Fig 1 34 ) t h e sol e noid or el e c

u
.

t r om agne t b e so r aspe d w ith t h e r ight h an d t h at t h e n e rs

point in t h e dir e ct ion of

kg g th
‘

el e ct r icit y fi ow , t h e m b w ill point

t ow ard t h e north ( or nort h -see in ) ol
p e of t h e ma net .
 SE C T ION 1 0

THE MG A NE TIC C IR C UIT

2 19 Th e Law s of th e uu u
M agne tic Cir c it are sim il ar t o (but not

v g u y g
.

t h e sam e as) t h ose of t h e el e ct ric c ir c it T h s it w ill b e c om e

g v u g v
.
,

e ide nt as t h e r e ade r pr oc ee ds t h at t h e sam e ener al n derl in

g u
,

prin c ipl es w hi c h o er n ph enom ena of el e ct ric c ir c it s also o e rn

fi
t h ose of m a ne tic c ir c it s ( Th e t er m m agnetic circuit w as
de ne d in Ar t
g u
.

g
—

u
Th e r e ader w ill fi n d t h at t h e flux lin e s of

u
.

for c e — Ar t s 7 0 an d 22 5) in a m a ne tic c ir c it is anal o o s t o

f gu g u
.

t h e c ur r e nt in an el e ct ric c ir c it an d t h at t h e m agn etom otive

v v g —
or ce — t h e for c e t o w hi c h t h e flux in a m a ne tic c ir c it is due is

uv u y
anal o o s t o t h e el e ct r om ot i e for c e or

ju v y g u
ol t a e of an el ect ric

c ir c it F r t h erm ore h e will l e arn t h at st as ele ct ric c ir c its

, ,

u gu y
.
,

h a e a pr opert w hic h is t erm e d r esist an c e so e e r m a n e t ic ,

c ir c it h as an analo o s propert w hich h as b een t erm e d

H
r elucta n ce.

en vg u
c e inst ead of h a in t o be c om e familiar with a new and

u y v y
,

distin ct se t of prin c iples and ide as in or der t o nderst and m ag

a ne w g u qu y u
ne tic c ir c it ph enom e na t h e r e ader w ill m er el
-

ro p o f ant it ies an d
,

g uyh a e t o appl t o
ni t s t h e sam e ol d ener al prin c i

u
t h e el e ct ric c ir c it u
pl es w hic h h e h as alr e ad l e ar ne d in c onne ction w it h t h e st d of

qu u g y u g u U nderst an d t h at t h e ph enom ena nit s and

.

ant it ie s for m a net ic c ir c it s ar e n ot t h e sam e as t h ose for

,

u y gg
el e ct r ic c ir c it s b ut t h e

y ar e an al o o s and t h e sam e essent ial

,

c w t
n de rl in ener al ide as appl for b oth .

N
cc t t c c cv t th t th t
or m —A kno l edgmen
tc c t
is due
el opm en of t h e
Prof . V . Karapet oii for proposin g a

t tt t t tht t c t t th t t
l ogi al and r a ion al de e ory of t h e m ag ne i cir ui an d for
pl a in g m agn e i -
ir ui e ory on a fir m b asis Th e
ra ional e nginee rin g .

giv en in hi s b ook is b ased on a ou lin e d b y K ar apet ofi in h is

th t t t t w c
re a m e n

T HE M AGNE TI C C I R C UI T
”

h t wh t w
m os e xcell en m a e m a i al rea ise , “
.

EXAMP LE — Assum e

c c c t t
. a sui ab l e ins rum e n s, hi h can not b e described
By re ading t h e inst ru

twh t c c c h wh c t c
e re ar e arr ange d som e
, a as sh o n in Fi g 13 5 . .

m e n s an d m aking e r t ain al ul a ions one can re adil y de e r m ine t h e flux

ge ne ra e d b y t h e or oid or ir ular el ix or e as at I , and

h th t t tt t
e n it h as an air

al so Th e sam e urren is assum ed t o flow

v t t
e n it h as an ir on ore , as at I I
in t h e elix in b o ins an ce s Also t h e or oid of I is of t h e sam e diam e er
.

and h as t h e sam e numb er of urns as th a of 11 . It is ob ious, h en, hat

1 50
 U
chh w tht t h vh t ct ch t
SE C . 1 0] THE M AGNE TI C C I R C IT 151

th th t c
ea

be s
of t h e

o n a
oroids s oul d

t h e flux de
cw
a e

el ope d
v the sam e

in t h e ir on
un der
cct
m agn e iz in g
ore of

cc tct th
II is
e ffe .

v ery m u
Now , It

g re a
can

er

chc c w tt h w th
in t h e air ore of I In fact , e r ain on di ions, an d wi
"

an a
'

flo

wht w c th t
t he sam e u rre n t in g in 1 and II, assu m in g the r oss-se ion al ar e a of

w th c wc th t w
of t h e ore s t o b e ih flux of 23 lin es ill b e e s ab l is ed i in t h e
ea
1 sq . .
, a

ht t
air or e of I b ut en an ir on or e is inse r ed in t h e or oid , as at II an d

i t h esam e u rr e n flo in g, t h e flux en de v el ope d i in t h e or oid ill

b e 40, 000 lin es is, b y t h e inse r ion of t h e iron ore , t h e flux h as b ee n
‘

. T a

50 m“ A" *
Se c t ion B- B

L Al r C ore
‘

t t t II iron Core
-

c t t tt t cc th t th ch t
,

FI G . 1 35 .
— Arr an g e m e n for d e e r m in i n g per m e ab ili y of ir on .

ct w w t c h t t
in re ase d im e s . T h e n a ur al infe r en e is a air offe rs a mu gr e a er

ion t o t h e d e v el opm e n

ct ch t th t
opposi of m agne i flux in it an d oe s ir on . Th is
inferen e ill b e verifie d in foll o ing ar i l e
a T a is, t h e
“
m agn e ic

v
.

”
r e sis an ce of ir on , it s r el u an ce , is m u l e ss h an a of air .

g g M agnetom oti e For ce (abb re v iat e d

22 0 .

or a e nt due t o w hi c h flux lin es of for c e or m a ne t ism are se t

up in a m a ne t ic c ir c ui t
,
is t h at for c e

In an ele ct ric c ir c ui t t h e r e m st b e an
g u , , ,
,

u
.

e m f (Ar t
. . .1 82) im pr esse d on t h e
.

c ir c it b efor e el e ctrons (a cur

yu
r e nt ) can b e for c e d t o flow in it

Sim il arl in a m a ne tic c ir c it

,
g u .

h t ct ct
t h e r e m st b e a m m f b efor e t h e r e

u g
. . .

c an 1 6 fi ux M m f IS 131 6 Pause FI G 1 3 6 — S o in one l o

3 1 ?
' ' ° °

w g . . e e r

flux IS t h e effe ct Th s It Is ev 1 m ag n i u n e r

ug u u v g
.
, .

de nt t h at m m f in a m a netic

u
. . .

c ir c it is analo o s t o ele ct ric pr e ss r e olt a e or in an , ,

c ctw th w t ct c t
el e ct ric c ir c it

t c h c v t w c th th t c
.

Nor a —To produ e an e ffe any m e dium — a er air el e

ct c c c t t
i ri i y or , , ,

m agne ism —a for e pus Wi t h e

cct c
or pre ssur e
_
is al ays ne e ssary , , , .

e le ri ir ui his pr essure is all e d ol age (Ar t 1 17) an d wi a m agn e i

g
.

ir ui it is all ed m agnetomoti ve forc e .

u u22 1 . A Turn in
ct rom a ne tic parlan c e im plies one w r ap of
a c ond ct or ar o nd a c or e w hi c h m ay in t h e c ase of a sol e noid

b e an air c or e or , in t h e c ase of an ele ctr om a net an ir on c or e

,
ele

g
, ,

,
.
,
 [ AR T

h w t cc
1 52 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TR I C I T Y . 1
2 22

w ct t t
X
E AM P L E
sh o s r espe
— Fl g
ivel y
,
. .

,
1 36 s o

2 urn s an d 5 u rn s ar oun d
s 1 u rn ar ound a

a
ore an d Fi

or e .
g. 1 3 7, I an d II

2 22

g u y .

u
Th e Pr actical and Rational Unit of M M F Is th e Am pe r e
turn — Th at is, t h e ab ilit t o pr od c e a flux of lines of for c e in an
u
. .

u u g gz vg u u
.

l
e e ct r om a n e t ic c ir c it is de t e r mi n e d b y t h e n m b e r of am pe r e

t r ns m a neti in t h at c ir c it If t h e n m b e r of lin es of for c e

p r o d
y c e d b y a

u i e n h eli x b e a s c e r t a in e d m a t h e m at ic a ll o r e x p e r
.

i
u y
m en a t
li es is
n
ll
iny
a s

t
i
h
n

e
Fi
l
,

a
g
st
13
a
5
n a
i
l
t w
s is
ill b
p p
r
e

o
f o

o
.

r
n

t
d
io n
t h
a
a

l
t
t
t
o
h
,
e n

st
m
t
b
w
er

o
o
f a
f
ct
t h
o
ese

r s : ju
v g
, ,

i m f l w i i t h h li d ( )
b t h n u m b
( a) t e
h c u rre n t n a p er es o n g n e e x a n e e r

z g u v
, , ,

of t u r n s in t h e h e lix T h e o l t a e im p r e sse d o n t h e h e lix a n d t h e

u y
. ,

si e of w ir e se d in — t h a t i s t h e re si st a n c e o f— t h e h eli x h a e

vu k u gg
,

t
n o hin to d o w it h t h e s it a t io n e x c e p t in d ir e ct l T h e fl u x

u
.
,

de el ope d w it hi n a c o il li e t h a t o f F ig 13 5 I w ill n o t c h a n e if

g vy u
.
, ,
”
the c rr e n t ( p )
a m e r e a n d t h e n m b e r of t r n s in t h e e x c it in
“

w indin so ar t h at t h eir pr od ct r e m ains t h e sam e .

Cor e

I Tw o Tur ns
— Ill us tt t t lI Fiv e T ur ns
-

er m

c t t cc t c t
FI G . 137 . ra in g t h e m e ani n g of t h e ur n .

th
cc t c
EXAM PL E
t c — If a ur r en

t
of
m
20

th t
am p
A l if
.

1
ir ul a e s ar ound a oil of 5 urns, t h e

cc t c t
m m
. f of
. . a o il in a m p e r e -
u r n s is 2 0 X 5 1 0 0 a p
-
t ur ns s o , .

il i 1 X 1 00 1 00

th c c t
am p . ir ul a es in a o il o f 1 00 u rn s,
t h e m m f o f a c o s . . .

i t h m m f

c t c
am p t - ur ns
.
If 0 a p
1 . m ir u l a e in a oil o f. 1 0 u r n s,
a g a n ,
e . . .

m i l i

chth h thchhh c h wc t t
b
d ev el ope d y i s o il i s 10 X 1 0 100 a m p
- turn s If 50 a p r c u a e n . .

X 0 m

c ch t th
a o il of 2 u r n s ,
t h e m m f o f t h e o i l is 5 0 .
2 .
1 0
.
a p t u r ns .
-
.

EXAM P L E — In Fig 13 2 , e . a o f t h e .
r e e eli e s s o n h a s 16 u r n s a n d
fl H h m

t w c cc
a urr e n of 5 am p is ow in g r ou.
g e a e lix e n e , t e a p e r e -
u r n s .

am p -tur ns

c h ttcc c twt c cchc t

of e a of t h e r ee is : 5 am p . X 16 tur ns 80 .

—A v i l l d fl m risin g

th c ct
NO TE i n um b e r p r o u e a x o
of am pere - urn s
u p
.
g en
f l

t c c c ct t
m ore l ines of for e in a s or m agn e i ir u i ,
o r i n o n e o ar g e r oss -
s e c

hi i l f m l l io n a l

t th w
t ional are a, an in a m agn e i ir ui s o n g o r o s a r o ss-
s e

v m b f m

v v
are a . B ut , for a gi e n m agn e i ir u i ,
t h e g r e a e r t h e n u e r o a p e re
’

tc c c t ct c ch tc t c th
urns, t h e gre a er ill b e t h e flux pr odu e d .

—
Nor m W e re e ry l ar ge m m fs
v a r e in o l e d ,
a s f o r e x a m p l e ,.
in t h
.
e .

i i m t o if e se

t t
m agne i ir ui s of el e ri al m a in es, t s u s o a ry s p e y
m m fs i n kiloam er e tur ns One i ok l a m e r e - urn is e ual t o
q a m p
p
.
-
. . .
p .

t urns, h ence , am p .
- urns l
20 ki oam p
-
urns . .
1 54 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

uu u
. 22 4

for ce d t h r ough

u
amp - tu rns H g v zjug
thi s
ow e er ,
1 com posi e

st
t
1 am p w o
t rn,

u vuy
it s m m f w o ld b e 2 0
. .

l d flow in e ac h el em ent al
.

g
. .

t r n , an d t h e m a n e t i in e ffe ct w o l d, ob io sl , be t h e sam e

as t h at w it h c oil s of Fi s 13 8 an d 1 39

u
. .

224Th e Form ulas for th e Am pe re - turn follow from w h at h as

.

pr e c e ded, t h s

( 6)
4

(4 7)

(4 8) ( t u )
rn s

flu g
Wh e re

g
in M
u t rns I c
u -
u u rr e n t in am pe r es,

gu
.
,

ow in in t h e w indin n der c on sider at ion . N n m b er of

c t t
t rns in t h e win din n der c onsider ation .

c
and th t
EXAM P LE

tth t c
ere ar e
—If a
c
60 t th t
urns
qua
w
e r ain sol e n oid is

in t h e sol e noid,
de v el opin g a m m f
t he
M
ur r en

N
. .

in
. of

a sole n oid
am p - urns,

oul d

t th t c c t w tch ww c c t tht c c c tt
n e essar ily b e fr om e ion I 60 20 am p .

EXA M P L E .
—ASSl l m e a it is n e essary t o pr odu ce a m m f . . . of am p .

h ctt
urns, an d a onl y a serie s ir ui hi al ays arr ie s a on s an u rre n

of am p is av ail abl e How m any urns oul d a sol e n oid of is ir ui

—Sub
. .

a ev t o on ain in or de r t o de v el op t h e re quired SO L U TI O N .

g u
st it ut e in e q ua ion N M I 39 4 turns .

2 25
is t h e
g gu
. Flux h as b e en

g ug u k
r e fe rr e d
”
t otal m a ne tism or t ot al n m b er of line s of for c e in
t o in t h e pr e c e din Ar t 7 0 . . Fl x

g g u u fl g vyu
t h e m a ne t ic c ir c i t passin t hr o h a c r oss se ction t a e n at
r i h t an l e s t o t h e dir e ct ion of t h e lin es of for c e J st as in a
-

ufl g v y k g u
.

series el e ct r ic c ir c it t h e c rr e n t ow in in e er par t of t h e

u
c ir c it is t h e sam e li ew ise in a serie s m a net ic cir c it t h e t ot al
,

flux ow in in e er par t of t h e c ir c it is t h e sam e at any par t

,

gg k g v fi u
,

of t h e c om pl e t e c ir c ui t It sh oul d b e n ot e d (se e Ar t 2 67

fi
.
,
.

M a n e tic L e a a e h ow e er t h at sin c e t h er e is n o ins l at or

” “

u fi
,

for m a ne t ism it is im possible t o c on ne flux in a de nit e pat h

u fiu yg
,

in t h e sam e w ay t h at an el e ct ric c rr en t m ay b e c on n e d in a
cond ct or For t his r e ason it m ay b e dif c l t in m an c ases

u u fi u y u y fiu g
.
,

t o asc ert ain t h e flux at a c er t ain c r oss se ct ion of a m a ne t ic -

c ir c it b e c a se of t h e dif c lt of acc r at el de nin t h e ext e nt

g
of t h e c r oss se ct ion Th e c r oss se ct ion m ay in c l de b ot h m ag
-

n e t ic and n on m a n e t ic m at er ials
-

fi
.
-

g
.

2 2 6 A Lin e of Force ,
. or a m axw ell , h as b e e n de ne d in a ge n
eral w ay in a pre c e din se ct ion (Art . It w ill now b e de fined
 THE M AGNE TI C C I R C I T U
quu vy u u
SE C . 1 0] 1 55

an titat i el b ec a

vu
se

fi
f magnetic flux
j st as t h e am pere is t h e nit of el e ctric c rr ent Th e de nition
t h e line of for ce i s
uv
a unit o
,

g
.

w h ic h w ill b e gi en is b ased on t h e ob ser e d experim en t al fact

"

u v
(w h ich w ill b e disc sse d in det ail in a foll owin se ct ion Ar t

ug u v g u u
4 1 8) t h at w h en a c ond ct or is m o e d ac r oss a flux so as t o c t
, .

in t h e c ond ct or g u u
th r o h t h e lines of for c e an e m f or olt a e w ill b e ind c e d
A m a ne t ic flux of one h n dr ed m illion
, . . .

y fi u
.

—
lin es of for c e or a h ndr e d milli on m axw ell s

u
h as b e e n
d ct or v u ug is m o
t
uu
ar b i r aril de

u
ne d as

t h r o h it so as t o c t acr oss t h e li n es at a uni

ed
t h at nifor m flux w h ic h , if a con

u g qu u v
,

form spe e d in j st 1 se c t h e e m f ind c e d in t h e c on d ct or w il l

.
,
. . .

r e m ain c onst ant d r in t h e se c on d and b e e al t o j st 1 ol t .

Hence a flux of 1 line is that flux w hich w ou ld induce an e m f of

,
. . .

NO
wh ch
— w t
volt in a conductor moved thr ough the flux in 1 sec

th t
Tll e foll o ing de fini ion fr om K arape t ofl s
w th
T HE M AGNE TI C
.

t
’ “
TE .

C I R C UI T i re all y h as t h e sam e m e aning as a ab ov e giv en is or ,

no in g : A flux through a turn of wir e changes at a un ifor m r ate o f

c
li nes per sec. when the e . m f ind uced in the turn
. . remains constant and eq ua l to

c t t t t t
1 volt .

NO T E — A kil oline is e qual A m e gal ine is e qual t o

c c ct wh ch th h w
. to lines of for e .

illus ra in g q uan i a iv el y h ow e m fs

ct th wh ch t ct c tt
l in e s of for e . Exam pl es . . .

ar e indu ed in on du or s i cut r ou g flux ar e gi v en in afoll o in g

u ug v u
se ion of is b ook i re l a e s t o t h e in du ion of e m f b y . . . u in g flux .

227 . R el t
c an ce

g y
(h ow t o c om p t e r el ct an c e w ill b e e xpl aine d
lat er) is t h e nam e th at h as be en i en t o t h at pr ope rt of m at erials

y fi y uu
s m b ol for r el ct an c e is (R ug g
w h ic h O pposes t h e c r e ation of m a ne tic flux in t h em Th e
R el ct anc e th en indic at es t h e
.

W u u y u
.
, ,
”
dif c ul t e n c o nt er e d in c r e at in m a ne tic flux in a m at erial .

ith el e ct ric c ir c it s t h e pr oper t of s b st an c es w hi c h opposes

g u y uu y gu
,

or l im it s t h e flow of c rr e nt in t h e m is c all e d r e sist an c e Th e

v
.

an al o o s pr oper t of s b st an c es in m a ne t ic c ir c ui t s is r e

l uct an ce

gg
.

g
In el e ct ric c ir c it s n e ar l
fer e nt r e sist anc e pr oper t ies som e offer in
all s b st an c es h a e dif

u littl e and oth e rs

y u g
, ,

r e at opposit ion t o t h e est ab lish m ent of el e ct r ic c r r e nt s In

v y u
.

m a ne tic c ir cui t s n e ar l all s b st an c es e xc e pt t h e m a ne t ic

v y u
,

m et al s (Ar t 4 5) h a e pr actic all t h e sam e r el ct an c es Ir on

g u y vu vy g
. .

h as a r el at i el l ow r el ct an c e w hile air and al l oth er n on ,

m a ne t ic m at er ials h a e t h e sam e an d a rel at i el h i h r eluc

t anc e N m eric all r el ct an c e is t h e r e cipr oc al of perm ean c e

u g
.
,

A
( rt th at is (see Art 2 3 8) (R 1 (P

u u
. . .

228 Th e Pr actical Unit of R e l ctance is th e R e l

. A m a ne tic .
-

c ir c it h as a r el ct ance of 1 rel w h en a m m f of 1 am p t urn . . .

-
 1 56 P R AC TI CAL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

gu u
. 22 9

e n er a es t

g
in it
J st as t h e oh m is t h e r esist an c e of
a flux of 1 lin e . Th e
u r el

uy a
is
c ol mn
anal o o s

of
g
m er c
t o t h e ohm
r 4 1 85
.

g
.

in l on an d 0 044 in in diam e t e r (
A rt . the r e l Is th e re

qu g u g
. . .

luct an ce of a pr ism of air , or any ot h er n on- m a n e t ic m at erial ,

Fig 1 4 1 , 1 in s ar e an d in l on Th e r el ct an c es of

u g u
. . . .

diffe r e nt m at e rial s m ay b e de t er m ine d b y t est s sim ilar in ener al

ct
t o t h e m e th ods sed in de t erminin t h e r esist anc es of s b st anc es .

th w t cht t
Examp LE s .
—Th e relu an ce fr om A t o B , Fig 14 1 , of a prism of air , w ood,
.

quare and

t c t ct c t c t
gl ass, or o e r n on-m agn e in l ong, is 1 rel
i ma e rial , 1 in . s . .

ir on , 1 in squar e an d 460 ft l ong h as, under

c t
A b ar of m il d st eel or r oug . .

t h e m os fav or ab l e on di ion s, a rel u an e of 1 r el A b ar of as ir on 1 in

tc t
. .

sq uar e and ft l on g h as, un d er t h e m os fav or abl e ondi ions , a r el u c

.

u y gg
an e of ab ou 1 r el .

2 29

u v g
. R elctanc e Is Not Al w a s C onstant in m a netic m at erials

y
b ut it is in all non m a net ic m at e rial s In m a ne t ic m at e rials
-
,

u g gu y
.

t h e r el ct an c e ar ies w ith t h e flux densit (Art V ariat ion .

of r esist an c e w it h t e m per at r e is a som e w h at anal o o s c on dition

g g
.

Th e r e ate r t h e flux densit in a

mm ”
fl
a
fi g m a ne tic m
fi

at e rial t h
a
e r e at er

u
R/ m f /R / F m A 8
x e ucfa e a e ro 70

(w it hin c ert ain limit s) w ill b e t h e

r el ct an c e of t h e m at e rial .

23 0 Th e Distinction B e t we e n .

t h e El e ctric C ir cuit and th e M ag

hc t
n e tic C ir cuit Sh oul d Not B e Dis

g
u
FI G L i l A g ap i d fi ni ion f r e ar de d — This art icl e is h e r e in
-
“
r e O

g u u g
.

th l e re .

sert e d t o c a t i on t h e r eader th at

g H u y
whil e anal o o s an d c om p t e d b y t h e sam e en er al pr oc esses t h e
m a ne tic an d e l e ct ric ph e nom e na ar e e ntir el dis t in ct and se pa
,

r ate c on dit ions

yu g vy g
e n c e it m st not b e inferr e d fr om t h e pr e c e d

g
.

ing th at an el e ct ric c urr e nt is t h e sam e thin as a flux of li n es

of for c e
,

In fact t h e ar e e n tir el differ e n t t hin s exc e pt t h at

g vu v g fl g y u
.
, ,

t h e flow of an el e ct r ic c rr e nt is o er ne d b y l aw s sim il ar t o t h ose

w hi c h o e r n t h e de el opm ent of m a ne tic flux It is t r e t h at

v g u gu u
.

el e ct ric c r r e n t s an d m a ne t ic uxes ar e cl osel r el at e d E le c

v
.

t ricit y m o in in t h e c on d ctor of an el e ct ric c ir c it can as h as

g y u u u u uu u
, ,

be e n sh ow n pr od c e a m a ne t ic flux
,
C on ersely if t h e flux of .
,

a m a n e t ic c ir c it c t s a c on d ct or of a cl ose d c ir c it a c r re n t

gu
,

of el e ct ric it w ill b e pr od c e d in th at el e ct ric c ir c it (Ar t .

O h m s Law of th e M a n e tic C ir c uit is t h e t e rm

“ ’ ”
2 3 1 Th e

u u yg
.

w hi c h is som e t im es applie d t o t h e f ndam e nt al l aw of t h e m ag

net ic c ir c it w hic h w ill now b e r e c ite d
,
Th e sam e nderl in .
 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y

c t c th tcc c t ct c th c c t
1 58 [ AR T . 23 2

t E X A

tt t
M P LE — In a e r ain air or e m agne i ir u i a m
urns d e v el ops a flux of lin es
SO L UTI O N —Sub s i u e in e qua ion
.
W a is t h e r el u
(R M qb
-

t .
, . m f .

an e of
. of

is ir
am p

ui
.

uv y u fi
18 r els.

23 2

fi
lu c t ance
. R el
This pr oper t y u vy vy k
cti ity (s m b ol is v pr ono nc e d nu) is spe ci c re
is similar t o r esisti it (Ar t 1 2 6A)
,

u u u
. .

w hi c h is spe c i c r esist anc e Rel ct i it in pr act ic al w or is

u v u y
.

m e as r e d in r els per inc h c b e

vv y u v uy u v y
.

2 33 Th e R el ctiv itie s of Difi e rent Sub stance s m st ob io sl

g u
.
, ,

ar sin c e t h e r el ct an c es of differ en t s b st an c es ar How

y u y u g y
.

e e r t h e r el ct i it of all non m a ne tic s b st anc es is t h e sam e -

u vy
, ,

n am el r el pe r in c b e Th e r el ctivi ties of m a ne tic

. .

s b st an c es ar with flux densit , t h e greater t h e flux densit

tcc c t
I M/h at Flux 2
‘

—M ag ne
iI- t t M M F Req uired 7
. . .

g uug y u u v y
FI G . 1 42 . i ir ui pr ob l e m s .

the r e a er

uu
of m il d st e el or w r o

u u v
t t h e r el ctiv it w ithin c er t ain lim it s Th e r el cti it

u v y
h t ir on is n der t h e m ost nfa or ab le con
.

u v u
,

dit ions ab o t rel per in c b e Th e r el cti it for

u u u v y v
. .
,

c ast ir on n der t h e m ost nfa or able c on ditions is ab o t

y
, ,

r el per in c b e J st h ow r el cti it aries w ith flux

u y v u gv
. .

de nsit can b e appr ec iate d fr om a c onsideration of t h e perm e a

bilit y (per m e ab ilit is t h e r e c iproc al of r el ctiv it ) al es i en
y
in T abl e 24 9

u y vv
23 4 Th e .

R el ctivit
u
”
g u an d

C om p
in Fig 143
Q y
tation
.

ctance , U sing th e uantit

of R e l
.

in ol es t h e sam e e ne r al pr oc ess as t h at de sc rib e d

u .

guu ,

g u v y
in Ar t 14 3A w h e r e in it w as sh ow n h ow t h e r esist anc e of any
c ond ct or m ay b e fi red on t h e b asis of t h e r esisti it of t h e

u
m at e rial of t h at c on d ct or Th e follow in form l as ar e b ase d
on t h ese t r t h s : The r eluctance of any magnetic path is: (A) in
.

!
SE C . 10 1 THE M AGNE TI C CI RC U IT 1 59

creased as th e length of the magne tic path i s i ncreased, (B ) increased

as the cr oss-sectiona l ar ea of th e agne tic path is decr eased and m ,

C
( ) i ncr eased as the r eluctivi ty o f the
material com prisi ng the path incr eases
Th at is,
“
t h e r el ct an c e is dir e ctl u v g gy .

o
p p
r
l
or t ional
of t h e lin es of for c e ,
to th e
v y is in
a er a e

e r sel
l en
pr o
th

port ion

of t h e
a

m ate rial
l t o t h e

pa th
of t h e pat h
,
an d
c
v r oss- se

.
ctional ar e a
aries wit h t h e
”

t c c c — C onsider LL

EXAM P LE

th wh ch c ct
. th e tw o sim pl e

m agn e i ir uit s of Fig . 1 44 , t h e rin gs of

h av e t h e

ch c
bo of i sam e r oss-se ion al
0 mo 2000 3000 4 080 5000 woo
kin d of

t c tt t t
are a an d ar e com pose d of the sam e
p Ab sout e Pern e obslit ( Perrrs p
‘

g er in Cu'
c-e)

ht w
31} 626 939 nsz 1565 me
iron T h e m m f in is 1 00 M p ea ase

t
w Relat Ne Pem bififg( sC mpm ed w it n
. . .

i f
. .
'

Now , if hi s 1 00-am p urn m m f

wh ch t cc c t
11’
u rns
—G
t c t
-
. . . . .

FI G 1 43 r aph s s o in g re

twh ch tw c
pr odu ed a o al flux of lin es in t h e
,
. .

l a i on of pe r m e ab ili y to flux

w t w
ir on rin g of I i is a m ag n e i ir ui of d e nsi in er ain ir ons an d st ee ls
y .

w ct h
a m e an l en g h of 1 2 in , t h e flux in t h e .

c t c ct w ch t
ring of II I , i is i e as l on g (2 4 in ) . oul d b e onl y ab ou one-h alf of

l ines, or lin es . It oul d b e e xa ly one- alf of lines ere

not e r ain orr e ions (Art . 2 67 , hi m us b e m ade ,

— Ex am pl es tcc t
w t cttthth tt ct t w th
FI G . 1 44 . of m ag ne i ir c ui s .

and

t
e re it n ot

tt
for t h e fa ivi y m ay v ary i
of t h e ir ui —
th ea (Ar t . 2 42 )
th w c c t hth t
re l u

t t t th t
flux de nsi y It is appare n. a if t h e l e n g a is, t h e

opposi ion t o m agn e iz a ion — is d ou bl ed , t h e flux oul d b e one - alf Sim i .

larl y, if an ir on core of l arger are a w ere sub s i u e d for a of I t h e

 PRAC TI CAL E L E C TR I C I T Y

t w tc t ct c
1 60 [ AR T . 23 5

w w
am pe re- urns

c c
b eing m ain
h t t th
ain ed
t h e opposi ion or rel u an e the sam e ,

th t c w
offe r e d b y t h e core oul d b e orr espondingl y d e re ased , en ce , t h e o al flux

oul d b e correspon din gly in re as ed E i r t h erm ore , if t h e m m f of ei e r I

ch c c t
. . . .

c t ct th t cc c ch
or I II ere d oub l ed , a is, in re ase d t o 2 00 from 1 00 , t h e flux oul d b e

C orre t ions for l e ak age (Ar t

c ctct v t t t
d oub l e d in ea ase . . 2 67 ) m us b e m ad e in

t th v t t t
orde r t o as e r ain t h e a ual flux w i gre a a ur a y, b ut in m any cases su

orr e ions can b e disre gar de d , an d in any e en ,

h ey do not ma e rially

affe t h e gen e ral of t h e ab o e s a e m en

u
ru .

v iously,
uy v y
23 5 Th e Form ulas for Figuring R el ctance of a Path on th e
.

th e u g
Basis of R el cti it , L e ngt h an d Ar e a of th e Path ar e th ese (ob
foll ow fr om t h e facts o tline d in t h e pr e ecdin Ar t .

2 34 and exam pl e )
(54 )

( rel s per in c b e) . u
l
2:
v
(5 7 ) (sq in )

u u g
. .

u
s
Sinc e
l t is
(Ar t 24 1
.
) v 1 u, s b st it

l
t in t h is in the re

(58)

W u u g
u xA

u
h er ein (R

g
ct anc e in r els of t h e m a netic path or portion
t h ereof nder c onsideration v
rel

r el cti it
,

of t h e m ate ria l of
,

u vy u
g g uu
.

t h e path nder t h e exist in c onditions 111 r els per in c h c be

gy
, .

l l e n t h of t h e m a net ic pat h or por tion t h er e of n der con

qu
,

side r at ion in in c h es A ar ea of t h e m a ne t ic pat h nder con

u
.
,

side r at ion in s ,
ar e in c h es y pe r m e ab ili t in p e r m s pe r
. inc h ,
, ,

c be

t ct c
1 4 20 1? of Non Magnet ic Mat e rial
-

—E xam pl e

h t ct t
B G . 1 45 . in c om pu in g r el u an e .

m agn e i
U
SO L TI O N —
t c t c ct t c ct t
EX AM P LE — W

Th e .
ma e rial

tc t
a

)
re l u
is t h e
ore

iv i y
2
r el u

sq . in
of air or
an ce

. in
( Fig 145) of an

o f a
.

r oss-se

n y o h er non -
m agn e i
h e r non

m
air

a e
(or any o
ion al are a an d 10 in l on g ?
ri al
.
1 62 P RA C TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 2 40

v y
.

dev vu g
w er e also
el opm en
er

qu
t
pe r m
w o l d be
e ab le ,
it is pr ob able t h at t h e pr esent ele ct ric al
im possible If it h ad so h appene d t h at

v gy mv g u
.

som e e xpe nsi m e t al— ol d, for —

inst anc e w ere ire d t o
e re pro

y v y y H u
ide pat h s of hi h per eanc e for m a netic c ir c it s of our

v
trical m ac hiner and de ic es, inst ead of ir on w hi c h is now
el e c

se d,

el e

u v u
ct ric al m ac hiner w oul d b e er costl e nc e ext e nsi e

e l e ct ric al de el opm ent w oul d, b e c a se of t h e e c onomi cs of t h e

.
,

gu
sit at ion b e im possibl e
,

g v
.

240 Th e M a n etic C ir cuit Equations Inv olv ing Perm eance

v g u
.
,

Inste ad of R e l ctance follow fr om th ose i en in Art 23 1 Th e

v
. .

deri ation of t h e th r ee foll ow in form l as will b e appar e nt if one

u
r em e m b e rs Ar t 2 3 8 ab o e t h at pe r m e an c e is t h e r e ciprocal of
,

rel ct anc e t h at is t h at (P
,
1
.

61 ,
,

( 5 8a)

( )
5 9

( am p - t u r ns)

W h e r ein t h e v y
s m b ols h a e th e sam e m e anin g gv
s i en h e r einb efore
ex epc t th at
.

perm e anc e
yu y
241 Pe rm e ab ilit ( s m
(P
b o
in perm s
l is p, p
p
r
e

o
r

n
m
o
e a

n
n

c
e,

e d
c
m u)
Ab sol t e perm eab ilit is c on enientl m eas re d in
is spe c ifi c u
y u v uy u y
.

vg u y y
.

per ms per inch cube (D o not c onf se ab sol te perm eab ilit

u vy u
.

w ith rel ati e perm eab ilit w hi c h is t r e at e d b el ow ) Perm eab ilit

uy
.

is anal o o s t o c ond cti it In oth er w or ds, ab sol t e per

u y
.

m eab ilit y is t h e pe r m ean c e of a l -in c b e Fr om w h at pr e c e des, . .

it foll ow s t h at n m e ric all , per m e ab ili t is t h e re c ipr oc al of r e

242 ug
l uct iv it y, t h at is : I1
Th e Ab sol
1 v or r 1 p
te Pe rm e ab ilit of Diffe re nt Sub stance s aries y v
y u uv y
.

v u
.

in t h e c ase of m a netic m at e rial s w ith t h e flux densit or sat r a

g u u vy
t ion as is ob io s fr om a c onsider ation of t h e fact th at r el cti it
of m a net ic s b st anc es ar ies w it h t h e flux de nsit See Fig 14 3 y g
u
" . .

T h e ab sol t e per m e abilit of air and of all ot h er n on m a ne tic -

vy u
m at e r ial s is pe

y v
r m s pe r in c b e F ig 1 4 6 T abl e 24 9 s
.h ow
h ow t h e ab sol t e an d r el at i e per m e ab ilit ie s of m a ne tic m at e
s ,

g . .

r ials

v
ar w ith flux den sit

y u
.

243 Th e Distin ction B e tw e e n Ab sol te Perm e ab ilit and R ela u y y k

y gv
.

ti e Pe rm e abilit sh o l d b e not e d In m an t ext-b oo s on .

el e ct r om ag ne tism t h e perm e ab ilit of air is i en as 1 This .

 10] THE M AGNE TI C C I R C U 1 63

vu vy u y
SE C . IT

al

solute
e of

u u k u
1 is, h ow e
per m e ab ili y k t u er , the r elative

Ab sol te perm eabilit

pe r m e ab ili t
li
and not

e vy
the
c ond cti it
ab

u
.
, ,

de pe nds pon the nit selecte d and w it h t h e am per e- tur n , the

flux line
of air

yg qu
and

com es u
out as e H
t h e inch es

y
ta
al
e n as

to pe
ni s,

r
t
m s
th e ab sol

pe r in c b e
te per m
ow e e r , v
e ab ili ty

v y
. .

it is al so pe rfe ctl l e itim ate t o e xpr e ss t h e pe r m e abilit of ir on

in
u
air b e c om e s y
uu v y u vu u v y
nit or 1 g u u
ter ms of t h at of air in w hi c h c ase t h e rel ati e perm e ab ili t of
,
,

An anal o o s sit ation is this : Th e

c ond cti it of al m in m m ay b e e xpr esse d eith er in oh m s pe r
.

k u y
c oppe r w hi ch is the n t a en as nit
,

g vu
inc h c b e or t h e rel at i e c ond cti it m ay b e r efe rr e d t o t h at of

v u v u y ug An ab sol t e pe r m e ab ilit
al e is al w a s l ar e r t h an t h e c orr espon din r el at i e pe r m e a
. y
ab sol u
b ilit y

ute yal

g vv u e .

per m e ab ilit
Th s, w h er e
al e
an

in

vu
pe r ms pe r in c h
al e w ill b e

g v g th is
tim es r e at er
th an t h e c orr e spon din r el ati e
c b e is i e n,

vu
(as c om pare d w it h air ) pe r m e a

c t
b ilit y al e .

chth c vOTE

m e ab ilit y
tt c
—To ‘
r e du e

alu e , e xpr esse d

an

iv e
ab sol u e

in pe r m s pe r
pe r

tt t c t
in ub e, to a r el a (as om pare d
wi )
t ttc t
per m e ab ili y v alue , di ide t h e
air

v
v

t ch c t t t
ab sol u e perm e ab ili y alu e b y
1 46 — Il l us r a in g pe r m e ab ilit y
or
FI G . .

mul ipl y it b y T o r e du e rel a i e v of n on- m ag n e i m a e ria ls .

pe r m e abili y t o ab sol u e pe rm e ab ili y

u g y
in pe rm s pe r in ub e , v
di ide b y or m ul ipl y by

244
g u
.

t h e foll ow in
To C om p
u te Pe rm e an c e
for m l as m ay b e
by Utiliz in
se d :
Pe rm e ab ilit V al ue s,

( p ms
e r )

(pe rm s per in c b e ) . u
(64) (sq in)

W h er ein
before .
all of the s y m b ols h a v e the sam e m e anin g gv
s as i en
 1 64 PRAC T] C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

G y u y
. 2 45

245
gu
anal o o s t o
.

olt a e v t or
r adie nt or e le ct ric int ensit gg
M agnetic Inte nsity (s m b ol H) i s a q antit
r adie n

y
in an el e ctric
vy g
g
In a m a ne tic c ir c it t h e m m f is c ons m e d ”
u u
c ir c uit w hi c h is desc ribed in Art 1 57C w hi c h sh oul d b e r e iew e d
,

g r ad all u g u
alon
.

“
, .

v gg
. . .
,

e ac h in c h l e n t h of t h e c ir c it in a w ay sim ilar t o t h at in w h ic h

the
as b e in ug u ug y u g
ol t a e im pr esse d on an el e ct ric c ir c uit m ay b e c onside re d

c ons m e d in eac h nit len t h of t h e c ir c it c ond ct or u

u gg g
.

Th e m m f r adie n t is t h en a q ant it indic at in t h e m m f

u
. . . . . .
, ,

e xpe n de d per ni t le n t h of t h e m a ne tic pat h Th e r e al sig

g qu
.

nifi can ce of m m f r adie nt is expl aine d in Ar t 26 1 Th s

u gv
. . . . .

( c o m p a r e t h e foll ow in e at ions w it h t h ose for t h e e l e ct ric

u g
c ir c it i en in Art 1 57b)
, .

u
(65) l
( am p -. t r ns pe r in l e n
. th )

( 66 )
‘

M H X l ( am p .
-
t r ns )
M
(6 7 ) I ( 1n )
t c c c t H
c t
.

of t
EX AM PL E

t v .
— If a
am p - urns,
m agn e i
t he a
ir
e r age
ui is 40 in l on g
. .
.

m m f gradien in his ir ui w oul d b et t cct

is ex i e d b y a m m f
and . . .

u y y y u fly
.

e qua ion H M l 40 50 am p -turns per in length . .

246 Fl x D e nsit (s m b ol B ) h as alread b een b rie con

ug g
.

sider e d in Ar t . 73 w h ere it w as sh ow n th at wit h a nifor m dis

t ribut ion of flux t h r o h t he m a net ic pat h

(68) 3; li
( es per
n sq . in .
)
(69) c t B xA ( lin es)

( 7 0) A
2 (sq in )

Wg v y vy gqu
. .

h er ein all of the s m b ols h a e the sam e m eanin s as b efor e

i

y
247 M g
e n , ex e p

Th e
c t t h at
a n e t ic
B flux densit
,
in lines

kv y
, pe r s ar e in c h
Saturation of Ir on, t h at is, it s abilit t o
y y
gg
.

W
.

c arr li nes of for ce f m ay b e li ene d t o the ab ili t of a spon e t o

w ill y k
ab sor b w a er

r e adil
t . h en
b ut w h en t h e spon e is alm ost sat r at e d,
soa up m or e
t h er e is

y
er

g
little w at er in t h e
u
u y kg
spon e it

it w ill ab sorb additional w at er onl w it h diffi c l t

gy
Li e w ise ,
w it h ir on, Fig 14 7 , w h e n t h e flux de nsit is l ow , t h e sli h t in yu .

u y qu
.

c rease in m m f radie n t (or w ill ca se a m at e rial in c r e ase

H v g qu g y
. . .

in t h e flux de nsit or in t h e n m b er of lines of for c e per s ar e

inc h .ow e er , w h e n t h e flux de nsit is h i h , it r e ir es a r e at
inc rease in m m f t o pr od c e a m at erial inc rease in flux densit
. . . u .
l 66 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y

t t
[ ART . 2 49

t t t v t
flux densi y b ecause a flux densi y of

c t
How e er, a m m f gradien of
lines per sq in is b elow t h e . .

c t
sa ur a ion poin . . . .

am p -tur ns per i n length is re qui re d t o in r ease t h e flux de nsi y from

c t t t t tc t t t t
.

to l ines pe r sq in b e ause a flux densi y of . . lines pe r sq in . .

is onside r ab l y ab ove t h e sa ura ion poin It re q uires ab ou 46 im es as .

gre a a m agne ic gradien in one ase as in t h e o h er .

249
(See Fi g g u g
. M agne tic
s . 1 43 and
Pr ope rtie s of Ir on
1 4 7 for r aphs
Ste el
and
ill str atin t h ese pr oper t ies)
.

C ar b on sh e e t st e e l ( ann e al e d) C as t st e e l

11 nr ar
l
Fl i xf Absol ut e Re l at iv e
F a x 225321
11
1 ;
Ab sol ut e R e l at iv e
d e nsit y 5 i ag n e t ic
pe r m e a
b i li t y b i li t y ( as
d e ns t y
i 5 gn
ia e t ic
per m e a
b i l it y
pe r m e a
b i lit y ( as
( li n e s i n t e nsi t y
c om par e d
( l i nes i nt e nsi t y
( pe r m s ( am p ( pe r m s c om par ed
pe r ( am p w it h t h at pe r
w it h t h at

g lé
. .

Qin ) pe r m ) pe r
ig lg ft tf
S ur sq ur r
sgt g)
e e
in c ub e ) of air ) in c ub e ) O f air )
’ . . '

) i
. .

M il d st e e l for g in g s ( w r oug h t ir on ) C ast ir on

M 2 50 Explanation of th e Applic ation of th e Ab o e Tab l e of vu
u
.

agnetic Pr opertie s of Ir on and Ste e1 — Th e c ol m ns h e ade d

u ug qu g
.

“
H ”
sh ow t h e n m b er of am per e -
tur ns required f or each 1 in

g u
.

length m agnetic cir cuit t o pr od c e th r o h

of ea ch s ar e in c h of

y
se ctional ar ea of t h e m a net ic c ir c it t h e c orr espondin flux

t ct t t
de nsit , B .

X L

c
w ill produ th
—

tcc c t
E AMP E
h
S ee
ch e ct roug
th e firs
ea
line
sq uare
and se
'

in ch se
ion of t h e
ion al
ab l e

are a of a
.

c htt am p

arb on - s ee
-

-
u rn s

s eel

u
m agn e i ir ui 1 in l ong, . line s .

251 .

vu
D e nsitie s in Air
Mm
v—
.

u u
Gradie nt s R e quir e d t o Pr od ce D ifle r e nt Flux
f
.

y u
.

Th e al es nder B w er e c om p t e d b y sub
u u
y
.

st it ut ing differ e nt al es for flux densit in for m l a (7 8) H B

air

e qu
it
is
al
.

y to
Th at is, for
al w a s u u H
air ,

perm s
H
per
B
in . c be .
beca
Th s
se

w ith B k
per m e ab ili t
ta e n as
of

l eng t h )

45, 000

252 y
y yv u k
Pe rm e ab ilit v of Ir on Is Not C onstant, but aries w i th th e

g
.

flux de nsit and w i th t h e differ e nt inds of ir on A c onside r ation

v y W u
.

of t h e per m eabili t al es in Tabl e 249 an d of the r aph s of Fig

qu u y qu
.

143 will erif

this assertion h e n t h e n m b e r of lines of for c e

y H v
.

p e r s ar e in c h is sm all t h at is w h e n t h e fl x d e nsit is i t e

y u
, ,

low t h e per m e ab ili t of t h e ir on is l ow ow e er t h is per m e a

g g Wy g y
, .
,

b ilit y inc r e ases as t h e flux densit in c r e ases up t o a c e r t ain sat ,

r at ion (Ar t 24 7 ) or de r ee of flux de nsit At th is flux de nsit

y
. .
,

t h e pe r m e ab ilit y o f ir on is reat est ith hi h er flux densit ies .

t h e pe r m e abilit de c r eases .
 v t
1 68 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TR I C I T Y [ ART . 2 53

t EX AM P L E —
t
C onsider
tc tt t
th e alues of per m e ab ili y in Tab le 249 for m il d

t th c h ch
s ee l for gings . T he ab sol u e pe rm e ab ili y at t h e l ow flux de nsi y of
At t h e flux den si y of ab ou

t t t w th th t
l ines pe r sq in is .
pe rm s pe r in
. ub e . .

t c t th t c
lin e s, t h e per m e abil i y is en perm s pe r in ub e , w i is .

t ch c t t t
ab ou t h e m axim um pe r m e ab il i y ob ain ab l e i is sam pl e of m il d s e el .

Now , as t h e flux den si ie s in re ase s ill fur er , t h e per m e ab ili y d e r e ase s

un il at a flux densi y of lines t h e perm eabili y is h en pe rm s

g u
pe r in ub e .

Q
( T ab l
2 53
e 2 4 g
.

9 an
A Tab l e Sh ow ing M a
d F i s 1 4 3 a n d 1 4
y7
tic
) in v
dic u
at e s g
alitie s of Ir on and St e el

u
ne

al es for t h e r ades

v g g
.

of th ese m at e rials t h at ar e or dinaril ob t ainabl e ar o nd t h e

a e r a e sh op

v g
for e xam pl e w ill h a e differ e nt m a n etic
,
qu
Differ ent r ades of a c er t ain m at erial mild st e el

y vuvu
.

alit ies

b e ob t aine d t h at sh ow m at e riall b e tt er al es th an th ose of

Ir ons m ay .
, ,

u
T abl e 249
m ch w or se
v
.

v g y g
Ir ons th at h a e e xc e e din l
. g qu
On t h e ot h e r h an d som e ir ons sh ow al es t h at ar e
ood m a net ic
t ies m ay b e so expensi e t h at th eir c omm er cial applic ation is not
ali
,

fe asib l e

de ri v W
2 54 Th e
a
.
.

gv
tion of w h ic h
orking Form ulas for th e
is i en b el ow , ar e
M agne tic
th ese :
C ircuit , t h e

I X N u fl XA
(a p t
m -
r ns )

“ XA XN
¢ Xl
u XA XI
p X A XI X N
( nes)
li

u XA XI XN

p
I X N X A
(perm s pe r in . c u b e)

d) X l
(u ) (sq in )

g u ug
I X N X
. .

Wh e
t u rn s
r ein

in
u
I
g
citin w indin
ex g g
<i
>
ex c itin c rr e n t
t h e t ot al flux t h r eadin t h e m ag
,
in am per es . N

g uu
n m b er of

y
.

ne t ic c ir c i t in lines I t h e l en t h of t h e m a netic c ir c it in

u g
.
, ,

inc h es p . t h e pe rm eab ilit of t h e m at e rial of t h e c ir c it in

.
,

m s per in c h c b e A t h e c r oss sect ional are a at ri h t ah

‘

pe -
r .
 h t t t t
17 0 PRA C TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T . 2 56

ct t
T is
ct w h c t c
lines) is t h e sam e resul as h a ob ained in t h e prev ious e x

t th av e predi t ed

this, b e ause all of t h e v al ues

c
a m pl e. Inspe ion oul d

ct w
an d urns are t h e sam e in b o h e xam pl es , b ut t h e am p
“
ex e p am pe res .

cth t wh w t t t t wwt
u rn s are t h e sam e for b o pr ob l e m s b e ause 5 X 3 2 1 60 an d also 1 0 X
A v er

thc c t t
16 1 60 . ually, ho e , t h e flux w oul d b e un iform in t h e rin g of II
Wi h l e ak age ,

c t
be ause t h e inding is dis rib u ed . III h er e oul d be som e

a is, il e lin es w oul d b e d e v el oped at B, som e h a l ess an his

num b e r, be ause of l ea age, k w oul d e xis in t h e l ow er lim b of t h e ir ui

M u
.

flux,
2 56 .

u uu y k
In th e Pr actical D e sign of
is
y s all

v y
n ow n or assum e d
agn e tic Cir c it s t h e
Th e pr obl em is t h en t o
u
t otal

u y v gv y
.

lay out a c ir c it w hi ch w ill c arr t his flux effe cti el an d c om p t e

uu g g
-

vugu
t h e am per e t r n s n e c essar for it s de el opm ent in t h e m a n et ic
c ir c it Th e ener al pr oport ions of t h e cir c it ar e te nt ati el

u
.

ass m e d t h e dim ensions b ein b ased on pr e io s expe rien c e and

y u u g
,

trial c al c ul ations An exam in at ion of similar m a n e tic c ir c its

u u
.

alr ead in s cc essf l ope r at ion w ill be of assist an c e Th e c r oss

v
.

se ct ion al ar ea of t h e m a n e tic pat h of t h e ir on in t h e c ir c it m st

v v g g u g
b e so sel e ct e d t h at t h e ir on will not b e o ersat ur at e d (Art
Th er e is no dire ct m e t h od of desi nin a m a netic c ir c it Th e u .

kg y u u y v uu
.

fir st t ent ati e plan is de elope d t o a c on cl sion and if it does ,

n ot w or out as desir e d it m st t h en b e alt er e d an d r e c al c l at e d

v y g g u
,

acc or din l B ec a se perm eabili t aries w it h t h e sat r at ion

u u g
.

it is alm ost im possible t o effe cti el desi n m a netic c ir c it s

u M
wit h o t c ons lt in dat a simil ar t o t h at in T ab l e 24 9
'

v ug y
.

2 57 In th e Practical C al c l ation of agne ti c C ir cuits it is

u u v ug
.
,

as abo e s g est e d oft en ne c essar t o det erm in e t h e am pe r e

v gg u u ju g v
,

t rns I X N t h at w o ld dri e a c er tain flux, qt thr o h t h e

H v
, , ,

cir c uit In sol in s c h pr oblem s form la (7 1 ) I X N ( qS X

u yu y v uu
.

l) ( uX A) mi h t b e used in t h e form st i en ow e er

qu
.
,

it is s all m or e c on enient t o c om p t e on t h e b asis of t h e flux

densit

k
,

g ,

vv y k u
t h at is on t h e basis of t h e n m b er of lin es per s ar e
in c h c r oss se ct ion in t h e m a netic c ir cui t b ec a se t ab l ar data
-
u
u
,

li e t h at in Tabl e 249 can b e m ost c on enientl c om pil e d on t h is

b asis

u uu y
.

g u
Fur t h erm or e it is oft en in c on enient to m a e t h e c om p
,

t at ion for a c om pl et e m a n e t ic c ir c it in one c al c ul ation It is

u u
.

s all m or e pr act ic al t o c onsider t h e c om pon ent part s of t h e

n e c essar yu v y qu
c ir c it one par t at a t im e t h at is t o c om p t e t h e am pere t rns
,

t o de el op t h e r e
ug
ir e d flux in e ac h part
,

Aft er t h e
,
-

figuu g vu
.

am pe r e t r n s ne c essar
-
t o for c e t h e flux t hr o h eac h of t h e
p ar t s

total e d
h as b ee

.
n r e d t h ese c om p on en t am
u
p e,r e~t ur n al
Th e r es l t in tot al will t h en b e t h e n m b er of am pe r e
e s ar e
 THE MAGNE TI C C I RC UI T 17 1

u gqu ug u
SE C . 10 ]

t r ns r e

u
ir ed t o for c e t h e flux t h r o h t h e en tire c ir c it . Th e

t
foll ow in exam pl es ill st r at e t h e proc ess .

c t
E AM P L E — HO W m any am pe re
.

t tc c cc c t t t c -
urns w ill be re quir e d t o de vel op a flux of
— C onsider

w ch ct
lin es in t h e m ag ne i ir ui of Fig U . SO L TI O N .

t t
t h e om pone n par s of t h e ir ui t on e at a im e Firs on side r .

ch w
The wr oug ht ir on yoke hi h as a se ional area of 2 X 2 4 sq in . .

h w th t w ht w t t t t t w
Th e re fore, if t h e t o al flux is t o b e lines, t h e flux densi y or lin es pe r
squ ar e in ill b e : 4 lin es per sq i n Now , Tab l e . .

t th t c c c t c
24 9 s o
, in r ou
s g ir
a on ,
i h a flu x d e ns i y o f lin es ( 1 00

t c t t
kilolin es) pe r sq in , t h e m m f gradien is
. . Th a is, h ere
. . .
oul d b e

r e q uir e d

c tw
am p - urns pe r in l e ng of t h e m agne i ir ui t o pr odu e a
.

flux d e n si y of lines H e n e ,
t h e am p
-
u rn s re q.uired t o m agn e ize

w t cc c
ke ifi e d flux densi y

c
t h e 2 0 - in yo . of t h e spe oul d b e : 20 X
am p - t ur ns
. .

The a ir ga ps ar e e a 14
h in l on g an d ,
it ill
. b e assu m ed , are 2 54 in sq u are . .

Th e lin es of for ce spr e ad out at an air gap an d w ill h e re o upy a r oss se c -

1 Wr ough t iron Yoke and Cast ir on Armat ur e

tcc c FI G . 1 49 .
— E xam pl e s of m ag n e i
11 Magne t ic Circuit of a Generat or

ir uit s .
.

tc c c t t t t t c
t ional are a grea e r h an h a of t h e ir on yo
t ke . Hen e, t h e are a of t h e m ag .

c t t ch t w
ne i ir ui at t h e air gap is : X 5+ sq . in . Th e flux densi y
m T abl e 25 1 ,
th w
in t h e air gap is : lines per sq in 5 . .

t o produ e a flux densi y of t h e am pe re - u rns pe r in leng h oul d

be For t h e -
ih air gap ere oul d b e re q uired :
. 8
in air gaps : 2 X

c
am p -turns Th en for t h e t w o -

—
. .

tc
a m p turns are ne cessary .

Hen e ,

t c t
The cast-i r on ar mat ur e h as a se ct ional are a of 4 X 2 8 sq in . .

t t th th w t c c t Xh t t
t h e flux d e n si y in it is : 8 lines per sq in From T ab le
. .

2 49 , t o produ e a flux densi y of lin es in as iron re quires 1 34 am p .

tc t
urns pe r in leng
. of t h e m agne i ircui ,
en ce , t o m agne ize his 10-in .

l ong arm a ur e e re ill b e re quir ed : 1 34 10 am p - turn s .

Totaling the am per e- turns re quir ed for t h e diffe re n om pon e n s :

 P RAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y

ht tt
172 [ ART . 2 57

Wroug iron yok e

t t t
-
am p - urn s
Tw o air gaps . am p -
u rns

t
C as -iron arm a ure am p -
u rn s

To al am p -t urn s

h
th h t cc c t t w t v e a flux of

v
T e refor e , am p - urn s are n e cessary t o d ri line s

t cc c c t t t t
r oug t h e m agn e i ir ui of Fig 149 , I . .

X
E AM PL E — How m any am pe r e- urns ill b e re quired t o de elop a flux

ct c h c t ct c ch
of 4 m e galin e s lin e s) in t h e m agn e i ir ui of t h e gene ra or of
SO L UTI O N —Onl y t h e general pr in ipl es w ill b e illus ra ed It

wh ch v c c t ct c t
Fig 1 49, I I
. . .

is n ot pr a i ab l e to er e on sid e r t h e de ail s of el e ri al m a ine de sign ,

j

c t
i is a e ry om pli a e d sub e . C onside r t h e m a hin e a par at a

Hen

c t t w ht t
The wr ought-ir on yoke h as an ar ea of 54 sq in . . e, t h e flux de nsi y in

c t cc c tch thch th tcc c t c c

it is : 54 lines per sq in , . . say lin es pe r sq in . .

T o pr odu his flux d en si y in r ou g

e ir on ( T ab l e 2 49 ) am p - urns ar e

Hen e , for t h e 2 2 ih

ch t
n e essary for e a in l eng of t h e m agne i ir ui .
-
.

t ch th
m agn e i ir ui of is e xam pl e : X 22 44 9 am p tur ns are n e e ssary -
.

M agne t — Ea

th t t ht ch c t th cX hc
C ores h as an ar e a of sq . in . Fl ux den si y
say lines per sq . in . Am pe re -
urn s pe r in l en g

th c th t w X
for is densi y in w r oug ir on is Le n g of or e 10 in . T en,

am per e - urn s r e quir e d for He n

t
the ea or e m us b e : 10 326 . e

quire d :

c t th t
for b o or es er e ould be re 2 3 26 652 am p - tur ns .

— Are a

t th th t c th
P ole -
pieces C as . ir on . 1 44 sq . in . Fl ux de n si y

h t t th c th ch c X X h
1 44 say line s pe r sq in . . For as ir on at is de n si y
am p - urn s pe r in . l en g ar e re q uir e d Le n g . of m agne i pa 9 in .

t
T en , am pe r e - ur ns re uir e d for ea l
po pie
e -
e: 9 T en

quired :

t c c c tc t c c
t o m agn e iz e b o ol pie e s w oul d b e 2
-
p e ere re

cc cc t t t
am p - urns .

— A

c c h X
A G p
ir a ssum h
e t e m a n
g e i ir ui om prise s on e -
hi rd of t h e ir u m

c th ch c c
fe ren e at e a h side of t h e arm a ur e Ar m a ure h as a diam e e r of 1 1 in . .

Xt c t t c t
C ir um fe r en e of an 1 1 -in . ir l e in . T en : in .

Hen

th
e pol e fa e is 1 2 in e a h air gap h as an ar e a of : 1 2 in
t h e l eng of e a . .

T o om pu e t h e am pe r e - u rn s r e q uire d t o e x i e

h X X X th X XX
in 1 38 sq in . . .

his air gap w e m ay ei er use t h e v alues of Tabl e 2 49 or Form ul a

T us : I N l) (M A) 1) 1 38)
quired :

h t t t h t
am p - tur ns . For t h e air gaps e re w oul d b e re 2

Xh t c h t t ct c
am p - turns .

Ar mature I r an —C arb on s ee s eel , som e im e s called

ct thtt
anne ale d s ee

iron Ar e a
. 6 12 7 2 sq in Th e s af are a is sub . . ra ed be ause

iv e

t thv tthc c c t t cc c c t tt h t
the st e el in th e s af Fl ux d en si y is :
is onside r e d in effe .

72 say line s per sq in It re quires for s ee s e el . .

tt X h th t
am p - urn s per in l e ng of m agne i ir ui t o produ e a densi y of
.

line s per sq in T h e a e rage pa

. . of t h e m agne i ir ui h r oug his
e re are re q uire d for m agne izing t h e

t t
ar m a ur e is 9 in l on g T e re fore , . .

arm a ure : 9 am p -tur ns .

T otali n th a m -tu
rns re uire d for t h e differe n par s
g e per e
q
1 74 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 261

u g
.

( am p - t r ns pe r in l e n . th)

B X H (lines per in )

u
p. sq . .

B
(per m s per in c b e)

u u g v u
H
.

u
or s b stit tin ( Ar t . 1 v for )u in t h e ab o e form l as

H B X If
( am p - t rn s per in l engt h ) .

I
f (l in es pe r sq . in .
)
1
; ( r el s per in c u b e)

ugg
.

As K arapet off s t (in his THE MAGNE T IC C IR C UI T ) j or m u

es s
’
las (78) and (8 1 ) state Ohm s law for a u nit magnetic path for in

f
,

stance a path 1 i n long and 1 sq in in cr oss sectional area

. H is the
. .
-
.

m m f betw een the opposite aces of the cube

. . .
a is the perme ance .

(p e r me ance a n d p er me ability ar e of the same valu e for a l i n c ub e ) -

v gu u
.

of the cube and B is the flux passing thr ough the cu be

’
Not e th at

g
.

form ul as (78) an d (8 1) ab o e ar e an al o o s w it h simil ar for m las

u
(23e) an d (23 d) for t h e el e ctric c ir c ui t R efer t o followin Ar t
2 6 1 for f r t h er inform ation r elat i e t o t his sit at ion v .

th u t t w th
.

t t th
.

T HE D E RIV ATI O N O F T HE AB OV E EQUATI O NS is is : Again w e s ar i

t h e fun d am en al e qua ion us :

( a)

h t t t tht
Now from E qua ion ( 58)
t (R
M
l/ ( u
v alue s for (R an d
(R X (A

X A) . Als o fr om ,

v e e qu a
(6 9 ) B XA .

X X X
T en sub s i u in g e se in t h e ab o ion ( a)
l XB XA l XB
A

h th t t
B
11 A u

T e re for e , d iv id in g b o e r m s of t h e ab o v e e qu a ion b y l

M B

th t t t th
(C) l u

B ut , from M l H, e n sub s i u in g is n ew v al ue I
for IV l in

t h e ab o ve :
B

g fi G u
(d)

ugu y u
2 61
t h or o hl
. Th e R e al Si

y
n der st ood g g
ni can ce Mmf of
In all t h e t ext
.

p
.

r e c e
.

d in
t , H sh o l d b e
(
r adie n

e xc e p t in t h e
,

u v
.

m l i t i
ph e
ar t ic l e j st ah e ad of t his) onl th e n o e n a r e a t n o e n t r e

m agnetic c ir c it s or c onside rabl e o r t ion s t h er eof h a e b e e n

p
SE C 1 0] THE M AGNE TI C C I RC I T U
u y
.
175

p o s es of c o

u
m p a u
r i
g
s o n

u
an
.

du
c onsidere d Now it is ofte n desirable partic l arl for t h e pur

u c om p t at i
,

on t o c onsider nit por t ions

,

g g k u u g
, ,

t h at is 1 in c b es of nifor m m a n etic cir c its and t o e xam in e

-
.
,

t h e m a n e tic perfor m an c e of th ese nit c bes In fact r efe r

g g u
.
,

e n c e t ab l es an d r aph s (li e t h ose of 24 9 an d Fi s 1 43 an d 1 4 7

)

y y g v
.

w hi c h sh ow t h e m a n et ic pr opert ies of m a n e t ic c ir c it m at e rials -

appl in yg uu u g v u y k g y
ar e al w a s so c om pil e d t h at t h e

t o t h e se 1 in c b e s
as w ill b e sh o

Ob io sl
wn i e dat a
m a ne tic pr opert ie s
-
, ,

u
. .
,

dat a an d t ables can b e sef l for eneral w or onl if c om pile d

on nit b asis .

11 Enlarge d C ross Se c t ion of I

t t ct
!
20 '
III Magne t ic C lr cuit bt raigh t e ned Out
“

FI G 1 50 — E xpl ainin
. .
g a u ni m ag n e ic c ir ui .

g r ad
In t h e
uu g uy y
exam ple w hi c h follow s
it w ill be sh ow n t h at m m f
ie nt, H, in any niform m a n e tic c ir c it is r e all t h e s ecifi c
p
. . .

m m f for t h at c ir c it
.

u
. .

gu u u u u
Th at is, H is r eall t h e porti on of t h e
t otal im pr esse d m m f w hic h pr od c es t h e flux in a nit c b e
.

u u
. . .

( 1 in c b e) of t h e m a netic c ir c it m at e rial It is t h e m m f
-
.
. . . .

im pr esse d on a l in c b e and t o whic h t h e flux in t h at nit c b e

-
.

t c c c t th t
is due .

c
EX AM PL E — C on8 1der t h e m agne i

t t th t c
.

is desire d t o pr od u e a flux, qt , of
th t th c c t t w
ir ui of Fig 1 50, I Assum e a it . .

cc cc tt t c ct c v h th
lin e s in is ir ui It ill b e .

assum e d h a e r e is n o m agne i l e ak a e an d
g a t h e pe rm eab ili y of t h e
ir ui m a e rial is

t w
pe rm s pe r in ub e Th e a erage l e ng of t h e . .

ir ui is 2 0 in and its r oss-se ion al are a is 4 s i n v

.

q T e n t o d e el op t h e
in am pe re—
. .

flux of lines, t h e urns, oul d fr om be .

 XX XX
176 PR A C TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 2 62 .

05 l 20

c th c c t tw
p A 4

He n e, in is ir ui , t h e m m f gr adien . . . oul d, form ul a be

M I >< N 2 50
H am p - turns

w t tt ct
(b) per in length
T
. . .

l 20

We ill

t
m m f im pr esse d o
c c cch
n ow

t t w c
pr ocee d

th t t c c
t o sh ow
c t ha h is amp -turns, or H is a
, uall y t h e

t ht t th
. . . n ea uni or 1 -in . ub e of h is m agne i ir ui .

t h e pl an e AB C an d

c
If t h e m agn e i ir ui of I e re cut r ou gh at
”
qui v al en w oul d en b e

t c h w c t
s r aig e n e d ou t , its as sh ow n at Fig 1 5O, I II a

w ch
e ,
.

2 in square

wth t c c t t th t c
pr ism 2 0 in l on g . an d . This prism . can be onside r e d as b ein g

c
com pose d of 80 uni ub es as s o n . Le t us om pu e t h e m m f . . .
-
hi
quir ed t o pr odu ce t h e sam e flux

ct th h c w
oul d be re ,
a is arr ie d in I , in any on e of

c t t c
e se uni Sin e t h e o al flux in I is
ub es . l in es, and t h e r oss

th h th c c c th
se ion al ar e a is 4 sq in , t h e flux r ou g any on e ub e
. oul d b e :
.

lines Now om pu e t h e . in am pe r e - urn s n e e ssar y t o ,

de v el op l in e s r ou g one of t h e ub es Ea h ub e h as a l eng of 1 .

X
in . an d an ar e a of 1 sq . in .
,
us :

qS Xl 5 0 , 000 X1
N

t tht t t t t t tc
I am p -tu rns
XA 4, 000 X 1
.

No H

wh ch th w th t
e ha am p -turns per i n length w as t h e resul ob ained at
.
(b) for
q

c t t c c ctc t ht c c t th t th t c
and a the r e sul in (c) , t h e m m f r e uir e d for a uni
. . ub e, is
. am p .

t urns, i is, of course , for a 1 -in l en g . . It ill , en , be e v ide n ,

fr om a

a H is a t uall y , in

t c th t c c t
onside r a ion of t h e fa s b r oug in his e xam pl e ,
out

spe ifi a is, t h e m m f re quired

w th th t t c t
a unifor m m agne i ir ui , the m mf , . . . . .

v el op t h e

c tct c wht ch th h tc t c
t o de flux in one uni ub e of a ir ui .

NOTE — It foll o

t
. s, m agne ic cir
e re for e , a ,
in a u niform uni - ub e

ct t t t t c c c t c
ui , B , or flux d e nsi y (or flux r ou g a uni ub e ) m ay b e onside red as t h e

is H or m m f gr adien

ct whc ch t X wh t tv t tc c t
e ffe ,
t h e ause of i im pr e ssed on a uni . . .

ub e ) A sim il ar sit ua ion e xis s in ev ery m agne i

. ir ui in w hi h d) or
N or o al m m f is t h e ause Al so no e

c t t ct c t c c c t
o al flux is t h e e ffe of i I . . . .

in Art 1 57 t h e an al ogous on di ion

. er e ol age gr adien is t h e ause an d

u H
urr en densi y t h e e ff e in a 1 -ia - u b e el e c ri ir ui . .

262
side r e d u fl gu fi k
. Th e Flux Pr od
If c rr en t
ce d

ow s aro n d in a
by a e lix

h elix li
in air w ill now

e in one of
be
t h ose of
con

y k g g u
.

Fig 1 3 2 , it will c r eat e a ma ne t ic el d or flux (Ar t T his

ugg
. .

fact can be r e adil dem onstr at e d by m a in a m a n e tic spe ct r m

g
as s

e ne r a e d u t
es e d
t
by
in
us
Fig 1 3 1
ch
u
.

g
A c onsider ab l e por tion of t h e flux lines
c ir c lat e t h e entir e l en t h of t h e
a

y u
.

h elix w ill

it . H v p
ow e er som e lin es w ill l e a k u g ugg k g
spac e inside of t h e h e lix and c om l e t e t h eir c ir c it en t ir el

out (m a ne t ic l ea a e Art
,

2 67) an d follow sh ort er pat h s b et w een t rns as s

ar o n

e st e d in F ig
d
,
.

u ug g
.
,

13 0 , I .

It foll ow s, t h en, t h at t h e n m ber of lines of for c e t h r eadin the

air c ore of a h elix w ill be diffe re nt th r o h diff e ren t c r oss se ctions -
1 78 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 2 64

y
.

c en t e r , the flux den sit at the e nds o f an air -cor e helix m ay be

com pu te d f r om this for m u la:

(86) (lin es in )

W y quu
pe r sq . .

h er ein B flux den sit in lin e s of for c e per s ar e in c h , in

u fl g
,

t h e air c or e of a h elix M in am pe r e -
t rn s of t h e

u u g
.

h elix . I the c rr e n t in,

am pe r es , owin in t h e h elix . N
‘

t h e n m b e r of t rns in t h e h elix . 1 t h e l e n t h of t h e h elix,

v cc t t c
in in c h e s .

wh
NO TE
ch t
t h t w c h t c th w t th
.
— Th e
th th ab o

te for m ul as giv e v e ry

t t
a ur a e resul s for air- ore sol e

t
n oids i ar e 1 00 im es, or m or e , l on ger an eir diam e pr o i d e d t h e
e rs

Ho ve r ve

t c c c t c c c tt h h tht t ct c c
urn s ar e ound l ose oge er . e ,
ey gi appr oxim a e r esul s

for s or sol e n oids or eli e s, e v en if t h e urns are spr e ad apar Al l m ag

.

ion s giv e of l e ak age ( Art

tth t th c t t c c c t
ne i -
ir ui al ul a appr oxim a e resul s be ause .

Th e appli a ion of t h e ig er ma em a i s is n e e ssary for t h e c om

pu a ion of t h e flux densi y pr odu ed by an air- or e sol en oid at l oca ions

H
o er an t h e e n e r an d t h e e n ds of t h e ore .

264
c ent er or at
.

uu y
To O b t
yv u g v
the
ain th e

ends,
Tot al Flux in an
m lt ipl t h e flux densit
Ai -
r c ore
at the
e lix at

i en l oc a
the

t ion w hic h
ar e a
,

quin s
m ay b e
ar e in c h es
c om p t e d w it h t h e ab o
of t h e air c or e of t h e
for m las, b y t h e
h elix
e

Th at is, qb
.

t t c h h w c
A X B .

t
EX AM PL E

c c ct
h as 1 6 urn s c t ch —In
an dh t
chh ch h t t t
Fig 1 3 2 ,
the t .

ur re n
h ree diffe r en
in ea is 5
air - or e

am p . W
elice s ar e s

ais t h e flux d ensi y in

W
o n . Ea h

t t t t
the ore , at t h e c en t e r an d at t h e t w o e n ds, of e a e lix ? a is t h e o al

ct X X t tXt X
flux, (b, in t h e ore , at t h e en e r an d at the e n d s, of e a h elix ?
SO L UTI O N — F OT Hel ix I —Sub s

t
. i u e in form ul a t h e flux densi y at
N)

t h ch t Xh w X
th e e n er is : B I -
l 5 1 6)
lines per sq in To . . com pu e the o al fluxat t h e ce n e r , B,
A

X X t h th t t t tht tt t
of hi s elix, w hi h as an are a of sq , ih . : B
Th e flux densi y at e n ds A an d C of t h e elix ill b e : B
lines .

No e

X
5 1 6) line s per sq in a t h e flux de n si y . .

e n ds is j us on e - alf of

t t h h tt c t th
at t h e a at t h e ce n e r Th e o al flux at t h e e nds .

A A XB
’

an d C is O lines . T h is is, it w ill b e

j us

t twh ch c t X X
n o e d, one- alf of the o al flux at the en e r of t h e elix .

Hd id: I I — T i s h as t h e

t c t
For sam e num b e r of am per e- urn s b ut is of lar ge r

h c c t t t X c X wh ch
diam e er ; t h e flux d ensi y at t h e e n er is : B 5 1 6)
li ne s per sq in , i is t h e . . sam e flux d ensi y as om pu e d ab ov e for

tt c t t
the el ix I . But , n ow om pu e t h e o al flux in t h e air ore ( i h as an
A

c t
ar e a of sq . in .
) at the e nt e r E : !t B 3 20

tt t ch
li ne s o al flux at en er .

NO TE — Th e l ar ge r t h e diam e

t v th t
. e r or t h e are a inside of t h e oil , t h e gre a e r
w ill b e t h e o al flux, e v en
if t h e flux de nsi y is t h e sam e . In ea of t h e
ends, D an d F, of I I, t h e flux densi y will ob iously b e t h e sam e as a at
 THE MAGNE TI C CI RC UI T

t
SE C . 1 0] 17 9

the
X ch X
e nds

A
of I,
tt t
nam el y

t
lines per sq in , but t h e t o al flux at t h e ends wil l
. .

lines = o al flux at ends

tw c
b e : 4; B ,
.

h as t h e sam e num b er of am pere- urns as t h e o h e r

t ch c tt w X X
For hel ix I II , w hi
i e as l ongas I , h alf t h e diam et er of I I , t h e

t t
t w o, I an d I I , b ut is an d is one-

t t c th t t t t t
flux de n si y at it s en er J ill b e : B 5 1 6) 5 lin es
j

h wh c t t x
p e r s q in .
,
w hi i
.s us on e-
h alf t h e densi y at the ce n er , B, of I , b e cause
Now , t h e

t t
t h e l e ng h of II is wi e a of I . o al flux at t h e cen er J of h is

A xB

X X t
elix, i h h as an are a of sq . in .
, will b e : e

t Xc t X t t t t
l ines flux at cen er
the o Th e flux densi y at t h e ends G and I
al .

w ill b e : B 5 1 6) 5 2 5 5 lines per sq in This is j us h alf

. . .

c t v v t
t h e flux de nsi y at t h e en er J It foll ow s h a t h e o al flux at t h e ends G
.

t t t
and ill b e : (I) B lines t ot al flux at ends
—
.

tc t t c t t t t vt t
S M M A R Y Fr0 m a onsidera ion of t h e ab o e e xam pl es it is e ident h at
.

(a) t h e o al flux, and lik ewise t h e flux densi y, is different at difi erent loca

t v t v v t t
ions al ong it s l eng h in an air- ore solen oid : ( b) t h e grea er t h e diam et er or
ore of a sol en oid, t h e grea e r is t h e o al flux h a is de eloped al h ough —
t h e flux densi y de el ope d by a gi en num b er of am pere- urns is alw ays t he
sam e , regardless of its diam e er, at a gi en posi ion in t h e sol enoid of t hi s

e xam pl e .

265 Th e
r at e ly
.

De fi u H v
Magnetic Cir cuit of an Air -core He lix is Not Accu
be c a se of t h e paths tak en by t h e lea a e lines as
ne d kug
u
,

sh ow n in Fig 133 , I ow e er , t h e t otal flux prod c ed by t h e

g yu g v
. .

h elix at it s c ent er and it s ends can be readily com p ted as sug

est e d, by appl in t h e abo e eq uat ion It can also be sh own

g
.

th at t h e t ot al rel ct anc e, in rels, of th e magnetic circuit of a long,

st rai h t , air-core h elix is eq ual t o the length of th e helix in inches 4

the ar ea of the cor e of the helix, in squa re inches

ju
In oth er words,
if t h e t ot al m m f of suc h a helix is div ided by it s re l ct ance , in
.

uu
g
. . .

rels, ob t aine d as st described , t h e t otal flux prod ce d , t h at

fl ug
t hreadin t h e h elix at its cent er will be t h e resul t
flux ows t hro h t h e air core of th e str aigh t h elix at its cen ter
(Fig 133 , I) but it spreads out so that at ot h er locations t han
All of t his
, .

u v
.

t h e c enter wit hin th e air core , t he re is less flux t han th e total

am o nt de eloped

but one-h alf t h e tot al de eloped

.

v
As has been shown th e flux at th e ends is
If, h ow e er , an air -core h elix
,

v
v u
.

is b ent int o a cir cul ar form or toroid Fig p r a ct i c al ly all , .

of t h e lin es of for c e , de el ope d by t h e am pe r e- t rns, rem ain inside

g vg y u y fi v yH u y
of t h e h e lix (Ar t 2 69) an d t h en t h e pat h and th e ar ea of t h e air
.

m a ne tic cir cui t ar e er defi ni t el de ned en c e , t h e reluc

u
.

t an c e of a t or oid m a
cir c it can b e er acc r at el com
net ic

e a c al
uc lat ed
u v
put ed and t h e flux in t h e air c ore at any loc ation ar o nd t h e c or e

y u
t h at a c er t ain n m b er of am pe re t rns will de el op can b e
sil .
-
,
,
1 80 PRAC TIC AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

H MW
. 26

2 66
Are E v y
. Wh en th e Turns of a
e nl Distrib ute d Al ong th e
v
e lix Are
agne
ound

tic
Around Iron and
Circuit ,
uyas for ex

am pl e ,

cl ose g in Fig 1 5 1 , II I.

u or e en w h er e
t h er e are b ut a few t rns

u
rns ar e c on c ent r at e d as in I n e arl
t o et h er , or t h e t all

uk gu g g
u g u
,

of t h e flux w ill follow t h e ir on pat h b e c a se t h e s r r o n din air

h as m c h r eat e r r el ct an c e t h an t h e ir on In m a in m a ne tic .

tcc c t
1 Conce nt rat e d Winding
°

ll Se mi Dist rib ut ed Winding

"
lll Dl Sl VlbUl eOl Wmoimg
‘ ’

— L e a k ag e fr om

uy u u u y uu
FI G . 1 51 . a m ag ne i ir ui surr oun de d by air .

c ir c it c al c lations it is s all fi rst ass m ed t h at all of t h e flux

vk g v y u
,

st a s in t h e ir on Th en c orr e ct ion s s c h as experienc e and ex

.
,

p e r im en t al e iden c e h a e sh ow n t o b e n e c essar ar e if r e q ir ed

kg y g
, ,

m ade for l e a a e as de sc rib ed in Ar t 2 7 1 Th er e will b e con

kg
. .

sider ab ly m or e l e a a e w it h t h e ar r an em ent of I t h an w it h t h at

g g
of I I I b ut for any or dinar
,

m i h t b e disre ar ded
pr a ct ic al pr oblem s t h e l ea a e in 1
.
1 82 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 2 69

u u g gk g u v u
.

p iu
c or es and pr od c es a flux ar o nd t h e m a netic c ir c it This

gv ct r e in dic a

y
t es

ut h e

v
pr in c ipl e of m a n e t ic l e a a e b ut t h e a

u
l es

k u
.

u
i en ar e onl ill st r at i e and m st not be t a en as acc r at e or

t h t ht c c tt th t
ab sol t e

EX
ct ct c c c t
A M P LE — At
t tt k
I the arm a ure is el d

t t c w
ig ly agains t h e poles, e re is

ct c c c t c t h ch c th
pr a i all y no l e a age an d a o al flux of 9 lin es ir ul a e s ar oun d t h e en ire

th ct t
m agn e i If t h e arm a ure is pull e d a sh or dis an e a ay from t h e
ir ui .

th c
poles as at II t h e rel u an e of t h e ir ui is in r eas ed w i de re ase s t h e
flux t o 7 lines and er e is som e l e ak age As t h e arm a ure is pul led fur e r.

aw ay as at III t h e rel u an ce is s ill fur e r incre ased redu ing t h e flux t o 6

11 int e rnal Pole

°
Mach ine

t t
Not e Th eUse ful Lines Th ose
. Wh ich Pass Thracgh fh e Arma fure . ar e m f 9 m
1 Ob sole t e Edi son
“
Bipolar Ma ch inr
—

th ctc c t t ct
FI G . 1 53 . L e a k ag e li n e s of g e n e r a ors an d mo ors .

c th v t t t t th
l in es
re m o e d

be
an d

v
ause of
t c
the c c
er e

the
t is
rel u

e ry
onsid e r ab l e
an e of

large
l e ak age
t h e m agne i
. If t h e
ir ui is e ry gr e a l y in r e ased
air gap, t h e o al flux is ereb y r ed u e d t o 5 lines
v
c
arm a ur e is n ow en irel y

kg g
and ere is a gr ea amoun k
of l e a age .

Exam pl es of l ea a e lin es in en er a or s an d
t m ot or s ar e sh ow n

Mu gg W gg
in Fig 153
2 69 a
.

v
.

ne tic Le aka e C an B e Pr actic all yElim inate d b y

u yy u u g u
.

Distrib tin th e indin w hi c h de elops the m m f (Ar t 2 20)

uu g
. . . .

n iforml ar o nd t ic c ir c it (Fig 1 5 1 I II
t he ma ne this -

g u g u
.
, ,

applie s onl w h er e t h e r el ct an c e (Ar t 2 2 7 is niform al on t h e .

e nt ir e l e n t h of t h e m a ne t ic c ir c it If t h e r el ct an c e of c e r t ain
.

p or t io n s of a c ir c it is di ffe r e n t f r om t h at o f o t h er po rt ions , t h e
 1 1] M AGNE TI C L E AK AGE 1 83

g u g vu g u
SE C .

w indin ld be dist rib t ed alon t h e por t ions of t h e c ir c it,

u
e ac h por t ion b ein p r
sh o

o id e d w it h a p a r t of t h e w in di n in pr o g u
o t ion

v g uu
t o i ts el ct a n c
u Th a t i s t h e po r t io ns of t h c i c it
v g u
-

p r r e , .
_
e r

th at h a e t h e r eat est r el ct an c es sh o l d ha e t h e r eat e st pro

p
ha
or

v uu
t io

e
n o f t h e a m
u v
p
litt le
e r e-t r n
r el
s T h e p o
ctanc e
r t io n s o f t
sh o
h e c ir c it t h at
.

l d be pr o ide d w it h c orr espondin l gu y

fe w
a win din gu v
am per e-

u g t r ns . In pr act
t h e par ts of a m a netic c ir c it in pr oport ion t o
o er
ic e it is sel dom possible t o distrib t e
u
t t t t t w
th eir r el ct anc es but it sh o l d be done in so far as practic able .

t t cc c t ct cc c t
EXAMPL E
b e e viden from
is h a dis rib u ing t h e w in ding elim ina es leak age ill
ch h w t w t c
tht tth c w ch w tt c ct t c c c ctt wc ch
a s udy of Figs 1 5 1 an d 1 54 w hi s o anal ogous el e ct ri
.

and m agn e i ir uit s Th e el e ri ir ui s are imm e rsed in a an k of a e r

.

w th th t
wi a li le a id in it , hi r en d e rs t h e a er on du ing to el e ri cur

re n s T is is an al ogous t o t h e usual con di ion of m agn e i

. ir ui s hi
are al ays surr ounde d b y air or b y som e o e r m edi um a is a fairly good

l - An 8 - Volt Bat t e r y II- Eigh t l-Volt C e l ls lil Sixt ee n -

Volt C e l ls

ct c c c t w
— L e ak age

ct t c v t v c v t c t th
FI G . 1 54 . fr om an ele ri ir ui im m erse d in t
a er .

Now if t h e sour

c c tc t ct cv c t c wt ctw ct w
condu or of m agne i flux m f is con cen ra ed as at
. e of e . . .

I ( Fig . t h e m axim um ol age de el oped , 8 ol s in t h e ase s ow n , is

ir ui an d t h e ondu ing liquid in

cth th c c t t th ch t c twc
im pr essed a ross t h e oppe r ele ri
par all el Th e urre n due t o hi s 8 ol s ill divide b e
. ee n t h e at e r an d

t h e opper pa s in inv erse propor ion t o

th ch h wc tht t hw t c
eir resis an ces in a cord an ce

t h e l aw of di vided ir ui s ( Art Mu

w t
wi m ore urre n ill flow .

t thww th h w
rou g t h e oppe r an h r oug t h e w a e r b e ause t h e coppe r h as, pr ob ab l y,

Ho ev er, som e leaka ge cu rr ent ill flow h r ough

c t c
mu t h e l o er r esis an ce .

wh ch h h t t th w t t
wa e r as s o n .

h c t th t t ttw t twc t w c t
C urr e n ill flow r oug the at e r from l o a ions in t h e opper ring of
I i are at a ig po en ial ( Art . 9 6) t o ose of a l o e r po e n ial , as

flow s b e

tc th tthc t t thwh h wt t
s ow n . Th e urr en a ee n any t w o l o a ions ill b e pr opor
t ional t o t h e - ff -
l —
di e r en ce of po e n ial v o age b e ee n the t w o l o a ions .

E vide n ly,

wh t t t ct cv c t tt t c t
en , t h e m os u rre n w ill flow the
r oug a e r fr om one e nd

of t h e oppe r r ing t o t h e o e r , at t h e poin s ere t h e b a t e ry j oins t h e rin g

and ere t h e diffe re n ce of po en ial is 8 ol s Ob viousl y, if it w e re pos .

sib le t o so ar range his sub m e rged el e ric ir ui h a all l o a ions in it w oul d

 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI CI T Y

t t t h
1 54 [ AR T . 27 0

be
t at th e sam e pote n ial t h ere w oul d b e

c t
no l e ak age cur re n s h r oug the

t t t t v t c t
wa e r.

ct w v h
If t h e eigh t cells are arranged around the cir ui as at Fig . the
k age

th c ct c t t
'

gr ea possibl e difi eren ce of po

es en ial is 1 ol and t h e l ea urr en s ar e

orr espondin gly reduced Ho e l aw ( Art

vt c t v tc t c tc
’
. e r, by O m s .t h e sam e cu r

ren is flow in g r ough t h e copper on du o al or in I as in I I b e ause t h e

ol age im pressed on t h e ir cui is t h e sam e in b o h ases an d t h e r esis an e is
t h e sam e
ct c t c
Now , if, as in II I, 1 6, - ol ells are uniform l y arr ange d aroun d

v
.

th ct c t t
t t ct
t h e sub m erged el e ric cir ui , t h e m afi m um diffe r en e of po e n ial is
t h e l e ak age

cv t c vc t t t t ct c t c w
reduce d to ol t an d cu rrent s ar e e r efore pr a i all y clim i
—nearly

t t c
nat e d all the curr en w ill flow h r ough t h e coppe r con du or It .

tt tc c cc c t th htcth
is on ei ab l e
h a a s ill grea er num b e r of ell s, of corr espon d in gl y l o e r

c t
ol age, oul d b e cu t in o t h e ir ui and t h e m axim u m po en ial diffe ren e

t th c th t w
b e w e en any t w o l oca ions in t h e ir ui mig e r eb y b e re d u ce d t o pr ac

oul d b e no l e ak age ur re n s

t t ct c c c t t c
icall y 0 (z ero) , in w hi h ase of ourse , ere

c t
h rough t h e w at er In o er w ords, if t h e ells
. a pr od u ce t h e e m f e re . . .

h e re oul d b e no l e ak age

t t t t c c c t
uniforml y dis ribu ed around t h e el e ri ir ui

t t c c t t c
ur re n s .

A similar

t tt c t t tc
set of condi ions ob ains Wi h t h e an al ogou s m agn e i ir ui of

W
th
Fig 1 5 1. i h t h e am pere- urns
. on en ra ed as at I a l ar ge diffe re n e of
m agne ic po en ial or m m f ( Art 220) is con en r a e d a r oss t h e en ds of t h e

t t
. . . .

winding and th ere w oul d b e a correspon din gl y gre a l e ak age Wi t h e

t t tt t t c c cc
.

winding semi -dis rib u ed as at II t h e m axim um possibl e diffe ren ce of m ag

n e ic pot en ial is reduced and t h e m agne ic l e ak age is de re ase d a

t t t t
or din gl y ,

j ust as t h e m axim um difference of elec ric po en ial w as r edu ed in Fig 1 54,

t t t t c t t th
.

II . Now wi h a windin g uniforml y dis rib u ed as in I I I , all par s of t h e

m agne ic circuit are at prac ically t h e sam e m agne i po en ial an d e re

can be no m agne ic leak age

g v g
.

g u
Th erefore, w h ere p ossible, t h e windin for de elopin a m m f
in a m a netic cir c it sh oul d be so distrib t ed th at t h e m m fuu . . .

g v
. . .

will b e c onsum ed in t h at port ion of t h e c ir c it w h er e it is applie d

g g u
.

Th en th ere can be no leaka e E en with an air c or e , w h en a .

h elix windin is uniforml y distrib t ed as in Fig 1 35 I t h er e is

g
.

no appreciable leaka e

y u fi u y
.

270 C omputation of Magne tic L e ak a e is c om plic at e d an d

gg g u
.

alm ost im possible in m an cases b e c a se of t h e dif c l t of

v
det erminin t h e area of t h e pat h , of t h e

ug y u y g u y
th at t h e leaka e lines tra erse Th e lines spr ead out in passin g m a ne tic c ir c it in air ,

y
.

thr o h t h e air and h ow reat or h ow sm all is t h e c ross se ctional -

u y g uk g v gu u y u
area t h at t h e act all occ p c ann ot b e r e adil e st im at e d or

c al c l at ed In practic e, lea a e is s all det erm in e d exper i

k g
f u
.

m ent all A m a netic c ir c it h a in b ee n b il t , it s l ea a e or

.

leakage actor (Ar t 2 7 1 ) can b e asc er t aine d by el e ct ric al and

.

m agnet ic m eas rem ent s .

 SE C T ION 1 2

MG W G
C AL C ULATI O N O F A NET IND IN S

273
u W
Th e D e sign of g indin s to Excite El e ctrom agne t s is a

ky H g v y gyv g
.

ra t h er c om plic at e d s b j e ct an d can n ot be treat e d in de t ail in

t h is b oo ow e er , dir e ct ions ar e i en in foll ow in ar ticles

g g
.

w h er e b win din s to sa tisf or din ar c onditions can be cal

a g g
cul at e d . As in

vy
r e at asse t an d is a n e c e ssary qu
th er bran c h es of en ine erin experien c e is
all o

yW g
ipm en t of one w h o desi ns
,

w in din s m ost e ffe cti el an d e c on om ic all

uk u
274 Th e R e quir em ent s in D e signing a
y u u
in din g —y U s all
.

u v g u
.

t h e n m b er of am per e t r ns n e c e ssar t o pr od c e a c e r t ain

-

p r e c e dg
flux is now n t his n m b er h a in b e en estim at e d as o tlin e d in
in ar t ic l es T h
,

gpr ob l e m
uis t h e n

u t o d e t e r mizne t h e si e of

g v vv g qu gu u
.
, ,

w ire t o u se for t h e w in din an d t h e n m b er of t rn s for t h e w ind

ing so t h at w it h a i e n ol t a e applie d t o t h e w in din a c rr e nt

g ufi u vy
, ,

w il l fl ow t h at w ill de el op t h e r e ir e d am pe r e t rns Th e -
.

w indin m st also b e s c h t h at it w ill n ot h e at exc essi el an d

2 75 W G v Wg Ggv g
ith a i e n Siz e ir e , a i e n L e ngth ofM
t h at it w ill t int o t h e spac e pre par e d for it s r e c eption
e an Turn
.

g g
.

and a Giv e n Applie d V olt a e , C h an in th e Num be r of Turn s

u g z
D oe s Not C h an e th e Am pe re tum s
v y
T o c h an e t h e am pe r e
- -

g v g
.

t rns of a windin wit h t h e c on dit ions as ab o e it is ne c essar

g u u y
, ,

t o e it h er use a diff e r e nt si e w ir e or t o c h an e t h e applie d ol t a e

u u v gg u u
.

If a w ire t wic e as l ar e is se d t h e am per e t rn s w ill t h e r e b b e -

do b l e d .

u
If t h e applie d olt a e is do bl e d t h e am per e t rns ,
-

w c t
w ill b e do b l e d Th e follow in exam ple explains t h e sit at ion
. .

EX AM P L E

thc t
all of c
the h c
— C on sider t h e

chw thc t w th t w thc t t t t

spa es ar e as at t I, c
in din g
en e
spa e s of

the a v e rage
Fig .

diam e
1 56 . Th e diam e
er of oil or
ers of

m e an

c tt c w t tt
l e ng of urn is, in ea ase , in . Suppose a t h e 1 in . b y 1 in .

ill on ain j us 1 00 urns

tt c tt w t c c t t t thc t
spa e of I I is so w oun d ir e a it
i insul a ed

( No 1 1 singl e , o on overe d ir e , T ab l e 2 83, w ill ab ou m e e his r e quire

.
-

v t t h h c t th t w
m en ) Se e No e b el ow for de ail al ul a ions
. T h e r esis an e of t h e .

Assum e

h t h c h th v t t R
e n ire oil , 1 00 urns, in II oul d b e ab ou oh m a t h e im .

p r e sse d o l a ge is 1 v ol T e n b y O m
’
s l a
.w , t h e u rr en a ou l d b e

pus e d h r oug t h e oil b y is ol age w oul d b e : I E 1 v olt

ohm 10 am p . T e r e for e , th e am pe r e - urn s of t h e Windin g w oul d b e
100 turns X 1 0 am p . am p -turns.

1 86
 C AL C UL ATI ON OF M AGNE T WI NDI NGS
ct t tc ct c t tw ct
SE C . 1 2] 1 87

m ade w ice as l ong, as at I II , it w ould on ain

cc th h t t v c tt v t hw
Now if t h e oil w e re i e
as m any or 2 00 urns But it s resis an e w oul d also b e w i e as gr e a
. .

Hen e , al oug t h e urn al ve d ,

th w t c c htt hth
s h a e b een doub l e d; t h e urr en h as b een

t th c ht t
hen e t h e am pe re-
urns, assum in g t h e sam e applie d v ol age ( 1 ol ) oul d

Wi
c t tc tv t c
r em ain th e inding of I V, t h e ur ns ar e in r e ase d e ig im e s
Hen

cc t
but t h e r esis an ce is also e reb y in re ase d eig im es . e, one -e ig

th t
t h e urren w ill flow an d t h e am pere- urn s w ill re m ain
. NorE — Th e re sis an e of t h e ab o e-m en ion e d oil w as al
'
. ul a e d as fol
l ow s : Th e leng of m ean urn for I , Fig 1 56, is 3 in
. . X in .

t t ctt ch c t t t t
1 °
Se ct ion of Bobb in LI J
'
'

ll lOOTurns lll 200 Tur ns

-
N 600 Turns
FI G . 1 56 —Illu s ra in g e ff e of anging nu m b e r of ur ns, t h e m e an le ng h of

t c tt c
ur n re m aining ons an .

tt t . .

c t t t ht
If t h e 1 in by 1 in space of II is w ound w i h No 1 1 sin gl e , o on - ove re d
m agne wire, Table 2 83 , it will on ain j us ab ou 1 00 ur ns
t c
Th e av erage
.

h t t c
.

tc
leng h of each urn is : in 12 ft T en in t h e e n ire oil
. .

ft X 100 urns ft of No 1 1

t
t ere are 7 9 ft
. Th e resis an e of . . .

v
wire ( Table 1 56) ohm s or t h e re sis an e of 1 ft is oh m Th en
oh m —t h e
. .

th e resist an ce of t h e en ire coil is : oh m X 79 ft

H v
.

v alue used ab o e .

G 2 7 6 Incre asing th e

H v
iv e n Le ngth of
.

M e an Gv Turn g
Numb er of Turns
and with a
in
i en
a C oil ,
Applie d Volta
a ing a
e,

th e
as
H
uu u u v
D e cre ase s th e
C oil —
t h e n m b e r of t
. ea v y
t
e at D e

arie s

rns
e lope d

in
by
e r se l

D e cr e as

u
.

in g t h e n m be r of t rn s in c r e ase s

t
t h e h e at . Th er e for e , t h e am o n t
of w ir e c oil the
t t c c on ditions
on a K Ele
'
aflon
y
1 5 7 — E xam pl e i n d e er m i ni n g
,
FI G . .

b el ng as ab ov e ; d9 t e r H“ nes r adi a in g ab ili y of a oil

yv u
.

w h e th e r it w ill ope r at e h ot or c ool

u
.

Th e si z e of w ir e (Ar t 2 7 5) m e r e l de t e rm ines t h e am pe r e - t r ns.

u v v y ququ u u g
.

Th e r e ason for t h is is th at t h e h e at de e l ope d by a c rre n t of ele c

t ricit y in_ any c on d ct or aries as t h e s ar e of t h e c rr en t (Ar t

uu vu gg g
.

Watt s h e at de elope d alw a s e als : I X R Do blin

2

y
.

the t rn s h al es t h e h e atin Oth e r in c r e ases or de c r eases in .

th e

c t h t
n m b e r of t r ns c h an e t h e h e atin p pr o o r t ion at e l .

EXAMP L E . Assum e a oil h avin g 2 00 urns and, say, 20 o m s r esis

 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y

th c w c t c v tht
1 88 [ AR T . 2 77

th h w tth t
an ce . If is oil e re

d e v el ope d in t h e
cth t thw w tht w
onn e c e d across 1 00 ol s, 5 am p . w oul d flow

ht
r oug it . Th e ea oil w oul d be : I 2 X R
en 5 X
(2 ) Now coil of t h e sam e siz e

t c w twth h t h t v c ctt
5 X 20 500 a s . onsid e r an o er ire ,
vin g t h e sam e m ean len g

cc w th v t w
an d a of ur n, b ut oun d i w ice as m any or

h tt h
400 urns . It s r esis an e ill b e i ce grea or 40 ohm s
as If onn e ed .

th h t c h t
a ross 1 00 ol s, am p . il l flow r oug it Th e e a de el oped b y his
.

oil ill , e refore , be : am p . X am p X 40 o m s

. 2 50 w a s T is .

W W
is j us alf of the ea de v el oped b y t h e oil aving 2 00 urns .

27 7

G gv g
.

Pr ov ide a R e q uir e d N
C al cul ation of Siz e
u m b e o
r f A m pe r e s-
M agne t C oil Th at
tur n s h e n C onn
ill
e ct e d
ire for

k g u W a

v u g gv
Ac ross a i e n Volta e — Th e w or in form l a is t h e l ast one

u
in t his par a r aph

u
d ct or t h at
It s deri at ion w ill b e i en : It follow s fr om
.

t h e for m l a of Ar t 1 44 for c om p t in t h e r e sist an c e of any con

.

K X N l K X N X l
(87 ) (oh m s)

W g u
Ci r . m ils I2 12 X Ci r . m i ls

h er ein R
n et w in din

uK u yu qu
c in oh m s of all of t h e t rns of any m ag
r e sis an e ,

a c onst ant n m e ric all e

t
al t o t h e r esist
,

g
u u g g
.
,

an c e in oh m s of a c ir c l ar m il foot of t h e c on d ct or of t h e w in din -

v g u g g u uu
.

N n m b er of t rn s in t h e w in din l l en t h in inches of an .

a er a e t rn of t h e w in din — or t h e l en t h of a m e an t r n .

Cir m ils c r oss se ct ional ar ea of t h e c ond ct or in c ir c l ar

-

g v g
.

m il s

g uu y u u uug g
.

If t h e m a t c oil is t o oper at e on som e c er t ain fi xed olt a e

ne ,

as m a ne t c oil s s all do t h e c rr e nt t h r o h t h e c oil w ill b e

v u v
, ,
’
by Oh m s l aw I E R Now s b stit t in t h e expr ession
,
.

’
for R obt aine d ab o e in t hi s Ohm s l aw for m l a w e h a e : ,

E E E X Cir . m ils X 1 2
(88) I
R
_

K XN XZ K XN Xl (am p ) '

W u ug y g
12 X ci r . m i ls

h er ein I
im pr esse d
t his l ast quon t h e
c rr en

c oil in olt s Now

at ion by N w e h a e
t ,

,
in
v v
am pere s,

.
th ro h t h e c oil
m u ltipl in
.

b ot h
E e

side s of
. m f . .

u
e ,

E X cir m ils X 1 2 X N
.

(88a) ( am p - t )

g gv g
rn s
K X ZX N

u
Th e t w o N s in t h e r i h t h and m em b er c an c el
’
-
out i in
E X Cir m i ls X 1 2
)
.

(88b) K X l
,
(a p t
m -
rn s

an d it follow s t h at

12 XE
 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

wh thc t c c v t
90 . 2 80

i ou

c c
b e om in g ex essi el y
h o t ? S U ON
O L TI —
cc c
C oil is 4 in in diam e e r ,
h . .

w c w th t h tc c t ctt t t t ct h t t
en e is : 4 X in in ir um fe re n e I t is 12 in l ong
. T e re . .

for e , t h e surfa e of t h e oil e xposed t o t h e air is : X 12 1 5 1 sq in It . .

on du e d in o an d r adiat ed from t h e yok e

t t c
ill b e assum e d a the ea

ch ch c wc w t w tt t t w tt t t
an d pol e -pie e il l b e 7 5 pe r e n of h a r adi a e d dire T en , t h e o al
. .

equival en radia in g su rfa e X 151 sq . in . 2 70 sq . in . Assum ing

ea sq u are in surfa e ill r adia e a , the o al a s ha can be

Mv
dissipat e d b y t h e oil ill b e X 27 0 2 1 6 w at ts .

of
u
280 Th e
c ott c
.

on-
o er e d w ire,
axim um

u u
— v g
Pe rmissib l e Thic kn e ss of Magne t C oil s,

y ku u y v y vy v
t h at ar e w o n d solid w it h o t entilatin
—
rent s is 2 in Wu
d ct s and t h at m ay c arr c ontin o sl relati el h e a
'

v qu y u
h er e c oi s ar e t hi c er t h an t his t h e h e at de el
cur

u
,
.
,

O pe d in t h e inner t r ns t r a els sl ow l t o t h e s r fa c e fr om w hi c h

u
it m ay b e r adiat e d Th e c onse
s c h c oil s m ay b e c om e exc e ssi el h ot
.

vy W g u
en c e is t h at t h e in n er t rns of

h er e t h e w ir e c om pris
,

u g
.

ing t h e win din is ins lat e d w it h

a n on c om b st ib l e or h e at r e sist - -

ing m at er ial w indin s m ay b e

t hi c er t h an 2 in
2 81 Exam pl e Ill str ating th e
k u .

Mu uu v
.

D e sign of a C onst ant v ol t age -

agn e t C oil t o pr od c e a c er t ain

n m b er of am pere t rns is gi en

in t h e foll ow in ar t icl es : g -

EX —D esign

tw c vt
AMP LE . a w inding to pro

FI G . 1 5 8 — E xa
. mpl e in d esig nin g a
d u ce 1 1 7 000 31 11 11 4 11 11 18 for t h e w inding
Assum e t h e

Zth c th t w t c t c
m ag n e in din g . spa e of Fig . 1 58 . ol
SO L U TI O N
age a v ail abl e to b e
—( 1 ) D E TE R MI NI NG WI R E SI E — Assum e a t h e coil ill b e 2 in hi k ,
.

tt c t t t t t th c cv
.

t h e m axim um pe r m issibl e i kn e ss ( Art Th e m agne ore is 8 in in . .

diam e e r He n e , t h e diam e e r of m e an urn is 1 0 in Th e ir um feren ce of

. .

m e an urn e q uals : 1 0 X in Sub s i u in g ese al ues in t h e .

for m ul a of 2 7 7 :
IN X l X 31 4

t c t t
(a) cir m ils
E 1 10
ci r . m i ls

Hen ce
h
ct w tw
t o pr oduce am p - urns unde r t h e on di ions ou lin e d a

w
th t c ct
cir . m il w inding s oul d b e used Re fe r ring t o T ab le 1 56 , a .
- cir m il .

Nos 1 6, Am e rican Wire We

th t
con du or lies b e ee n . 15 and Gage . ill use
ire , NO 1 5 R e m e m b er , Art 2 75,

t th c ct w t c
t h e l ar ge r . . . a a -
cir . m il ondu or

Z
w ill en pr oduce am p -
ur ns, re gardl ess of h ow few or h ow m any

c w th tw
urns of i s ondu or ar e ound in o t h e oil .

AS C E R T AI N J U ST How M ANY AM PE RE UR NS WIRE

th t t th c
2 .
- T SI E A S T HE

AB OV E W ILL PR O D UC E — Sin e i a giv e n v ol age , w ire siz e and m e an

l en g of urn, t h e am oun of is No . 1 5 w ir e ound on t h e oil will n ot
 CAL C UL ATI ON OF M AGNE T WI NDI NGS
ct t t w h w t
SE C . 1 2] 1 91

velope d

t w w
affe t h e num b er of am pe re- urns de , we ill fin d t h e nu m b e r of

de v el oped b y 1 lb of de v el ope d

th t t
am pe r e- urns . ir e . T en the am pe re- urns

b y a gr e at e r or l e sse r am oun O f t h e ir e . ill b e t h e sam e (Ar t . 2 7 5) num b e r .

w w h t t c t c
Th e l en g of a m e an urn is ih .
, is : 12 ft . Fr om
Tab l e 1 5 6, 1 lb . of No 1 5
. w ire Th en 1 lb of NO 1 5
con ains ft . . .

oul d pr ovide : A oil con ainin g 1 l b Of

v t
urns . .

tt w t c ht th t
No 1 5 oul d av e a resis an ce ( Tab l e 1 56 ) of
. oh m Th en a 1 l b oil .
-
.

t
w oul d, on 1 1 0 ol s, pass 1 1 0 3 44 am p Th erefore , t h e am pe re .

urns of NO 1 5

w w th t
ire for t h e on di ions of his e xam pl e are : 3 44 am p X
. .

W e er 1 , 1 0, 1 00 or
vt t w
urns am p - urns . urns of No 1 5 .

t
w ir e e r e w oun d on t h e cor e of Fig 1 5 8 ( i a m ean di am e t e r of u rn of 1 0
.

t w h cc c
in an d an applie d ol age of 1 1 0 ) t h e am pe re- urns oul d rem ain
—
.

3 DE TE R M I NE HE AT R AD I ATI N G SUR F AC E O F C or
. n Th e ou side diam

th t c t
e e r of t h e coil ill b e 1 2 in T e re fore , its ir u mf ere n e w ill b e : 1 2 in X
. .

ct t v c tt t t t t w
in Th e exposed are a of t h e coil w ill b e :
. in X 1 0 in . .

3 7 7 sq in . Assum e . a t h e pol e- pie e an d fr am e pr ov ide a radia in g su r

fa e 7 5 pe r en as gr ea as h a of t h e in ding (Art . Th en t h e .

o al , e qui al en r adia ing su rface is : 3 7 7 X

th t c c t t
5 660 sq in
—
. .

4 DE TE R MI NE WATTS PO WE R L oss PE R MI SSIB L E I N THE C OIL Assum e

h t c w ttw tt c ct v t t
.

( Art 2 7 9 ) . a e a h square in h of e qui v al en coil su rface w ill r adi a e t h e

th
e a pr odu e d b y a Th en t h e oil can effe i ely radia e t h e h ea
.

v w tt c tvth t w tt
d ue t o : X 660 3 30 a s .

U — Wi a pressure of 1 1 0
h t
5 D. E TE R M INE P E R M I SSI B L E C R R E NT NI C orn
a w ill de v el op 3 30 a s is ( Ar t

c
ol t s, t h e urre n I P E .

h
330 a s 1 1 0 ol t s 3 am p T er efore , t h e pe r mi ssib l e cur re n in t h e
.

c c tt t h tw t
oil is 3 am p
UIRE D —T r ough a coil of 1 lb of
.

6 DE TE RMI NE AM O UNT O F WI R E R EQ
. . .

No 1 5 w ire (as al ul a ed in As de e rm ined in

t wt w w
. 3 44 am p ill flow . .

w w
t h e pe rm issib l e curren h r oug t h e coil of his e xam pl e is 3 am p T o pass a .

curre n of 3 am p , a coil of No 1 5 w ire

th
. eighing : 3 44 . 3 1 1 5 lb oul d .

be re quired We ill h en use 1 1 5 lb of No 1 5 if it ill fi t in t h e in ding

t t
. . .

space av ail ab le Sin ce (Tabl e 1 5 6)

. ere are ft in 1 lb of No 1 5 b are . . .

coppe r w ire , t h e l eng h of w ire in t h e 1 1 5-l b coil re quir ed in

Z
h is pr ob l e m .

w wh ch t
w ould b e : 1 1 5 X ft .

7 C HE CK WIR E SI E T o ASCE R T AI N I F IT C AN B E WO UND I N SPAC E

t ct t c th —
th th t
.

AV AIL AB LE We m ust fin d room for

. 00 ft of No 15 ire i m us b e . .

Th e hi kn e ss of t h e coil is 2 in an d it s l en g

ttt c ch t t w w
insul a ed . is 1 0 in Th e . .

w t
cr oss-se ion of t h e coil is, en : 2 X 1 0 20 sq in Assu m e a sin gl e . .

co on - ov ere d m agn e

t t th
w ir e ill b e use d From T ab l e 2 83 , 1 sq in ill . . .

h t t thth th t tth t t w
con ain 24 9 su w ires or urns Th e 2 0 sq in ill con ain : 2 0 X 2 49
. . .

ur ns Th e m e an urn h as, as de t e rm in ed in
. a l en g of ft .

t c cc t
T en , o al l eng of w ir e a can b e oun d in coil is : X
ft It is,
. en , e vide n a h ere is am ple room for t h e ft .

u
th a is n e essary, as al ul a ed in

282

gu g fl y g ug
.

y v g
M agne t C oil s O perating on Const ant C urr e nt , s c h as

yu
c oil s of c onst ant c urr ent or series e ner at or s and series st ree t
li h tin s st e m m a n et s al w a s h a e pr act ic all
-

t h e sam e ,

c rr ent owin t hr o gh t h em Th erefor e with S ch c oils t h e .

,
 l 92 P RA C TI C AL EL E C TR I CI T Y [ ART 2 83

z y g
.

W u
w ir e si
g m er el X R loss or h eatin in t h e c oil
det erm ines t h e I
v u u
2
e
'

fl g
.

h er e s c h a c oil is t o b e de si n e d di ide t h e am per e t rns -

u y u u uu uv g z
,

r e q ui r ed b y t h e am per es ow in in t h e c onst ant- c r r ent c ir c ui t ;

t h e r es l t will b e t h e n m b er of t rns r e q ir e d Use a si e w ir e .

v g W
t h at w ill c arr t his c r r e nt wit h o t exc essi e h eat in .

283 . C ott on - co ere d Anne al e d - coppe r M a ne t ir e .

D oub l e c ot t on Tr ipl e c ot t on
Sm gl e c ot t on-c ov er e d
c ov e r ed c ov e r ed

g ag e

4 78 O 2 09
42 8 O 2 33
3 83 O 2 61
3 39 6 a 0 2 91

. 8 30 7 0 3 25
. 4 2 76 0 3 62
. 0 247 O 4 04
. 3 - 220 0 4 54

. 5 1 98 0 5 05
. 9 1 78 O 5 61
. 0 1 60 0 6 25
. 2 145 0 6 89

. 8 1 30 O 7 69
. 5 116 O 8 02
.
9 105 O 9 52
. 0 95 0 10 5

. 0 86 0 11 6
. 0 78 0 12 8
. 0 71 0 14 0
. 0 63 O 15 8

. 0 57 0 1 7 5
52 O 1 9 2
. 0 47 0 21 2
. 0 4 4 0 22 7

. 0 40 5 24 6
. 0 37 0 27 0
. 0 34 6 28 9
. 0 32 1 31 1

. 0
. O
. O
. 0

. 0 Wir es as sm al l as
. O t h ese ar e se l d om if .

. O e v er. c ov e r ed w it h
. O t h r ee l ay e rs of c ot t on .

. O
0
. 0
. 0
1 94 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART 2 86

ug ug yg z
.

y u
c om plete d t h ro h t h e c ell (som e tim es t h o h in c orr e ctl c alle d
b att er ) b tt on and b ell and ele ct ric it
g ow s It m a n e t i es
fl gy fl u u gk
u
.
,

t h e ir on c ores O f t h e m a ne t s A by ow in aro n d t h e m a ne t
c oils Th en t h e arm at re S is attr act e d and t h e c ir c it is b r o en
.

at t h e c ont act point P

g
Th e el e ct ric it c e ases t o flow t h r o h yg z ug
g u uu k g
.

t h e c oils t h e m a ne t c or es l ose t h eir m a neti at ion an d t h e l e af

g yg g g k
,

sprin on w h ic h t h e arm at r e is m o nt e d for c es it b ac a ain

a ainst t h e c ont act point P Th e c ir c it is t h er eb a ain com

'

u uu g u gg
.

“ ”
plet e d and t h e pr oc ess of attr act ion and sprin in b ac is
t h s c ontin ed so l on as t h e b tt on is pr essed dow n c om pl e tin

p o st uu y
iss
y u
t h e c ir c it
s a l
In c om m er c ial el e ct ric b ells one of t h e b indin
l e l e
.

ct r ic all c onn e ct e d t o t h e ir on f
b ell and t h e ir on fr am e c onst it t e s a por tion of t h e c ir c it
r am e o f t he
,

u
u gy u
.

286 Th e Application of th e El e ctrom agne t in th e Ele ctric

u
.

Te l e gr aph is ill st r at e d in Fi s 160 an d 1 6 1 Th e key or t r ans

. .

m itt er (Fig 1 60 I ) is sim pl a c rr e nt int e rr pt e r sim ilar t o a

.

FI G .
ll

1 60
Sounde r

h t t
— T el e gr ap in s r u m e n s.

uu u v ug
.

p sh
b tt on It c om pr ise s : a b r ass l e e r A w hic h t r ns on a

g v u g
.

t r nni on B It isc onne ct e d in t h e lin e b y t h e b in din sc rew s C

vu k y
.

and D On pr essin dow n t h e le er , a platin m point , ext endin

u
.

fr om t h e l ow er fac e c ont act w ith anoth er

of t h e le er , ma es

pl at in

v
m point E T h e c ir c it is t h e r
. e b c l ose d h e

ug
key is not in use t h e pat h t h r o h t h e key is cl ose d b y sh ift in
n t h e W
g .

cc vc tc c th cth t t th
t h e le er F

t tt
T HE
v
SO UND E R (Fig . 1 6O, I I

ttt ct t wt tw t h t
Wh en t h e
or re ei er om prise s an el e rom agne A wi

cc c w th t t ct
a pi o ed arm a ure B . ir ui is lose d roug the e r m inal s D

c c t
and E, the arm a ure is a ra ed o ard t h e m agne . T is produ ces a
king k t h e t w o adj us ab l e

t ct t
li sound as t h e arm a ure b ar s ri e s be een

Wh en t h e is b roken, th e

c t
s re s a lim i it s a ion . ir ui sprin g 0 pulls

t ct th tt c ct tc c t t
t h e arm a ure aw ay from t h e ele rom agne .

”
THE R E L AY (Fig 1 60, II I is used t o rel ay t h e line urren in a l ong
.
“

W
t t th c t
el e graph l ine en t h e r esis an e of t h e l ine is gre a , t h e u rre n m ay not
.

b e suffi ien ly s rong t o ope ra e dire ly a sounde r, w h i h re quire s a rel a ivel y

arge curren
S . Fur h e rm ore, e re is al w ays a le akage of urr en , from a
 APPL I CA TI ONS OF EL E C TROM AGNE TS

t t
SE C . 13] 195

t t t
ch c ctt t t vh tc c t t
eleg raph

c t t
noun ced ha onl y a frac ion of t h e urren
es t h e re e ivin g s a ion
t
line, due t o im mrfe ct insula ion
v h t t
This leakage m ay be so pro
a l ea es t h e sending s a ion

To o er com e h ese diffi ul ies a rel ay is u sed

.

t c t h ch c ct t c c t c t w
rea . .

It consists of an ele rom agne A aving oils of m any urns of sm all

"

tw ch tt c c c t thc th h c
diam e e r, oppe r w ire , w i is onn e ed in to t h e ir ui ( Fig 1 6 1 ) b y m eans .

of t h e b in din g pos s C and D As its arm a ure H os illa es b e t ee n t h e

.

t c c t t t w t t
”
poin s K , it opens an d l oses a l o al
“
ir cui , conn e t ed r ou g E and

c t t c t t
F, in hi a b a ery an d soun der are inse rt ed Th us, rough t h e ag en y of .

a rel ay, a s r ong, l o al urre n , h a fl o s or ceases t o flow in s e p w i h t h e

tc c t
lin e urren , is provided

ct t c
This s r ong urre n opera e s t h e sounder
. .

tt t
THE B ATTE R Y for a el e graph line ordin aril y consis s of a num b e r of

(Ar t

t ch t t t ch w hthw
gr av i y ells . 369) conn e ed in se ries . If t h e line is l ong a onside r
Usually

h ch
abl e num b er of ell s is used . the b a e ry is div ided in o t w o se c

hw v c t t t t t c ct c th
ions, one at e a e rmin al s a ion, ea in se rie s i t h e lin e .

A TYPI C AL DI AGRAM O F A TE LE GR APH SY STE M is s o n in Fi g 1 6 1 w i .

s o s h ow t h e ab o e des rib e d com pon en s are in er onn e e d Th e ea r

.

is ordinarily used for a re urn pa h for t h e curren and an iron or oppe r

Rich m ond Ph ilad e l ph ia

— D iagr am ct c h t
w t th ctt c th c c t
FI G . 1 61 . O f an el e ri t e l e gr ap sy s e m .

ire suppor e d on gl ass insul a ors is

t
u se d for t h e o e r side of the ir ui .

g v
An e art h r e t u m
n

pa h as pr a i all y n o resis an ce .

287

g
Fig 1 59 , I I
u
. Th e El e ctrom a n e t in
In t h is devi c e t h e m agnet ic
a

fi fi u
Te l e ph one R e ce i is sh own in
er

el d pr od c e d b y an

g u
. .

electr om a net is s pe rim pose d on t h e el d due t o a pe rm an e n t

m a ne t of h ar d ste el
t h e b ase t h e sh ell an d t h e cap
c ase is in thr ee parts :
. Th e h ar d
Tw o perm anent b ar m a n e t s
y g
r

g g
bb er

u g
.
,

ar e usually e m pl oye d and t h e are so fast ene d t o et h er at one

e nd as t o c onstit t e one h or sesh oe m a n e t To eac h of t h e fr ee

u
.

ends of t his h orsesh oe m a ne t ar e c lam pe d t h e soft ir on pol e -

i
p c es
e

u . l
ins lat e d Copper w ir e
i n i -
ll
Eac h po e pie c e s w o d w th a c oil of sm a diam e te r—
Th e soft-sh ee t ir on diaph r a m is sup gg -
,

g gu
.

port e d in fr ont of t h e pol e pie c es Th e di aph r a m form s a

u u W
.

par t of t h e m a n etic c ir c it h er e t h e lines of for c e e nt er t h e

. W
one fac e of t h e diaph r a m a so t h pol e is ind c e d h ere t h ey
'

.
 19 6 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

v u gu
. 2 88

lea
Th e
e

g yt h e ot h er fac e of t h e diaphr a m a nor t h pole is in d c e d

diaphr a m is r eall an arm at re and t h e att r action of t h e
.

c c ct
”
perm anen t m agnet “
dish es it t ow ar d t h e pol e-
pie es c

c t t tw th c t ct th ct
.

NOTE — Th e oils on t h e pole-pie es are w ound in opposit e dire i ons .

Wh en a flo ion it w e ake ns t h e fi el d O f t h e

t t t th t c t
urren s around em in one dire
Wh en
t c vh t c t t c c wh ch ct ctt w th h t
pe rm anen m agne . the urre n flow is in t h e o er dire ion t h e
fiel d of t h e pe rm anen m agne is s reng e n ed . Th e k ing
“
al
”
ur ren in a

Hen urren fl o s

ct t t t t th w h
ele p one line is al e rn a in g . e, en su a r oug t he
fiel d produ j oin

c v t
r e ei e r m agne oil s t h e ed by t he e ffe of t h e pe rm anen
and the ele r om agne s is al e rn a ely s re ng ene d and ea kened . T is

tc tht c h h tt ct t
auses t h e diaph r agm t o ib ra e and to repr oduce the sound of t h e h um an
v 0 1 ce .

Wh en t h e field is s reng ened t h e diap ragm is a ra ed ow ard t h e pole

t ct t th t wh t t c h
,

pie ces Wh en t h e urren eases t h e diap ragm assum es it s norm al posi

.
,

Wh en t h e field is w eak ened a is en t h e fi eld produ ed b y t h e

t
ion .
, ,

e le rom agne s opposes t h e fi el d of t h e pe rm anen m agne s, t h e diap ragm

v
springs fur h er aw ay from t h e pole pie ces .

288 Th e
inc r ease t h e
.

v v Perm ane nt
sensi ti vy
eness
Magnets
of a
in
t el eph one
a Tel eph one
r e e i er
c It
Re ce i
can
er

be

g u
.

sh ow n t h at t h e sensiti eness is in c rease d m an t im es by t h e

*

vu qu
in c orpor ation of t h e pe rm anent m a net s
re c e i er s not e
i ipp g g g
F r t h er m or e if a
e d w it h pe rm anent m a ne t s t h e diaph r a m
.
,

u fl ug
,

w o l d be att racte d t ow ar d t h e poles of t h e ele ct r om a ne t s r e

g a r d l e ss o

u
f t h
u
e di r e

g
ct

yv
ion in

yw h ic
kh t h e

c oils Al so it w o l d sprin entir el b ac w h en t h e c rr ent

c r r e

u
n t ow ed t hr o h t h e

g u ug u u
.
,

c ease d It w o l d apparentl ibrat e t w ic e as fast if no perm anent

.

m a ne t w er e se d w hi c h w o l d int erfe r e wit h t h e distinct ness

of t h e r e s l tin so nd

ug k u k
.

289 O th er Important Applications of El e ctrom agne t s are

g
.

fo nd in ar c l am ps r e m ot e c ont rol sw itc h es c ir c it b r ea er s -

f
, , ,

m a netic b r a e s and m a ne tic or e se parat ors

g u y
.

29 0 M agne tic Traction — Th e lifting pow er or por tative or ce

gv y
. .

of an el e ctrom a ne t is due t o t h e t e nsion or p ll al w a s exe r t e d

alon

fl u
lin es of for ce (Art 65) w h er eb t h e lines t end t o sh ort e n

g g u
t h emsel es as do st retc h e d r bb er b ands F or exam ple in Fig
.

v
u u y
. .
,

162 I , t h e lines of for c e owin in t h e m a netic c ir c it t ra erse

vy
,

t h e path of le ast r el ct anc e an d m st ne c essaril c ross t h e air

a
g p . If
as at II nearl
h ow

ug
e e r ,a p ie c e o f
u
i r
,
on A is pl a

u
c e d ac r

g
oss t
all of t h e lines w ill b e c a se of t h e low r el ct an c e
h e air gap ,

u g
, ,

of ir on flow t h ro ,
h t h e iron pie c e Th en t h e t ension alon .
,

t h e lines of for c e w ill draw t h e iron or arm at re up a ainst t h e

p o l e p i-
e c es a n d h o ld i t t h e r e .

See Tan Emm a MAGNET . V arley. p . 45 .

 198 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI CI T Y

tth t t t c
[ ART . 2 93

b e w ee n t h e m agne and t h e k ee per Ob viously t h e flux densi y in e a h of

ct t c t th t c
.

ese j oin s is lines pe r sq in Now , from T ab le 29 4, t h e pull in pounds . .

for e a h square in h pole are a, w i Hen e

t c c c tt w th t t t ch
a densi y of lin es, is lb .

the o al pull of t h e m agne of I is : 2 sq in X . . lb . lb . But if

t ch ch th t t
t h e m agne i ir ui is re arr an ged , as at I I , so a the o al flux is

t
lin es, t h e flux d ensi y ill Ob v iousl y be lines pe r sq in in e a of t h e
. .

j oin square in

t t t t c
s. From Tabl e 2 94, t h e pull for e a wi h is flux densi y

t w v t
is lb . Th ere fore , t h e t o al pull is 2 sq in X
. . lb lb It is . .

e viden h a b y doubl ing t h e flux de nsi y t h e pull h as b ee n in re ased four

g qu
im e s . This foll o s b e cause t h e pull arie s as t h e squar e of t h e flux de nsi y .

Thi s fact
y
of t h e flux densit ) expl ains m an

g y y
(t h at t h e t raction of a m a net in c reases as t h e s are

g g
appare nt l

W
in c onsist en t ph e

uk
n om ena r el at in

s rfac es Of pole fac es an d k y u y

t o t h e lif tin pow er of m a ne t s
ee per ar e e xact l
h er e t h e
t r e and flat t h e
.

g y v u
,

eepe r m ay b e h el d t o t h e pol e fac es w it h c onside r ab l l ess for c e

g u y
th an if t h e pol e fac es are sli h tl c on ex F r th e r m or e if t h e
k eepe r of an el e ctr om a net is shift e d ntil onl it s sh arp e d e is g .
,

gu y g y gqu y uy v
in c ont act w it h t h e pol e fac es it m ay b e h el d t o t h e pol es wit h
‘

r e at e r for c e t h an if it is pl ac e d fairl an d s ar el on t h e m

u gu g vgu
.

Us all a m a ne t w it h pol e fac es t h at ar e sli h tl ne e n w ill

s st ain a r e at e r w e i h t t h an on e h a in s rfac es t h at ar e ah

sol ut e l y t r e an d sm oot h Th e e xpl anat ion for t h e se odd con

y ug g g u g ufi
.

dit ions is t h at w h e n t h e are a of c ont act is de c r e ase d t h e flux

, ,

de nsit t h r o h t h e r em ainin c ont act s rfac es is in c r ease d b y

t he s qu g y
t h e lines c r ow din int o t h e m If t h e c r ow din is s f c ien t t h at

u g
ar e of t h e de nsit is in c r ease d m or e t h an t h e ar e a is dim in
,

ish e d t h e liftin pow er is inc r e ase d b y r e d c in t h e area of

.

u H g y
,

c ont act

g gg u qu y
.

293 To Pr od ce a
. i h Flux D e n sit In th e Joint so as t o
ob t ain r e at lift in pow e r w it h m inim m m at e rial in an el e ct r o

ugg W v yu
m agnet t h e e d es of t h e pol e fac es ar e fre
as s
,

est e d in Fig 1 64
e nt l

y
c h am fer ed off
it h t his c onst r ct ion t h e flux de nsit

g g u
. .
,

in the j oi nt is h igh b ut it is r el at i el l ow in t h e b alan c e of

,

t h e m a ne t ic c ir cuit Th e follow in e xam pl e ill st r at es t h e

.

prin c iple

t t wh ch t c
.

wi th
th t th t
EXAM PLE
c ch
at thoft .
—C onside r
I,
h
e x ep c ch
t ch t
t h e l if in g m agn e of Fig
a t h e ed ges of t h e pol e fa
.

e s ar e
i is ide n i
am fe red off so

j
al

c th t
a t h e are a of ea is 56 sq . in . T en t h e flux d ensi y in e a oin is :

h th t t w
line s sq . in . lin e s pe r s q .in ow ,.from T ab l e 2 94 ,

thw tttt c c
t h e pull , per s u are in h are a, w i a flux de n si y of line s, is lb .

T en for t h e 1 sq in pol e are a of is prob l e m t h e o al pull ill b e : 1 sq

. .
.

in X . lb lb It is . ere fore e v iden h a b y h am fe ring O R t h e

.

ed es of t h e pol es t h e pulling po e r of t h e m agne h as b ee n in reased from

g
 APPL I CATI ONS OF EL E C TROM AGNE TS 199

t w
SE C . 13 ]

c
l b (in I ) t o
.

t o for e t h e flux of
lb .
(in I I )
lin es th h
. A few m ore
rou g t h e m agne
m
a pe re -

t c c t th th h
urns
ir ui of
ould
II
be
an
req uired

rou g

t r ea t / sa w
” .

at Joint s 7
-

1 Tot al Pole ll Tot al Pole Ar ea

-
2 sq ln
. . lil Tot al Pole Are a =l sa in
'
. .

tt ct t t w
De nsit y m De nsit g in Joint Densit y in Joint l0 000 .

Tract ion Lb
. Trac t ion 2 6 Lb.
. Lines
Tr act ion Lb .

—Il lus

th t c c ct tct c w v
FI G . 1 63 . ra in g t h e e ffe Of flux d e nsi y on lif ing po er .

I , b ut t h e in in am pe re - u rns n e e ssary oul d be e ry sm all

a of re ase

and oul d prob ab ly b e n e gle ed in pr a ice .

 SE C TI ON 14

M AGNETIC TRAC TI O N AND LIFTIN GM G A NET S

294 Traction or Pull of El ectr om agnet s

u at

u Difi e r e nt Flux
‘

D e nsitie s — Th is t ab le w as c al c l at e d fr om t h e form l a of Art .

29 5 .

gv v vy yg g u
295 Th e Form ul a for C omputing th e Pull of an El e ctr oma n e t g
y
.

is i en b elow It is deri ed b y appl in t h e hi h er m at h em atic s

uu y yg g kg
.

b ut can be e rifi e d r eadil b y e xpe rim e nt . Th e form l a is st rictl

acc ra e t onl t h ere is no m a netic lea a e w h en t h e
w h en

fi H v u u
,

arm at r e lies c losel a ainst t h e pole fac es and w h e n c e r t ain ot h er

g u vg y
reat e rror for sol inv
ideal c onditions are satis ed
ne arl
ow e er it can b e
.

all pract ic al pr ob lems

ar m at re and pole fac es ar e som e dist an c e apar t

—
se d w it h o t
,

e en if t h e

.
202 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ ART 297

u u u g jy u j
.

arm a t th erm ore t h e are a of t h e oint sh o l d be as sm all

re F r

u gv gy y
.
,

as feasible t o pr od c e a hi h flux densit in t h e oint for t h e

mg
,

r e asons o t line d ab o e Th e m a net c ase or c or e alm ost ent irel

u g g g y
.

e n c loses t h e w in din an d t h e r e b pr o t e ct s it fr om d a a e Fig

k v g
. .

165 sh ow s t h e c onst r ction of a l ar e liftin m a ne t Of t his t pe

u g g
.

Th e coil can b e t a en fr om t h e case b y r em o in t h e coil shield

k g gv g u u v g
.

In Fig 1 64 I I is sh ow n a c oil an d pl n er el e ct r om a ne t
.
, Th is .

ind of m a ne t pr o ides a pow erf l p ll o er a sh or t ran e

v u u v g
.

2 97 Operatin Volta e s for El ectr om agnet s — In or dinary

u u g v g uu ug
.

p r a ct ic e 1 1 0 or 2 2 0 ol t
,
s dir e ct c r r e nt is s e d L o w e r o
,
l t a es -
,
.

c an b e se d b ut h i h er ol t a es sh o l d n ot b e Th e c o nt er

uu vg g
.

e m f of self in d ct ion (Art 4 64) ind c e d in t h e c oil of a m a ne t

-

ky
. . . .

w o nd for a ol t a e in e xc ess of 2 20 m ay b e (at t h e inst ant t h e

c ir c it fee din it is Opene d) c onsiderable It is li el t o b e so .

E C . 1 65 t
— He avy lif ing m ag ne t ht
for
ma
an dl in g
er ial s
b ar s pig s,
, c
s r ap ir on an d sim il ar

gg u u u g
.

rea

a ains
t as

u u
to p n ct
c h fail res a discharge resi stance is oft en
t s
re

g g
t h e ins lation of t h e w indin . To pr ote ct
so arr an e d

u u gy gu
,

t h at it is c onne ct e d ac ross t h e t er mi nals of t h e m a net c oil as t h e

c ir c it is opene d Th e f n ction Of a disc h ar e r esist anc e is t o

g
.

affor d a pat h w h er ein t h e e ne r of self ind ct ion can be dissi -

y
r
pat e d It t h er eby pr ot e ct s t h e m a ne t c oil
’

v g yu z v
. .

2 98 To M ake an El e ctr om agne t Dr op It s Load Instantl , a

u ug
.

c ont rol switc h is som etim es pr o ide d w h ereb a lim it e d re erse

c rrent is passe d th ro h t h e windin

u
This ne t r ali es t h e effe ct
of residual m agnetism and c a ses t h e l oad t o dr op inst antl

S c h a cont r ol sw it ch m ay h a e t h ree posit ions : L i t Release

'
uv f
.

y .

g
,

and Ofi
'

W g g gv v
.

299 C onsiderations Aflecting th e D e sign of a Lifting M a ne t

. .

-
h ere a m a ne t is t o b e desi ne d for a i en se r ic e and is t o
 14] M AGNE TI C TRAC TI ON 2 03

vu u u g fi v v ug u u g
SE C .

ha m inim m w e i h t and t o in ol e mini m m c ost t h e follow in

e

re q ir em e nt s sh o ld b e sat is e d : ( 1 ) T h e m a ne t ic c ir c it sh o l d

ne
r

u u g j
be as sh o t as p
tic cir c it
o ssib l e 2 h
sh ould
r s -

(
.

ex e p yu u
( ) T e c o s sectional area of t h e m ag
c t at t h e oint) be as nearl niform as

g uu
possible and sh o l d b e
in t h e m a netic c ir c it
Th e flux de nsities
v gy u ysh o
as r e at as

sh ould

l d b e,
ha
possible
e
.

h i h pe rm e ab ilit
a

approxim at el , t h ose o t line d in

(3) Th e ir on
.
se d

Ar t 30 1
300
. .

u g
u
Th e Pr oce ss of D e signin g Magnet is subst an a Liftin

y g g y g v
.

t ially as follow s ( It sh o ld be nderstood th at it is im possib le

yu k u u g
.

t o design dir e ctl a lift in m a ne t t o satisf i e n c on di tions

v g
.

It is n e c essar t o m a e c e rt ain ass m pt ions and c al c l at e a desi n

k
w or out sat isfact orily
on t h is ass m e d b asis

g uu
si n is re c al c l at e d
u v
Th en if t h e t e nt at i e desi n doe s n ot

u
.

u
t h e ass m pt ions are r e ise d an d t h e de
,

This proc ess m st b e repeat ed ntil t h e

.
,

t c t cc c th
desire d r es lt is att aine d ) .

t
chw w c w t
PRO C E ss
sugg e s ions of Art
.

30 1
1)
th t
Assum e
. .

t c c tc t t
t h e m agne i
densi ie s, in a ordan e w i t he
a t h e e dge sof t h e pol e fa es m ay b e
Re m em b er
am fe re d off t o in re ase t h e d e nsi y in t h e j oin

t c c c tt w t ctt
(2 ) Th e de nsi ie s h a .

ill b e all o e d b e ing kn o n , t h e are as of t h e pol e fa e s and t h e ross-se c

(3 ) Now sele t h e

c c t wc t c c th
t ional are a of t h e m agne i ir ui can b e d e e rm ined .

ove rall dim en sions of t h e m agn e allo ing am pl e space for t h e m agne iz ing

Se ve ral r ial s ill prob ab ly b e n e e ssar y b efore

t t t th
oil. e se dim e nsions can

w w t t
b e de ide d (4) C al ul a e t h e oil ne cessary (Art 2 8 1 ) t o supply t h e am
. .

urns re quire d for m agne iz ing t h e m agne

c
p e r e-
If is coil is t oo l arge or .

t oo sm all for t h e inding space all o ed for it , t h e e n ire de sign m us b e re

u u
v ised a cordingly .

3 01 Fl x D e nsities in th e M agnetic C ir c its of Lifting El e c

u u z y g g
.

tr omagn et s (see also Art —For t h e r e asons h e reinb efor e

.

o t line d, it is ext r em el de sirable t h at t h e hi h est flux de nsit ies

y g u
and t h e ar m at r es y u
fe asible b e tili e d in t h e j oints b e t w ee n t h e m a ne t pol e fac es

y
It is pract ic all im possible t o pr od c e a flux

qu y y j
.

de nsit t
r ea e r th an lines pe r sq in in or dinar steels

k v u y u yg uu
. . .

Fr e en tl a de nsit
of line s pe r sq in at t h e oint is . .

ta en as a m axim m for or dinar ste els b e c a se if an effort is

g u y qu qug y
m ade t o de el op a de nsit m c h re at e r , t h e r el ct an c e of t h e
m a net ic c ir c it is m at e r iall in c r eas e d and c onse e ntl c on

pr e e dic
n g
side r ab ly m or e c oppe r w ill b e r e

dat a in y
ir e d in t h e e xc itin c oil
th is ar
Th e
ticle r el a e
t onl t o t h e density
.

at the

In t h e
densit ies u u sh o
g
r em ain der of

ld be
u u se d .
y
g g
t h e m a netic
In t h e
cir c it re asonabl
arm at r e and m a
hi h flux
ne t c or es ,
2 04 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI CI T Y

prov y u ug g
t h ey are of c ast st eel w r o h t ir on or anneale d steel
ide d

y u
, ,

a de nsit O f ab o t lines pe r sq in m ay r e pr ese n t ood

u u y g
. .

p r a ct ic e I n c ast ir on p tions of t h e c ir c uit a densit O f abo t

o r -

u ug
.
,

sh o l d not b e e xc e e de d U s all t h e entire m a net ic

H v ug u y
. .

c ir c it is of w r o h t ir on c ast steel or anneale d sh e et iron , .

ow e e r c ast ir on arm at res ar e som et im es e m pl o e d

-
Th e

u u g g v u u
.
,

prin c ipal por tion of t h e m a ne tic c ir c it is sel dom of c ast ir on

u
b e c a se t h is m at e rial ass m in a i e n rel ct an c e , occ pie s

u M
m c h m ore spac e t h an do t h e ot h ers
,

g Mg g g v v v Hg v y
.

3 02 Exam pl e s Ill str atin g th e

. e th ods U se d in D e signing

Liftin a ne t s ar e i e n in t h e foll ow in ar t ic l es Th e indi

uu y v u
.

c at e t h e ene ral prin c iples in ol e d ow e e r e ac h pr ob le m .

,

h as s all
,
distin ct i e fe at re s
,
.

Side Ele v a t ion End Elevat ion

11 Tract iv e Magn e t

t t
'

1 Lif t ing Magne t

“

FI G — E xam pl e s in d e sig nin g lif in g m ag n e

t w t ct t
. 1 66 . s .

tt th t wh t w htt
EXAM PLE
t th t t
— Wh a ill b e t h e lif ing pow e r of an ele r om agne 9 in . in

tw t c c c t
diam e e r, a is, a e ig can a m agne of is di am e er b e m ad e t o
Assum e j oin

t t t v th t t c w cc
suppor ? a flux de nsi y of line s per sq in . . at the and

SO L U

c t ct c t ht w th t c ct cB
a densi y of lin es in t h e r e m ainde r of t h e m agn e i ir ui .

TI O N — It ill b e
. assum ed en a i el y a t h e m agn e iz ing oil ill o upy

t c w t ct
a r oss-se ion of 1 in . X 2 in .
,
as s o n in Fig 1 66 , I This oil spa e
. .

A m us be

c c w th h c w th h c tt
in t h e m agn e fr am e
so lo a ed a t h e sum O f t h e se ions
and B , ou side of t h e oil , ill e q ual , appr oxim a e l y, se ion C insid e of t h e

tt th t t t tt th t
oil . Th e sam e num b er of line s il l flow r ou g t h e rin g of ir on ou side of
t h e oil as fl o s r oug t h e yl in d e r of ir on ins ide of t h e oil Th e diam e e rs .

—d e e rm in ed b rial— indica ed in t h e illus ra ion rovide are as a ne arl

c c
y p y
quir e m en

h ct c
sa isfy e se re s. Th e ar e a of t h e flat rin g is :
’
[9 X 9 X sq . in . Th e ar e a of the ir l e C is

th t t t t c
X sq . in . T e r e for e , t h e ar e a is, pr a i all y,

c c tw t t
e qual t o ar e a C
'
.

Wi flux in t h e m agne i

h c t
a d e nsi y of lin e s pe r sq ih . .
,
t he o al
Th e flux d en si y

th t ch v t
ir ui ill b e : X sq in . . lin es .

at t h e j oin s is to be lin e s . Hen ce ,

e nou g of t h e pol e fa e s m us b e

c ut aw ay a the area whi re m ains w ill pro ide a d ensi y of lin es

 SE C T ION 1 5

H YSTERE SIS

303 Hy is t h at
s e r e sis
t
y gy fi qu
alit y gv u
of a m a ne t ic s b st an c e

gg g g z
.

(Ar t 4 5) w h er e b ener is dissipat e d on t h e r e er sal of it s m ag

u
.

net ism It m ay also b e de ne d as a l a in of m a ne t i at ion

Hy g
.

b ehin d t h e for c e t h at pr od c es it

g g z
.

3 04 Explanation of st e r e sis — R efe r t o Fig 44 deline at in

g y
. . .

h ow ir on filin s in a b ottl e m ay b e m a neti e d w it h a perm anent

cept e d t h e or

u y g z
m a n e t and also t o Fig 43 w h ic h indic at es t h e gener all ao
of m a ne t i at ion
.

vy v
R e iew t h e t ext r elat in t o gk
qu k g uu
.

t h e se ill str ations It w ill b e readil c on c ei e d t h at w or

.

“
( A r t 1 58 ) is r e ir e d t o lin e u p
”
t h e m ol e c l ar pa r t ic l es in a

g gu
.

pie c e of ir on t o m a e it a m a ne t Th is is t r e w h e t h er it b e

k qu u
.

c om es a per m anent m a net or an ele ctr om a net It is also ob v i

gu g zy u g
.

ous t h at w or w ill b e r e ir e d t o s h ift ar o nd t h e m ol e c les of

g z
expe ndit r e of m or e w or kw
a m a net if it is desir e d t o dem a ne t i e it F r t h e r m ore t h e
ill b e n e c e ssar if t h e m a net is now
.
,

vk
de el ope d at t h e end t h at w as for m erl a N pol e yHy
r em a ne ti e d in t h e ot h er dir e ct ion t h at is if a S pol e is now

yg y
,

Th at t his
,

ug y k
.

w or is n e c essar is due t o h st er esis st eresis m ay t h e n b e

vv gg
.

t h o h t of as b ein due t o m ol ecular friction M or e w or is

'

qu
.

n e c essar t o r e er se t h e m a ne t ism in a pie c e of h ar d st ee l t h an is

re

uy
dim ensions k u
ir e d t o r e er se t h e m a net ism of a soft ir on pie c e of t h e sam e
Th e am o nt of w or t h at is r e
.

t h e r el ct an c e of t h e m at erial in c reases
-

ir e d inc r eases as qu
y k
.

3 05 H ste r e sis Loss is t h e l oss of pow er (Ar t 1 59) due t o

y v y
. .

h st eresis and it can b e expr esse d in w att s or in ilow att s —

u g v gqu zy H v g z
.

In any c ase h st er e sis loss is r elati el sm all It is of no m at e rial

..

c onse q enc e w h er e a pie c e of ir on is m a neti e d and dem a neti e d

vy y u g
or h as it s m a ne t ism r e er se d infr e .
en tl ow e er in som e

el e ct ric al appar at s t h e flux in a m a ne t ic c ir c it m ay b e r e u

gug u u y v y
.
,

erse d m an

u qu
u
tim es a se c on d (see follow in e xam ples) an d t h en
h ste resis loss b e c om es of c onse en c e t h o h it is s all
u er

y u vu
,

sm all as c om par e d wit h t h e o t p t of t h e appar at s Thi s pow er

u u u
.

l ost by h st e resis or m ole c l ar frict ion appe ar s as h eat b ut ser e s

g u
no sef l p r pose — it is a dead l oss It r aises t h e t e m pe r at r e
.

of t h at port ion of t h e m a ne t ic c ir c it in w hi c h t h e r e ersal of

20 6
v
 1 51 H YS TERESIS 207

g u g g u
u
se e .

ug
ma ne

v g y
s b j e ct t o h st er esis losses y
tism occ rs In c onstr ctin m a netic c ir c it s t h at are
.

r eat c ar e is exer c ise d t o sele ct t h e re

v
,

for r ades of Ir on t h at de elop low h st er esis l osses t h at i s t h at

u
, ,

h a e l ow hysteresi s coefiicie nts or constants so th at t h e losses in

c t t ch
th e m m ay be m aint ained at a minim m

tt c t c
.

EXAM PLE —In Fig 1 67 I and II is sh own a ylinder of iron ro a ing in a

t h tt h t t
.
.
, ,

m agne i field Th e m agne ism in t h e ylinde r is re ve rse d at ea

. h alf
re v ol u ion

t t t c th c
At I t h e por ion of t h e cylinde r av ing t h e t w o slo s cu t in it
.

h as a S pole de v el ope d in it Now w h en it ro a e s a alf re v olu ion to

ch t t w t t
.
,

N v

t
p os i ion I I his por i
,
on b e om es a po l e Ob ious l y if is iron ylin der .
,

ause d t o r ot a e rapidl y t h e flux in it w ill re verse ve ry freq ue n l y and t h e

t t tc
ys e resis l oss in
ro a e c t
in m agne i th it ill b e
fields under
conside rabl e

ondi
. Armat ur es of ge ne ra
ions sim ilar to ose j ust c
o rs and

de s ribed
m o ors
.

t h Iron Rot at ing in a M

—
ag iet i-
c fle ld

t t c c t t
FI G . 1 67 Ill us t r a
. ing yst er esis in ir on.

hc t
EXAMP LE

ch t t ct t
.

t th
—Th e
t t
m agne i ircui of a ransform e r ( Art 82 1 ) is
ele m en ary

Th e al e rna ing cur re n ( Art 82 8)

.

tc h t t ch t t
s ow n in Fig 1 67 , II I . a m agne iz es .

t
t h e or e of a ransform e r anges in dire ion m any im es a se cond C on .

se quen ly, t h e flux in a

th t h th
ransform e r ore rev e mes m any t im es a se cond .

This auses a ys e resis l oss Th e h ig es quali y iron is used for rans

.

Hy M
form er cores so a the yst e resis l oss in e m will be as l ow as pomib le .

306 . Approxim ate t

s e re tic C onstants for Difi e re nt at e rial s .

th ct ch t less is t he

v
Th e v al ues in is colum n indi a e h ow m u grea e r or

ta ken h ere as a st andard be cause th e alues of Tab le 30 7 are for w rough t

iron .
2 08 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 3 07

Hy W gu
.

v quu y
3 07
Th e
.

y Approximate
al es ar e n e essarilc
s e r e sis
t Loss in
approxim a e
t b e c a se t h e loss aries
u
r ou

v g
h t Iron .

w ith t h e

g u g vuugalit of t h e m at erial
c om m er cial soft w r o h t ir on
Th e t ab lat e d dat a is for ood
.

Th e h st eresis l oss in ir ons of yu yg u

u qug y
.

ot h e r r ades can b e appr oxim at e d b y m l t ipl in t h e r es l t

gv u
ob t ain ed fr om

u sin

ir on nder c onsiderat ion

t h e al es h er e t ab lat e d b y t h e
i en in t h e Rela tive value c ol m n of Table 3 06 for t h e rade of
“

.
an t it

Hy
u gy
3 08
u
s e r e sis
t Loss Is D e te rm ine d by Th ree Factor s : ( 1 )

v
.

Th e n m b er of c cl es (Ar t 68 1 ) per se c ond, t h at is, t h e n m ber

u yu y g g
.

of. tim es t h e m a ne t ism or flux is re (2 ) t h e

e r se d in a se ond ;
c
m axim m densit B of t h e flux (Ar t 246) in t h e m a net ic m at e
, ,
.

rial ; an d (3 ) t h e q alit t h at is t h e h ardness of t h e m a net ic

Hy
, ,

m at erial

u u g
.

309 C al cul ation of st e re sis Loss All m et h ods are m ore -

v
. .

or l ess appr oxim at e nl ess de t ail ed in for m at ion r elat in to the

u u u u
p p
r o e r t ies of t h
ug qu
e spe c im e n n d e r c on

f n dam en t al form l a t h at applie s t h o h it is

side r at ion is a a il ab l e

it e sim pl e can
T h e .

vu vg v u g v u
, ,

not be in c l de d h er eb e c a se of c e r t ain m at h em at ic al ope r at ions

t h at it in ol es Approxim at e pr actic al c al c lations can b e

vu g u g
. -
,

m ade by sin t h e deri e d form la i e n b elow in c onne ct ion

w it h t h e al es of T abl es 3 06 an d 3 07 Expr essin t h e fact or s .

of Ar t 3 08 in a w or kin form l a :
.

(9 2 )
v u g v y (w atts)
PB p X V X 77

N
ug
Wr o h t ir on u g
( ot e t h at t h e ab o e form la
F or t h e m et h od
.
-
as

of
h ere
c om p tin
i en applies onl

t h e l oss in ot h er
to
 SEC T ION 1 6

M
v y
C O NTAC T ELE C TR O O TIVE F O R C ES

3 10 How Ele ctrical Ene rgy M ay Be D e e lope d Th r ough th e

u v g
.

C ontact of Dissimilar Sub st ance s Th ere al w a s exist s be t w een -

u
.

dissimi lar s b st anc es in c ont act a olt a e or differ enc e of pot en

tial (Ar t
g
vu g y
.

u v
B ut as o tline d in Art 3 1 6 if t h e dissim ilar sub
st an c es ar e arr an e d in a c lose d c ir c it t o pr o ide a pat h for a
.
,

zy H g u H v
st an c es w ill
,

nder or dinar

ant e m f will b e ero

,
u z
c on ditions ne trali e
enc e no c rr ent can flow
u
c urr ent t h e olt a es due t o t h e c ont act s of t h e dissimilar sub
Th e r es l t
Th er efor e
,
.

gy u z y ug
. . . . .
,

(Art . no energ can b e e ner at ed ow e er if ext ernal .

,

e ner be pr operl im par t e d t o t h e dissimil ar s b st an c es in con

u u
t act t h e ne tr ali ation of t h e e m fs will be der an ed An e m f

fl gy v u
will t h en est ab lish w hic h w ill forc e c rr ent ar o nd t h e cir c it
. . . . . . .

u u y g g
.

W h en t h e c urr e nt ow s ener will b e de el ope d (Ar t .

Th s t his ph e nom enon is m er el an exam ple of t h e eneral

gygy y k
,

prin c ipl e o tline d in Ar t 1 7 9 t h at t h e

“
ener at ion of el e ct ric al

gy y
.
,
”
e ne r r eall m e ans t h e tr ansform ation of som e ot h er in d of
e ner int o ele ct r ic al ener
vv y y
3 1 1 Th e Am ount of Ene rg th at C an B e D e e lope d Th r ough
.

v g v u
.

th e C ontact of Dissim ilar Sub stance s Is R e l ati el Ve r Sm all .

Th e ol t a es de el ope d ar e sm all (Table 3 15) and t h e c rr ent s

ar e sm all

u c t ct u twg t u ct t
Th e m et h od h as n o im por t ant com m er cial applicati ons
.

e xc ept for t em perat r e m e as rin appar at s

t t t ct t ct c
.

Nor a — Th e

c c ct
e . m f
. . of on a be ee n me als an d el e rol y e s is rel a

t iv el y l arge an d ad van age is k

a en of his fa b y gene ra ing el e ri al

y
e ne rgy by h em i al a ion . See Ar t 3 26 . .

ug g
3 1 2 In Ge ne rating Ele ctri cal Ene rg

y y gy
Sub stance s, th e Ext ernal Ene r y Im part e d Is U s all
‘

u yg H e at
b y C ontact of D issimil ar

g
Ene rg —
enera e d

u
.

t g
Th e r e for e , alt h o h , t h eor e t ic all , ener

y b y im par t in
m i h t be

y h e at at t h e point of c ont act of any t wo

l
poy y
dissim ilar
e d.

abl e or t h e
u s b st an c es,
M ost ot h er
u gu y u u
th er m e c h anic all
can not w it h st an d h e at wit h o t dam a e
s
onl

ns it
b st anc es
dissimilar m et als
ar e e i
ar e or dinaril em

y u k
.

3 13 Ge ne ration of E m f b y C ontact of Unlike S b st ance s

. . . . .

It can b e sh own experim ent all t h at w h e n any t w o nli e sub

st anc es are pl ac e d in c ont act t h er e exist s bet w een t h em a differ
2 10
SE C 1 6] C ON TAC T E LE C TRO M 0 TI V E F OR CE S 21I

v g y v g v y
.

en e c pot ent ial or

of olta e Or dinaril ,
sm all exc e pt in t h e c ase of el e ct r ol tes in

Se e Art 358 nder Pr im ar C ells

”
t his olta e is er

ufi
c on ta ct w ith m et als
The al e of t his e m f
“
y
.

y vu .

f
. . . . .

is in any spe c i c c ase de t e r mi ne d b y : ( 1 ) The substances; (2) the

char acter of the con tact sur aces; (3 ) the me dium in w hich the con

tact occur s; (4) the conditions existing in the medium .

NOTE

ct t th
—
t c c wh t t t c
E L E C T R O N - T HE O R Y Ek
'

. T HE P L AN ATI O N on C O NT AC T EL E CTR O
F onc n s z— C e r

c c t ct h t
M O T IV E ain sub s an es possess t h e pr oper y of r e adil y
'

thc tt ct c tt wwhth ct c wht c c t ct t

gi in g up el e r on s to o e r sub st an es e n t h e t w o di ffe r e n sub s an e s

ar e p l a e d in on a T u s,
i t h a s b e e n de m on st r a e d e xpe r im e n t all y
.

c wh chc ctct c th t c t ctc t thc

a z in r e adil y par s i el e r on s t o oppe r , en t h e t w o m e al s

on a C onse q u e n l y
. en t w o dissim il ar sub s an e s on a ,
on e
quir es de fi i

wh ch ct c
a an e x e ss of el e r ons, the o er a . He n e , on e sub s an e

iv el y fie d ;

tc t th t t h
(t h e one i l ose s el e r ons) be om es posi el e ri the o er

(t h e on e i g ain s el e r ons) b e om es

iv e l y —

tw th wh
n ega l
e ect r ifi e d a. po en ial diffe r
v ol

c
en e or age is e r eb y e st ablis ed be

c c t ct c w th c c ct t
ee n em .

For exam pl e , en (in air ) a pie e of

tht t ct w
z in on a s i oppe r , e l e r ons pass
fr om t h e z in to the oppe r . No e, Art .

flo

ctct c t tc t t tw
“
360 ,
a the e lect ri c cu rr en t s in t h e

c
“ ” a
O pposi e dir e ion fr om electr on cu rr en t .
W m ( ”m g /

F m 1 68 — C on ac

c ch th t
Th e flow of el e r ons on inu e s un il t h e . . m f be
e . . . ee n

t c tw c c t t w ch c wt ct t t
n um b e r of el e r ons, l ost b y t h e z in an d oppe r an d z in c .

g ain e d by the oppe r , is su a the

j us qual

tw c t c c t w th th ct tht t
v ol ag e be een the z in an d oppe r is e to t h e on a po en ial
diffe r e n e (de t e rm ine d b y e xpe rim e n ,
T ab l e 3 1 5 ) hi al ays e xist s be
ee n z in an d oppe r . It doe s n ot appe ar to b e de fini el y k now n j us
wh y som e sub s an es par rea dil y i e ir el e r ons to o e rs.

of M
3 14 .

t
e al s atyg u
Tab l e 3 1 5 Sh ow s Val ue s of

v
t em pe r at r es Th e or de r in w h ic h t h e
or din ar
b y C ontac t

v gg
.

m e t al n am es ar e arr an e d in dic ates t h e ir r e lat i e abilit ies t o

de elop e m fs b y c ont act Th e r e at er t h e se par at ion of any

W fi
. . . .

t w o m e t al n am es in t h e t ab le t h e r e at e r w il l be t h e e m f de ,
. . .

v e lope d b y t h e c ont act of t h e t w o h e n t w o of t h e m e t als are

v g v
.

in c ont act t h e one t h e nam e of w hic h appe ar s rst in t h e t ab le

v
,

w ill b e posit i e as r e l at e d t o t h e ot h er w h ic h w ill b e n e at i e

u u
Th e dir e ct ion of t h e e m f de e lope d w ill b e fr om
V al es in t h e t ab le w e r e de t e rmin e d b y expe rim e nt and c al c l a
to . . .

t t c
t ion .

t ct th c c
a
EX AM PL E
wi a th .

pie tw th
— If at
e of z in
or din ary

( Fig .
e m pe r a u r e s a

1 68 ) e re
pie
w il l b e b e
e of c0 ppe r is pl ac e d in
ee n em ,
from T abl e
c on
 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y

c t t t wth t
2 12 [ ART . 3 15

c cc w c t h tc
3 1 5, diffe ren e of po en ial or an e m f of
a v ol Fur e rm ore , t h e
.

ill b e posi iv e
. .

ct
.

w
t c
oppe r , sin e it pre ed e s zin c in t h e ol um ns of T ab l e 3 1 5,
and t h e z in ill b e ne ga ive T a is, t h e d ire ion of t h e e m f
. ill b e .

vu
. .

from t h e copper ow ard t h e z in .

gv v
3 1 5 C ontact E m fs Be tw e e n M e tal s, in Volts — Th e al es

y u ugy
. . . . .

i en ar e t h e e m fs de elope d b e t w ee n t h e differ ent m e t als

. . .

in c ont act at or dinar t em per at res As t h e t em per at r e at t h e

v u
.

loc at ion of t h e c ont act in c r eases t h at is as h e at ene r is im

v u gv
, ,

p ar t e d t h e c on t act e m f is in c r e ase d ; se e Se c 3 1 8 Th e al es

u
. . . . .
,

in t h e t able are appr oxim at e Differ ent al es ar e i en b y .

diff er en t a t h orities .

B ism ut h 0
0 1 59 1 0
Pall adium 0 1 988 0
02 108 0

O
.

0 2 1 42 0 0 00 03 2
. 0 2 1 49 0
. 02 1 7 4 0

02 1 8 1 0

O
.

. 0 22 2 7
C opper . 0 22 3 1
. 0 22 7 2

Ant im ony

M e t als

Bism u t h . 0 222 7
006 3 6
00 2 3 9
00 1 1 9

O
000 85
000 7 8
000 53

0 0004 6
0
C 00004 0
° 0
0 000 76 0
0 00 29 7 0
0 00 56 7 0 . 0

u
t
3 1 6 Th e Re sultant E m f of M e tal s All
r e and
. .

C onnecte d int o a C lose d C ircuit Is Zer o

. . at th e S am e Te m pe ra
— As in F i
g .
 t c c t c c
2 14 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ ART . 3 18

t c c t v c c th t t
th e able are n ot
h ey carried out
arried out

to say six t ct to
de im al pl a es,
a su f fi ien num b e r of de im al pla e s We re
t h e resul an e m f of con a ,
em w oul d b e z e ro ( 0) in e v e ry
. . .
.

t t t ct
around a l osed ir cui ,
deri ed b y using

t It can

c t ct c c t t t ct t c t t
b e sh ow n expe rim en ally h a , if t h e j un ion of t w o dissim il ar
h a j un ion is in re ased

ct ct c t ct c c t t
m e als is h e at e d, t h e on a e m f at Th en, . . . .

c h c t
p r ov id e d t h e re m ainde r of t h e ir ui is a t a l ow e r e m pe ra u re h a n t h e

h e at ed j un ion, t h e on a e m fs aroun d t h e ir ui n o l on ge r neu r aliz e

t th t t t t
. . . .

Th us, if t h e j un ion of t h e coppe r an d z in is e at ed as at II I , it s on act

.

h ct c ht c ct c c t th t tt t
e m f . is now gr ea e r
. an it s con ac e m f at ordin ary e m pe r a ures

Ano er w ay of s a ing t h e
. . . .

t th t t ctw
T e re b y a urre n is for ed around t h e ir ui .

is : w en t h e j un ion of t w o dissim ilar m e al s is h e a ed , as at

t c t tt t c t
sam e fa

t
III , an e . m f in
. . addi ion t o a of ordin ary con a ill b e de v el ope d . Th is

ct v t v v t c
addi ional e . m f w ill for
. . e cur re n around the ir cui .

ct c c t c
In III it h as b ee n assum ed h a the addi ion al m f due t o t h e h e a ing of
e . . .

c t t th t vt v
t h e un ion is ol . This gi es an e . m f of
. . ol a ross t h e

j un ion of t h e coppe r an d the z in . Th e urre n w hi h flow s around th e

ir cui is due t o is addi ion al e . m f of . . ol . Ob iously t h e cu r

re n w ill b e sm all

u H v
.

3 1 8 Th e Val e of th e E m f De e lope d Across th e Junction

u u ju
. . . .

of Dissim ilar M e tal s by e ating Th e m is propor tional t o t h e

differ en c e b et w een t h e t em pe r at re of t h e n ct ion and t h e t e m

u v u yg v u
pe rat ure of t h e r e m ain de r of t h e c ir c it
en c e in t em pe r at r e is n e c essar
A c onsider able differ
t o pr od c e an appr e c iab le effe ct
.

u y
.

iv e e m f Th e e m f al e i en in c onne ct ion w ith Fig

u u u
. . . . . . .

1 69 I I I c o l d not pr ob ab l
, , b e ob t aine d in pr act ic e with t h e
, ,

apparat s sh own If t h e t em perat r e of t h e j n ction b e t w ee n

u v uju
.

dissimilar m et als is de c r eased b el ow t h at of t h e r em ain der of t h e

c ir c it an e m f is also pr od c e d b ut it is in t h e opposite dir e ction

y
. . .
,

t o th at de el ope d w h en t h e n ct ion is h eat e d

y v
.

3 1 9 If Ext ernal Ene rg is Im part e d to Dissim ilar M e tal s in

gy u g gy gy u
.

C ontact in a C lose d C ir cuit , El e ctr ic al Ene rg Is De e lope d .

Th e ener im part e d m ay b e c h emi c al ener as expl aine d nder

g g u
“ ”
c ells in s cc ee din art icles or it m ay b e h eat ener as sug

gy Hu v z
est ed in t h e pr e c edin art icle

gyv
c ont act of t h e in c and t h e c opper in Fig 1 69 II did n ot de elop v
As o tlin e d in Art 3 1 7 t h e m er e . .
,

u
.
,

n
e e r ow e er w h en ener — —
h e at w as im part e d fr om an

ug gyu v W u y u gy
.
,

ext e rnal so r c e an e m f w as de el ope d w hi c h for c ed a c rr e nt . . .

t hr o h t h e c ir c it Th at is b y t h e applic ation of h eat ener

gy
.
, ,

el e ct ric al ener w as de el ope d h at act all occ rr ed w as

gy ug u
.

t h at som e of t h e h eat ener from t h e c andle w as t r ansfor m e d

into ele ct ric al ener t hr o h t his pe c liar c ont ac t action of
m et als .
SE C 1 6] C ON TAC T E L E C TROM O TI VE F OR CE S

vu v
.
2 15

3 20 A Th e rm oe l e ctr om oti e Force is one de el ope d by t h e

gug u
.

appli a c tion of h eat t o t h e j nction of dissim ilar m et als as de

u
sc rib e d in pr e c e din ar tic l s
e T he r m oele ctr ic curr ents ar e t h e

c rr ents for c ed t hr o h cir c its by th ese for ces

.

g g y
.

3 2 1 A Th e rm o couple or Th e rm o e le ctric C oupl e c onsist s

.
- -

(Fi s 1 70) of t w o pie c es of dissim ilar m e tals Th e ar e

y u Wg u
.
.

j oined t o e th er or are in c ontact at one end w hi le t h e oth er

ends ar e ele ctric all c onnect ed to e th er by a c ond ctor w hich

u ug v
c om ple t es an ele ctric al cir c it

u
h en t h e j oine d e nds ar e h e at e d
an e m f is de el ope d as h ereinb e for e de sc rib e d w hi c h for c e s a
. .

c rr ent thr o h t h e c ond ctor

.
.

,
,

u
.

32 2 A Th e rm o e l ectric Pil e or Th e rm o pil e c onsist s of a

.
- -

se ries (Fig 1 70) of t h erm o c o ples -

y u g
.

so j oined in ser ies as t o form a

b att er Th e e m fs ener at e d by
. . . .

all of t h ese c o pl es in series are

quu y g uu fi u
adde d t o on e

en tl
anot h er Gonse
if a s f c ient n m b er of
.

v vg u uv
,

c o ples is ro pe d a c onsider able ,

olt a e an d c rr ent m ay b e t h s

de
nev er

g u
e l o pe

u y
b e en
d
cc essf ll for
.

applied s
h
T e r m —
o piles h a e

g y uu
t h e c om m er c ial e neration of ele c
t ricit y l ar el
g
b e c a se it appe ars
,

im possible t o c onstr ct an arr an e

u u yg u uy
m ent of dissim ilar m et als t h at c an
c ontin o sl and s cc essfull w ith
Fm pm ” '

u u
st and t h e hi h t em per at r es and

t h e differ en c es in t em per at r e pon w h ic h a th erm o—

de pend for it s oper ation
pil e m st u
gu g u ug u
.

3 23 A Bolom e te r , Th e rm o b olom e te r or Pyr om e te r is an

.
-

arr an em e nt tiliz in t h e prin c ipl e of t h e t h erm o c o ple for -

y v u
, ,

m eas rin t em perat res This de v ic e r epr esents t h e m ost

v u u
.

im por t ant applic ation of t h e rm o ele ctric it Th e al e of t h e -

u j
.

e m f de el ope d by a t h erm o— c o ple depe nds pon t h e diffe renc e

u u u
. . .

be tw ee n t h e t em perat r e of t h e oin t of t h e th erm o ele ctric -

u u u
c o pl e and t h e t em perat re of t h e r em ainder of t h e cir c it It

ug u u
follow s t h at if t h e r em ain der of t he cir c it is m aint aine d at a
,

c onst ant t e m per at re t h e c rr ent for c e d thr o h t h e c ir c it

.

u
,

due t o t h erm o e l e ctric action will de pend on t h e te m pe r at r e of

-

t h e t h erm o—c o ple j oint .

2 16 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI CI T Y AR T 3 2 4

u fl ug g v
.

r e adin gj
If t his c
u u
rr e n t ow s
u
t hr o h an amm et er or al anom e ter t h e
of t h e in st r m en t w ill b e pr oport ional t o t h e t em pe r at r e
,

at t h e oin t

g
sh ow dir e ctly .

uu j
u
t h e t em perat r e of t h e oin tj
Th e inst r m ent can b e so c alibrat e d t h at it w ill
Th e oint can be

u k
.

arr an e d in any loc ation

— s c h as m a f r n ac e or a pot of m ol t en

g g uu j u
,

—
m et al t h e t em per at r e at w hic h it is desir e d t o now Th e

v y g v y
.

r e ist erin inst r m en t can b e c onn e ct e d t o t h e oin t b y c ond ct ors

u
u g vy u u
an d can b e m o nt e d at any c on enien t point

u u yg
V er h i h or er
l ow t em per at r es can b e m e as r e d and t h e inst r m ent can b e
.

u y ug g u u u
n i i l i
,

u
—
c onstr ct e d so se s t e t h at w ith a b sm th ant im on t h erm o
c o pl e a c h an e 111 t em pe r at r e of one milliont h of a de re e can -

u
,

be re adil m e as r e d Platin m rh odi m t h erm o c o ples ar e

- -

v
.

se d for m easurin hi h t e m pe r at r es

u ug
.

3 24 Pe ltie r Efi e ct — It w as disc o er e d by Peltier t h at if a

jj v g v
. .

c r r ent is passed th r o h a j oint b e t w een dissim ilar m e t als it

fl
,

w ill h eat t h e oint if it passe s fr om positi e t o n e at i e and t h at

p h en o
g
m e na is P el t ie r e

yff e ct u
it will c ool t h e oint if it ow s in t h e opposit e dir e ct ion
D o
gn o t c onf se t h is w it h I 2
R
T his
l oss
.

u qu j y
.

h eat in effe ct w h ic h is an entir el differen t t hin Pel tier effe ct.

and P R l oss m ay occ r in t h e sam e oint Under or dinar c ondi

v
.

t ions Pelt ier effe ct is in c onse ential

u uu v u
.

3 25 Th om pson Efi e ct W — Sir illiam Th om pson disc o ere d

g
. .

t h at if one por tion of a c ond ct or of p r e m etal h ad a t em per at re

hi h er t h an anot h er port ion an e m f w o ld b e de el ope d be t w een

quy y
. . .
,

t h ese point s This ph enom ena is c alled Th om pson e ffe ct It

. .

is in c onse ential for all ordinar c onditions and is of th eor e tic al

int erest onl .
2 18 PRAC TI CAL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T . 32 9

th an t h e

H
m et als
en e ,c
and li

pr act ic al l all
qu y
m fs b e t w een dissimilar m et als or b e t w een
c ont act

of t h e e
e

m f
.

d e el ope d b
.

y a o
.

ids w hic h do not act c h e m ic all on t h e m e t als

l t aic c e ll . . . v y v .

t tc c
I '

Zlnc in Elect r ol yt e Il Me t als Fr e e lll Me t als in Cont act

—T h e

g y
FI G . 1 71 . ele m e n s of t h e vol ai or pr im ar y e ll .

is
3 3 5)
e ner a e d at

and
t
t h e posit i
t he
v
ar e a of

e
c ontact b e t w een t h e
ele ct r ode or an ode (Ar t

3 29 Val ue s of
.
el e

C ont act E m fs of
ctr ol t e (Art .

W v uk
. . . .

M e tal s Imm e rse d in Liquids .

h ene er a pie c e of som e p r e m e t al

a
ug v g
is im m er se d in an acid or al al ine

i gv
sol tion of som e c er t ain ch e m ic al of

en s r en t th an d at a i en t em

t al ede fi v u
perat ur e,

W u v
will b e de el ope d
ni e

u
a c ont act e m f of a c ert ain
. . .

gv y
.

it h this part ic ul ar m et al and sol

tion and nder t h ese i en c ondi ‘

t h e sam e H v ,

g
t ions t h e c ontact e m f w ill b e al w a s

ku u g
ow e er it c h an es w it h
. . .

u
.
,

t h e in d of sol tion t h e st r e n t h of

u H u
,

t h e sol tion t h e t em per at r e of t h e ,

sol tion and t h e t em per at r e of t h e

FI G . 1 72
of sim pl e
.
_
Nam e s of
v ol
ct c
ai
om pon e n s
u
m et al

t u
en c e it is im pr act ic ab l e t o

t w ee n m et als and h q ui ds Tab la

.

t ab l at e h ere t h e c ont act e m fs be

u
,

. . .

u
ce ,
.

tions for c ert ain spe c ial c ases sim ilar

gy g k
,

t o t h at of Tabl e 346 m ay b e fo nd in m ost of t h e m ore com

,

ple t e el e ct ric al en in ee rin h andb oo s

u g
.

330 . A Prim ar C e ll , som e tim es c alled a voltaic ce ll Fi

( g 1 7 2 ) .

com prises a c om b in ation of t w o differ ent c ond ctin m at erials

 PRINC IPLE S OF P RI M AR Y C ELLS 2 19

qu y
SE C . 17]

all y
im m erse d in id or electrol te (Art 335) w h ic h acts c h em ic
a li
on one of t h e m at e rials m or e r e adil t h an it does on t h e
.

yu u y
g u gz uu u
”
ot h er m at erial (Th e t erm voltaic cell sh o l d b e sed onl t o

u
.

desi c ell sin in c c opper and s l ph r ic ac id as sh ow n 111

na e a t

y ug y
,

Table Th e m at erials m st not t o c h one anoth er l n t h e

el e ctr ol t e T h ro h t h e c h emi c al action of t h e el e ctr ol t e on

u y ug
.

one of t h e m at erials or el e ct r odes (Art 334 ) an e m f is m ain

u
. . . .

t aine d and an ele ct ric c r r ent can th er eb b e for c e d t h r o h an

u u y uug u
e xt ernal c ir c it

s m ed or

r eplac e d w h en t h e ar e exh a st ed —
uy y g
Th e anode (z in c) and t h e el e ct rolyt e ar e c on
se d u p in pr od c in
.

c rr ent Us all th e can b e

an d t h e n t h e c ell is as ood
.
,

as n ew

33 1 y g
.

A Se c ondar g g y uu
C e ll is a st ora e b att er or acc m l at or

k
.

as desc r ib e d at som e len t h , c om m en c in w it h Ar t 367 in a . .

differ ent se ction of t his b oo

yy z
.

332 Th e R e al Distinction Be t w e e n a Pr im ary C e ll an d a

u y
.

Se condar C e ll is : I n a pr imary ce ll, th e an ode ( in c ) an d th e

yu
el e ctrol t e

ug y u
ar e of s

uu
ch
y
ctr ol t e w ill act c h emi
m at erials t h at
c all on t h e anode w h en t h e ext ernal c ir c it is closed and t h er eb
a c rr e nt is for c e d t hr o h t h e ext ernal c ir c it I n a secondary
el e

u u
.

cell t h e el e ctr odes and el e ctr ol t e ar e of s c h m at e rial s t h at

ug
,

t h ere can b e no c h em ic al action b e tw een th em ntil aft er c rr ent

h as fi rst b e en for c e d t h r o h t h em

u
.

3 33 Th e D istinction B e t w e e n a C e ll an d a B att e ry is th at t h e

g gy gy
.

”
w or d c ell denot es one nit or c om b ination of m at erials for
t ransform in ch e m ic al e ner int o el e ct ric al ener A b at
“
.

”
t ery is a c om bin at ion of c ells

ct th t th ct
.

c t t t t tt
EXAM PL E —

c
Tw o or m or e
tt t wh chtt
cell s, so conn e ed a ey a ct in con un j ion ,

ttt ch t wct c t c ctw tt

ons i u e a ba e ry. Broadly, a ba e ry is an y appar a u s in i sim il ar

uni s are asse m bl ed t o se r e a v om m on e n d ; for e xam pl e :

“
A ba e ry of
” “ ” ”
b oil ers, a ba e ry of ar ill e ry . Som e ri e rs use the or ds
“
ba e ry
“
an d cell in an ge ab ly, b ut t h e pra i is in

y u
er e an or re one .

3 34 Th e Nam e s of th e C om pone nt s of a Prim ar C e ll ar e

fl ug u g
.

sh ow n in Fig 1 72 . . t erm in al
Th e or pol e fr om w hi c h t h e c rr en t
ow s t h ro h t h e ext ernal c ir c it
and t h er efor e t h e one of h i h e r ,

potential is c alle d t h e positive pole or ter m inal T h e ot h er pol e

u fl ug uu
.
, ,

th at of t h e l ow er p ot ent ial is t h e negative pole or ter m inal Th e

,
.

plat e fr om w h ic h t h e c rr en t ow s t hr o h t h e ext ernal c ir c it

u fl
th e c r r ent ow s t o it t h r o h t h e el e ct r olyt e ug
is c alle d t h e negative plate negative electr ode or cathode b e c a se,

Th e ot h er pl at e .
,

,
 P RAC TI CAL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 33 5

g v
2 20 .

t h at

v
positiv e
of w hi c h
e le c tr

g
od e

v o r a n o d u
t h e ne

ug
e N o t e
a

t
ti
h a t
e

c
t is t h e positive plate
rr e n t
ol
p e
o w s f r
is
o m t
a
h e
par ,

fl u
,

vg v v ugu vy
.

o it i o l t o t h e n e a t i e p o l e t h r o h t h e e x t e r n a l c ir c it
p s e p e

an d f r o m t h e p o si t i e p l at e b
( y ir t e of t h e m o e m e n t of io n s

u u g
,

Ar t 36A) t o t h e ne at i e pl at e t hr o h t h e ele ctr ol t e A som e

u u
.
.

w ah t d iff e r e n t n o m e n c l a t r e is s e d fo r sto r a e b a tt e r ies a s e x

c c c tt t
p l ain e d (4 0 2 A ) n d e r t h a t s b j e ct .

t tX
F O R E AMP L E
v
—
c t
In a z in c arb on e ll t h e arb on is t h e posi ive pol e an d
v
-

v
,

t
ct ct c
t h e neg a i e pl a e b u t t h e z in is t h e n e ga i e pol e an d t h e posi i e pl a e .

NO TE — Th e cathode is t h e nam e giv en t o t h e n e ga iv e or l e adin g out

wh ch ct wht ch
“
-
.

Som e pe opl e

c th w c th th h t c
”
l e ading-in el e de is all e d the anode
“
el e r ode . Th e ro .

fi nd it diffi cult t o -
re m e m b e r i el e r od e is t h e an od e an d i the
in ks

c th
a od e . B ut if on e of t h e electri c curr ent ( Art 3 6C ) e n e r in g an d
.

”—
l e aving, t h e an od e
“ ” “
ords om e in eir al p ab e i al ord e r a b efore c ,

l e adi ng in , a ode l e adi ng out . C . R . Gib son, SC IE NT IF I C ID E AS OF

yy g qu
T O D AY .

33 5 Th e Ele ctr ol t e in
.

qu
(Th e t er m el e ct r ol t e h as
y fi a

c i c m e anin as o tlin e d ano

Prim ary C e ll is t h e
t h er spe gk uuex citin li id .

in Ar t

zu v u gy y
act s c e h miy ca
.

ll
This li id or dinaril an ac id or al alin e sol t ion
on
,

o e of t h e m et al pl at es of t h e c ell
n — s all uu y ,

gy
t h e in c — an d c ons m e s it It t h er eb m aint ains an e m f an d
‘

y
. . . .

t h s c on ert s c h e m ic al ener int o el e ctric al e n er

v gy y gy
.

3 36 Th e Function of a Pr im ar C e ll (som et im e s c all e d a b at

g
.

t e ry) is t o c on er t c h e m ic al ene r dir e ct l int o el e ct ric al e ne r

u ug u y
.

This it doe s by m ain t ainin an e m f ac r oss it s t erm inal s Th is

gy v y u g
. . . .

e m f for c es a c rr e nt t hr o h t h e e xt ern al c ir c it and t h er e b

u u yu z
. . .
,

ele ct ric al e ne r is de el ope d In r ele asin t his el e ct rical e nergy .

one of t h e m e t al s of t h e b att er is c ons m e d s all t h e in c

g g gy
.
,

A c ell m ay t h en b e c onsider e d as a sort of c h e mic al f r n ac e for

y
, ,

ene r at in el e ct ric al en er

u u
.

3 37 Th e Fun ctions of th e Com pone nt s of a Prim ar C e ll

gy gy
. .

Th e c om pl e t e c ell c onstit t es a c h e m ic al f rnac e in w hi c h c h e m

ic al ener
Th e anode (Art u u yyz s all u
is t r ansfor m e d in t o ele ctric al ener ( see Fi g
in c is t h e f e l w hi c h is c ons m e d ug .

v u ug u
.
,

by t h e action of t h e el e ct r ol t e (Art 335) in m ain t ainin t h e

yu g kz
.

e m f w h ic h dr i es t h e c rr ent t h r o
. . . h t h e ext ern al c ir c it Th e .

el e ct r ol t e pr om ot es an d m a es possible t h e c h e m ic al act ion t h at

uy u v yv y
,

Th e c at h ode (Ar t
”
is t h e b r nin up of t h e in c
,
oft en . .

c opper or c arb on s all acts m erel as a c olle ct or for t h e ions

g v
,

in ol e d in t h e c e ll s c h e m ic al action
’
an d is n ot or dinar il

u z
.

33 8 Th e Se at of E ne r y D e e l opm e nt in a C e ll is in m ost
. ,

c ases at t h e s rfac e of t h e an od e (Ar t 3 34) or in c wh er e t h e

, .
,
2 22 PRA C TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T 3 43

u v vu y g
.

occ r in t h e c ell s of t h e ario s t pes As a eneral proposit ion

vy
.
,

it m ay b e st at e d t h at w h ene er th ere is c h emic al act ion t h er e is

ele ct ric al act i it

yu u
.

actions as w ell as t o t h ose in el e ct ric prim ar y

This st at em ent applies t o all ot h er c h e m ic al

u c ells In a pe rfe ct

u u fl
.

p ri m a r c e ll t h e r e w o ld b e n o c h e m ic al act ion n t il t h e e xt e r

v
n al c ir c it w er e c om ple t e d t h at is

e er c om m e
,

v u
nt il c rr ent

u u
r c ial c ells ar e n ot pe rfe ct h e n c e t h e r e isy
ow e d

c h em ic al action in t h em e en wh en t h e c ir c it is not c om ple t e d

s all
,
How
so me
,

,
.

L oc al Action
“ ”
Se e 347

h t c c t c c t
.
,

ct c t ct ct ct t wt th
N OTE —W en t he

c c
e x e rn al

cct t ir ui of a ell is om pl e ed , t h e e . m f due t o

. .

twh c c c tc t h c c t thct h ct tt
th e on a of t h e e l e r ol y e i the anode (3 3 4 ) for es a urr en ar ound a

pa h om prising t h e el e roly e in side of t h e el l , the el e r odes and t he

h t t thc c t c tc c c h ct c t
e x ern al ir ui (Fig . T is urre n in passing rou g the el e rol y e ,

i h al w ays on ains h ydr ogen , de om pose s t h e el e r ol yt e , an d lib e ra es

t t t ct c
ydrogen gas O . er om ponen s lib e r a from t h e de om pose d el e
ed rol y e

uni e w i h t h e z in t o form new h e m i al om poun ds T us t h e . z in is

”
“
e a en up or consum ed . C h em ical ene rgy is ransfor m e d in o el e ri al

yy u u
e ne r gy .

the
343 .

r e adil

y H v u
T pical Operation of a Primary C e ll can b e ill
c onstr ct ed apparat s of Fig 1 7 1 Th is
t h e sim pl est prim ar c ell
t by
c onstit t es
ow e er t h e essent ial c om ponent s
u . .
s ra e d
t

z y z y u u u
.
,

ar e pr esent : One of t h e ele ct r odes is a pie c e of c opper t h e ot h er ,

a pie c e of in c an d t h e el e ct rol t e is dil t ed s lph ric ac id w h ic h

act s m or e r eadil on t h e inc t h an it does on t h e C opper

t h t c t
.

wt
EXAMP LE
tt h htt c c t
— C ut
a s rip of s ee z in ( Fig

t c t c
ab ou 4 in l ong and 1 3 4 . .

tt h c ct t t ch t th thc c ch
in . ide an d a s rip of s ee opper of t h e sam e d im e nsions S our t h e z in .

w i h e m e ry un il it is b rig Pla e t h e s rips in a gl ass um ble r t w o- hi rds

.

th cct h w c t
full of dilu e sul p uri a id (t w o abl espoonfuls of sul p uri a id in a t um

t w t c
b l er t w o- hi rds full of w a er) On ou in g t h e
. s rips oge e r, w hi com

th c cht c ct t h c
ple es the e xt e rnal ir ui , a s ow er of b ubb le s il l rise fr om t h e opper s rip .

T ese b ubbles h ydrogen gas

ar e If t h e s rips are n ot allo e d t o
. ou h or if
e m is re m ov e d , t h e

h w t
one of em i al a ion gre a ly dim inis es .

m
al gam a e d (Ar t 3 48) b y rub b ing som e m e r

t ctch t th th t c c t h c ct t th w th
If t h e z in is n ow a . ury on it ,
v en off from Ho ver
'

no ydrogen w ill b e gi it s surface . e ,

if t h e t w o s rips b e

ch c ct c ct c c ct cttw t w c wtth
ou ed oge e r or if eir uppe r ends are onn e ed oge er i a con

du or so as t o form an e x ern al ir ui , ydrogen w ill again b e freely dis

t c t w c w t
arged fr om t h e opper . If t h e onn e ion b e ee n s rips is m ade i a

thc c t t ht w th t c ch t c cct th h t
n on - ondu or t h e a ion w ill e ase . If t h e a ion b e all o ed to on inue
for som e im e , t h e z in w ill w as e a ay b ut t h e opper ill n ot be al e re d .

Wi an am m e er it can be s o n a a urr en is for ed roug the e x er

ct c c t th c ct
n al ir ui b y t h e e m f m ain ained b y t h e
. . .e m i al a ion .

N0 TE — T HE E L E CT R O N-THE O R Y Ek PL ANATI O N O F T HE ACTI O N

. O F T HE

P RI M ARY C E LL — Wh en an ele ri urren flow s rough a ondu or,

 PRI NC IPLE S OF PRI M AR Y C ELL S

h v t ct t ct t h tw t cc
SE C . 1 7] 2 23

ct c wh t w ch ct
t is m e rely a m o em en , in on e dire ion, of t h e e le r on s b e
e re e e n a om s,

ch c ct c t c
as is e xpl ain e d und er Art 1 O4 A But , e n ir e ly diffe ren p en om e na o ur
. .

t c t
in t h e e le r olyt e of t h e prim ary ell en t w o m e als (one of hi is a ed

c h cth c whw t th t twh wh t c c t t

on e m i all y b y t h e el e r oly e ) are im m e rsed in it .

C onsider as an e xam pl e a; ell om prisin g a s rip of opper and a s rip of

h aving

t ch c h c c
z in ,
eir lo er e n ds dippin g in o a sulp uri -
a id sol u ion

h t t c h h c c tc t t h
Now , sulp ur i a id en in solu ion ( a is e n in a er ) h as t h e prope r y
of b r ea kin g up in o ion s, Art 3 6A . . Th e e m i al sym b ol of sul p ur i a id is
H

wh t t c thc c c t wht t
T a is, a m ol e ul e of sulp uri a id on ains t w o a om s of hy
d rogen , H2 , on e a om of sulp ur , S, an d four a om s of oxy gen , 04 . T en ,

id b re aks posi iv e ions, H,

c t ct w ch ctch c t t th c ct tc c
en in solu ion, ea h m ol e ul e of a up in o

an d n e ga iv e ions, S0 4 . Fur e r m or e , the z in s rip en sub m erge d in t h e

ct c t tt ctt c c wt th ct t
a id sol u ion hi a s upon it , e n ds at it s surfa e t o b re ak up in o z in
ions and el e r ons . Ea z in a om , us disasso ia e d at t h e surfa e of t h e

re aks iv e iv e Now t h e

ct t th t t c
, b
z in up in o a posi z in ion an d a n ega e le ron .
-

posi iv e z in ve 8 0

h t th c c c v h t w c
ion is a ra ed to an d om b in es i t h e n e ga i , 4,
— er posi iv e nor n eg a iv e —z in

t c
ion of t h e el e r olyt e an d form s n eu r al n ei

Z NSO 4 dissol v es in t h e ater of

ct th t c t wh th t
sulp a e , . This z in sul p a e th e ell and

c t v t ct t tccv ct c c t th h
is of no fur er onse ue n e or q al ue in t h e ope r a ion of t h e ell .

Th e fr ee el e rons us l ef b y t h e z in a om s ( en b rok e up in o
ey

ions an d n ega iv e r ons, t h e posi i e z in

c ct tt th c h ct c t th th
z in ele ions om b inin g w i the
ne ga i e S0 4 ions t o form n e u r al Z nSO4 ) a um ul a e on t h e z in pl a e T en .

r e pe l Art 4,

ct t c c tht t c t t w ch ct tht cttt c t c h

be au se of t h e gr e a e n de n y of e le r ons to on e ano er , . ese

free el e r on s m ov e up r ou g the z in pl a e an d ar oun d the e xt ern al c on

tt ct c wh ch t t c t c c w th
du in g ir ui t o the opper s rip, hi is t h e o er e l e r ode of the e ll .

B ut no e also a t h e posi i ve ions H , , of t h e el e r oly e ar e a ra t e d hr oug

He re
h posi iv e , H, ion om b in es i

c ct h c t t t t
the solu ion t o the oppe r s rip . ea

iv e h as b ee n ran sfe rred ov er fr om t h e z in

th h t t h
a n e ga el e r on i Th e .

c t th thct t ct tt t c t th h
om b inin g of an e l e r on an d a yd rogen ion ons i u es an a om of h y

t
d rogen . Th en e se ydr ogen a om s form in o b ubbl es of yd rogen , rise to

h t t t w t w c c t c th h th t
the surfa e of th e el e r ol yt e an d d issipa e in o t h e a m osp e re .

It is e viden en a ,
in t h e el e r oly e of th e ell , er e is m ov em en
a

ve m ov e m e n of

ct c c t t ctct t th t t c c t thc t
of ydrogen posi i ions o ard the oppe r pl a e an d also a
’

n ega iv e , S0 4, ions o ard the z in pl at e . Hen e, al oug ere is an

tv c t t w
el e ron urr e n in only one dire ion , r ou gh the e x e rn al ir ui , e re are

iv e — ion
“ ”
r e ally two urr en s in t h e ele rol y e . One is a n e ga urre n
— ion

t c ctt t c
“ ”
r a posi i e urren o ard

t
inc pl a e an d t h e el e r oly e are con
Th e r at e of onsum p ion of t h e z in
are ob v iousl y pr opor ional t o t h e en ergy delive red .

e ll

1
.

Ar e ( th ese law s
The
y
344 Th e Tw o E sse ntial Law s of C h e mi c al Action in M
w e r e pr opose d b y F ar ada )
am ount of chem ica l action, th at is, the am ou nt of m etal
a P

uQ y y
.

cell is pr oportional to the quantity of electricity that

it . ant it of el e ct ric it is r e pr esent e d b y

Now , am per es X seconds coulombs .

2 24 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T

H u fl u g zu u
. 3 45

en e c the am o n t of inc
c ell is propor t ional t o
c ons m e d in a

gu fl u g fl ug u
the
t he
the
c r r e nt owin m l t iplie d b y t h e t im e
r e at er t h e c rr en t t h at ow s t h r o
T hi s m ean s t h at
h a c ell and t h e l on e r
c rr e nt ow s t h e r e at er will b e t h e c ons m ption of t h e inc
,
.

gz .

Se e Ar t 3 45 for . e xam pl e s .

11 Wh en a num ber o f cells ar e conn ected in series to com prise a

g u
.

batter y, the am oun t o f chem i cal action i s the sam e in each ce ll

uug gu u
.

Th is follow s fr om t h e pr e c e din law b e c a se t h e c urr e nt in

e ac h ni t of a se r ie s c onne ct e d r o p is t h e sam e
-
If t h e c rr e nt

u u u
.

t hr o h e ac h c e ll is t h e sam e t h e c h e mi c al action fr om 1 in e ac h

g u
, ,

m st b e t h e sam e If oz of z in c is c on s m e d in an h o r b y

zu u vy gu
. .

one c e l l of a se r ie s c onne ct e d r o p t h e r e w ill als o b e

-
oz of .

in c c ons m e d b y e er ot h e r c e ll in t h at r o p Thi s l aw

v
.

ass m es t h at t h e r e is no loc al a ction (Ar t

v y fl g gv
.

345 E e ctr oc e mi c a E q ui al e nts

l
. h l — Fr om t h e l aw s of Ar t .

3 44 it is e ide nt t h at 1 am p ow in for 1 h r fr om a i e n m e t al

y fi fi
. .
,

and int o an e le ct r ol t e in w hi c h t h e m e t al is im m er se d w ill dis

quu y u u uu
,

plac e (e at aw a ) a de nit e am ount of t h at m e t al Th e spe c i c .

an t it of a s b st an c e w hi c h is t h s c ons m e d per am pe r e

yu u
h o r is t h e electr och emical equivalen t of t h at s b st an c e
c h ar act er of t h e e le ctr ol t e doe s not affe ct t h e am o nt of m e t al
Th e .

y
displac e d per am pe r e h o r

u
In som e c e lls t h e m e t al t h at is

y
-

c arrie d aw a fr om t h e an ode b y t h e c h e mi c al action is de posit e d

.

v
on t h e c at h ode

y k g yu
.

dissol e d in or Spe a in m or e pr oper l

u y
In ot h er c e lls t h e m e t al t h s c ar r ie d aw a is
c om b ines c h e m ic all

v ug v y u
,
, ,

wit h t h e e le ct r ol t e an d re m ains in sol t ion If a c r r e nt b e

y
.
,

dri en t h r o h a olt aic c ell in a dir e ction opposit e t o t h at in

v
w hi c h t h e c ell n or m all
v gu y
for c e s c r r e nt t h e el e ct r ol t ic pr oc ess
w ill b e r e erse d an d m e t al w ill b e r e c o er e d fr om t h e ele ct r ol t e
,

u
an d de posit e d on t h e an ode Th e foll owin n m eric al exam ples
ill st r at e t h ese prin c iples of el e ct roc h emic al act ion :
.

c t w w th v h c c cw h
— Ii a u rr e n of 1 am p fl o s

h t tt c t c
Iik AM P LE . rou g a e l l for 1 h r z in e ig
. .

ing lb (fr om Tab l e 34 6) ill b e dissol ed in t h e a id and 0 0000 8 1b

. . .

c t c c
of yd r ogen w ill b e lib e r a e d .

EX AM PLE —

w c c hc v
If a l arge b a ery of ells (any ype of ell using z inc as an
.

anode ) d eliv e rs a u rr en of 2 0 am p for a period of 1 0 h r , h ow m u h z in . .

ill b e onsum e d in t h e pro ess? SO L UTI O N —Th e am pe r e- ours w ill b e :

h c t
.

ht
20 X 10 200 am p -h r From T ab le 3 46,
. lb of z in is dissol e d per
. .

am p -h r T e re for e , for 2 00 am p -h r , t h e onsum p ion of z in c w oul d b e :

. .

200 X lb T a is, ab out lb of zinc w oul d b e consum ed

. . .
226 PRAC TI CAL ELE C TRI CI T Y [ ART 3 48

ug ug z k g
.

u
t h ro
z
h t h e c arb on an d ( )
4 t h ro h the inc b ac a ain to the

c ct t c t w c c
s rfac e of t h e in c .

dive rt th t c t t t cht c c t t t c cc ct th
NO T E — Thi s l o al a ion and h ese local urren s ill , unl ess orr e t e d ,

w th t c c t c t h
ma e rially
from t h e l egi im a e u rren ou pu of t h e ell . Fur er

ch c c c th c ct c ct c t t th c t
m ore , ey ause a gre a w as e of e m i als and of z in . Lo al a ion con

t inues he er the e x ernal ir ui is open or l ose d . Wi h om oge ne ous,

Al

ct t tt v t c c c c c
e m i ally pure z inc ere can n ot b e lo al a ion . e rn a e ar d and sof

spot s in z in can ause lo al a ion . If t h e z in is am al gam a ed, 3 48, lo al

tw t t h c c t t
a ion is al m os en irely pre en e d .

EX AM PLE — If

c t w c ct
a s rip of ordin aryb e pl a ed in an a id om m e r ial z in

t c h
solu ion (t w o ab l e spoonsful of sulp uri a id in a um b l e r t w o- h irds full

c c c c t
of a er ) as at I , Fig 1 7 1 , a on inuous se ries of b ubb l e s
. ill olle on t h e

m e al and b re ak aw ay from it , r ising t o t h e surfa e

c t t w t
T e se are b ubbles of .

Th e z in w ill soon b e om e b l a k b e ause of t h e m inu e par

c ct
h ydrogen gas .

ctt c wh
t icle s of arb on and o h e r im puri ies exposed t o v iew b y t h e r apid w as ing
a ay of t h e z in If t h e a ion is .

t c ct
all ow e d t o on inue t h e z in ill ,
finally, b e en irely dissolved T is .

w as in g aw ay is due t o l o al a ion .

uy g z the
348 Am algam ation, w hic h is

m er c
.

c oatin
r m inim i
of a

es
m e t al
or
w it h
el im i

W u yu
,

t
na es l oc al a ction (Ar t

v
.
,

h e n m er c r is applie d to a
c le an m e t allic s rfac e it dissol es

qu y
,

a port ion of t h e m e t al of t h at sur

F m 1 74 tt c c —Ill us in g l o
z
al a t ion

u y
fac e and for m s a se m i li id allo
F or e xam pl e ,
-

w h en applie d t o
.

g u uz u g
. . ra .

c om m er cial in c , t h e m er c r

m att er y
b rin s p r e in c t o t h e s rfac e and c oat s t h e par tic l es of for ei n

u g
F rt h er m or e and pr ob ab l m ost im por t ant it form s
g
uu
.
, ,

a sm oot h s rfac e so t h at a t hin fi lm of hydr o en gas c lin s t o it

gg z u z v y
.

It is t h s pr ot e ct e d fr om c h e m ic al action e xc e pt w h e n t h e ex
t ernal c ir c it is close d Am al am at e d in c b eh a es el e ctric all

y yz
.

as if it w ere pure z inc Am al am ation of p r e in c is not ne ces

'

u y z
.

or de sirable (see L oc al Action

”
sar In m ost c om m er c ial

u uu y z u yg u
,

b att er in c s t h e m er c r is m elt e d in w it h t h e in c b efor e it is

,

c ast Ab o t 1 par t m er c r t o 16 par t s in c b y w ei h t is a

vy
.
, ,

proport ion t h at h as b e e n se d Zin c in w h ic h m e r c r is t h s .

th c t c
c om bine d is er b rittle .

t h vt th c wh c c t t t v c
EX AM P L E
ion
rub som e
and
— Wi draw
w ile it is
m ercury
s
the
ill w e t w i
o e r it s surface
z in

t h e a id
.
s rip of

(
I , Fig 1 7 1 , from t h e a id solu

Th e m er cury w ill
.

i h now ons i u es a leanser)

spread o er the zin c
 PRI N C I PL E S OF PRI M AR Y CELL S

c c t
SE C . 1 7] 227

tht and

tw
ause

us b ee n am al gam a ed tt c t c cct
it t o assum e a le an , sm oo h silve ry appe aran ce Th e z m c h as
If now t h e s rip is repl a e d in t h e a id in t h e
.
.

y
um b le r, no b ubbles ill rise : am algam a ion h as elimina ed l o al a ion .

y gg v 3 49 .

y v y uu y u
Polarization in
—
c olle ction of a gas
h dro e n in pr actic all e er c ase on t h e s rfac e of t h e c at h ode
a pr im ar (sell is t h e

or ne ati e ele ct r ode

u
w h ic h is
u s all

y
of c ar b on or c oppe r

g
Not e t h at local action Ar t 34 7 occ rs on t h e anode w h ile polari
v
,

v
.

y u y
.
, , ,

zation occ rs on t h e c at h ode Th e h dr o en e ol e d fr om t h e

z
.

el e ct rol t e b y t h e c h e mi c al action in a prim ar c ell is c arrie d

g vy g
on t h e c at h ode ( c ar b on or C oppe r)

dr o e n gas h as a er
This is pol ari at ion z
ac ross w it h t h e c rr e n t fr om t h e anode ( in c ) an d t en ds t o c oll e ct

Hy
hi h r esist an c e h en c e if per m itt e d t o
. .

vy y gv
,

for m a fil m on t h e c at h ode t h e int ernal r esist an c e of t h e c ell is ,

er m at eriall inc r e ase d Sin c e t h e e m f of any i en c ell

u uu
. . . .

is c onst ant Ar t 340 t h is in c r ease in int ern al r esist an c e de c r e ases

,
.
,

th t t c c
t h e possibl e c rr e nt o t p t of t h e c ell

cw th c th c c t ct h
.

NO TE —Fu r erm ore pol ariz a ion en ds t o de rease t h e e m f of a e ll

th
.
,
. .

e r e is a r e v e r se e m f d ev el oped b y t h e

t h c ct ctt cthw th h t ct th th t
be ause on a of t h e
.
yd rogen
. .

i oppe r or arb on . See Ar t 3 52 for m e . od of m easurin g t h e e ffe ct of

ct t c ct t t c
pol ariz a ion . T is oun e r oug sm all as om pared w i a

de vel ope d b y t h e

ct c w t th
on a of t h e z in i th e el e c r ol y e , oppose s th e z in c

w thw
el e rol y e e m f . . . If un orre pol ariz a ion w oul d re n der m os
ed , e lls

Ho e er , it can b e corre c ed w i v

c
usel ess for m any pra i al pu rposes .

t t h c c t wh ch th
d e pol ariz ers as ill b e s o n .

— If Art

t t t th ct
EXAMP L E . a s rip of am al gam at e d z in , . 3 48, is im m e rsed (1 1 ,

t ct c c t
Fig 1 7 1 ) in
. a u m bl e r of dilu e sul p u ri a id solu ion in i e re is also

c c ct c t ct t c tth tht ctc c t c th

a s rip of copper of the sam e dim ensions, ere w il l b e n o a ion . If now t h e
uppe r e x r e m i ies of th e s rips b e pl aced in el e ri al on act as at 111, a

m f dev el ope d b y t h e con a

w t ctc t t c th
ir ui is om pl e t e d and t he e . . of t h e z in w i
.

the a id sol u ion or el e roly e driv es a urre n r ough is ir ui Hydro .

c th
ge n b ubbl es ill n ow b e de posi e d on t h e opper pl a e or a ode Som e .

t ct th h t
of t h e b ubb l e s rise t o t h e su rface of the el e r ol y e b ut m any re m ain on the

t c c t h t t w h w th t
a ode and pol ariz e it .

c t c th tc t thw tt c c t h c c t
If t h e uppe r e nds of t h e pl a e s b e conn e e d r oug an am m e er so as to
for m an e x e rn al ir ui , t h e r e adin gs of t is ins ru m en ill s o
‘

a a

flo

h th t c h c th th
onsiderab l y gre at e r urr en s in t h e e x e rnal ir ui w en the ir ui

firs

c t th h t c c t w
is l ose d an af e r th e ca h as h ad im e t o b e com e pol ariz ed b y t h e
ode

t c t c t t
ydroge n b ub b les . If t h e b ubb l es ar e b rus e d from t h e a od e w i a

v c tw c c th w c
fea er or a s i of w ood , t h e urre n r oug the e x e rn al ir ui ill
im m e dia ely b e om e gre a e r as indi a e d b y t h e am m e e r r e adin gs . How
e er , t h e urren ill again de re ase if t h e a od e is all o ed t o b e om e
pol ariz ed

u y u u
.

y g u .

y
3 50 A D e polariz e r is a m e di m w h er eb an acc m lat ion of

z v
h dr o en b bbles on t h e c at h ode of a prim ar c ell is pr e ente d
Th e m eth ods of depolari a
v tion m ay be di ided int o three classes
.
 8 PRAC TI CAL E LE C TRI CI T Y [ AR T . 3 51

Mh
( 1) ec anical,

yg g
(2) Chem ical and (3) E lectrochem ica l D escrip
tions of c ells em plo in t h ese different m eth ods are i en in gv .

Z
Table 3 59 and in t h e followin ar t icl es .

ct t ct c tth h c t t ct t c c tht th t
IN M E C HANI C AL D E PO LARI ATI O N, t h e h ydrogen bubbles are b rush e d

ct t c t h c c
or for ed from t h e a ode T is m ay b e e ffe ed b y a u rr en of air
. a
ons an m ov e m en of t h e

wh c t thc t h t c t th
agi a es t h e el e r ol y e or b y a a ode in t h e
ele roly e If t h e a h ode h as a roug ene d su rfa e , as in t h e Sm ee ell ,
.

chct c cc t v v
e re it is oa e d w i gr anul ar pl a inum , d e pol ariz a ion is par ially efle ct ed .

Th e b ubbles can not ling as r e adil y t o a r oug surfa e as t o a sm oo on e .

Me ani al depol ariz a ion is expensi e, is not generally u sed and is not ery
e ffe ive nor su

t Z th
essful .

c ch c ct c c v
c th h th t t t w h
IN C HE MI C AL D E PO L AR I ATI O N , som e e m i al sub s an e
for w hi h t h e
h ydrogen h as an affini y and w i

thc ct t c c th c c c tc t h ch th tt c c
w hi h it w ill re adily om b ine , is pr o ided
on or ne ar t h e a ode T en , t h e h ydrogen
. a is lib e r a ed un i es it
is sub s an e t o form a new h e m i al om poun d and is us pre ven e d from

t t c
oll e in g on t h e a

th ode
h ch h c
Bi h r om a e of po as ,
.

c t c ctth
v
l orin e an d ni ri a id
W i h ydrogen readily om b ines, h en e ey are ire

c c
are sub s an e s w i

quen

Z ct ct t
ly depol ariz ers
used as C em i al depol ariz a ion is effe i e, e conom
.

ch t t t ch c ct th c t
i al , and m u h used .

tt h c c t c th t t h t h t
IN E L E C TR O C HE MI C AL D E P O L ARI ATI O N, t h e ele rodes and el e roly e ar e
of su m a erials h a t h e e m i al a ion w i in t h e e ll lib e ra es som e

t
m e al , usually oppe r , at t h e a ode ins e ad of yd rogen T u s t h e form a .

ion of ydrogen at t h e a h ode is en irely pre v en ed an d pol ariz a ion is an

im possib ili y .

the
351 .

y
Th e Int e rnal Re sistance of a C e ll depends on t h e ar e a of

u g y
plat es t h at is expose d t o t h e ele ctr ol t e , t h e dist anc e b et w ee n
l
y
ele ct r ol t e vuy —
t h e p at es and t h e t em perat r e and s t r en t h or densit of t h e
All c ells h a e som e int ernal r esist an c e T h e in t er
v u
y ug u fl
. .

nal resis an e of at c c ell is act all t h e r esist an c e of t h e ol m e of

th e
g
el e ct r ol t e
or oth er m at erial t hr o

g y
in passin from one pl at e t o t h e ot h er
v u
Ob io sl v u
y y
h w h ic h t h e c rr ent ow s
t h is int ernal
v y
y yy k z u
.
,

resist an c e is an exc ee din l ariable Q

an tit It m ay ar .

c onsiderabl in t w o c ells of exactl t h e sam e si e and c onstr o

an c e vu u z v y g
tion and w hi c h appear t o b e pr e c isel ali e Th e int ernal r esist
al es giv en j in T abl e 3 59 ar e a er a es for c om m er c ial c ells

of t h e c onstr ction and si es in or dinar use

.
-

y
.

3 52 It Is Difli cul t t o C al cul ate th e Internal R e sistance of a

z ug
.

C e ll , b ut it can b e det er mine d experim ent all as indic at e d in

e ntirel
.

y u uu
Art 3 55 Polari ation ( Art
. al t h o h it is a ph enom enon
.

u
differ ent and dist inct fr om int e rnal r esist anc e t ends t o

gz v v y
,

de c r ease t h e c rr e nt o t p t of a c ell in m c h t h e sam e w ay as

does int ernal r esist anc e For a i en c ll int ernal r e sist an c e
.

is r e asonably c onst ant w hile polari at ion m ay ar c onsider ab l

e

y
,

.
230 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART 3 56

W
.

uu v fl
oh m s
c it in
h er ein RP

,
.

v g gu z E
ol ts V
t int ernal r esist anc e of t h e c el l in
the
t h e e m f of t h e c ell .
appar en

npol ari e d and on open cir

. .

t h e olt a e r eadin ac r oss t h e c ell w h en t h e

.
,

t cct t t t tc
c rr ent I ow s as sh ow n in Fig .

EX AM PLE — Wh a is

w th t t ct t w h t
the appar en in t ern al re sis an ce of the ell of Fig .

1 75 ? It s e . m f on
. . open ir ui ,
as at I is vol s; the vol age re adin g

i a urr e n of am p . flo ing is, as s own at 1I vol . SO L UTI O N .

Sub s i u e in t h e form ula Rp (E V) I

ohms .

C e 11
3 56 D et e rm ination of th e Actual Int e rnal Re sist an ce of
—
u
.

z
Th e m et h od of Art 3 55 does not i e t h e actual int ernal gv a

g kv z
. .

r esist an c e of t h e c ell b e c a se t h e c ell w as not pol ari e d w h en

t h e r e adin of I (Fig 1 75) w as t a en but it w as pol ari e d w h en

uu z v g u g g kk
.

t h at of 1 1 w as read If now h ow e er aft er t h e c ell h as been .

, ,

on c l ose d c ir c it an d is polari e d t h e ol t a e r eadin 1 1 b e t a en

qu k y z z k
,

and t h en t h e c ir c it b e ope ne d and an open c ir c it r eadin t a en

ic l asat 1 1 1 (befor e de polari ation can t a e pl ac e ) t h e err or

g u z
due t o pol ari ation w il l b e elimin at ed Th e r eason for it s climi
n at ion is t h at t h e c o n t er e m f due t o polari at ion w ill b e effe ct
.

v v g
. . .

iv e in t h e r eadin s of 11 and also in t h ose of 1 1 1 and in b ot h

u u g v u
c ases it w ill de c rease t h e eff e ct i e olt a e of t h e c ell by t h e sam e
am o nt

u
Thi s m et h od and t h e form la below i e t h e act al
.

int ernal resist anc e of a c ell, t h s

(94) (oh m s)

W
E,
h er ein RA
th e vy g u u u act
ol t a e ac r oss t h e
al int ernal r esis an e

c ell m eas
t c of
r e d,
the
as sh ow n at
c ell in oh m s
11 1 ,
.

im m e diat el
z at ion ta e can k af er

fl v g
t
pl
t h e c ir c it h as b e en opene d and b efor e depol ari
a c e V .t h e ol t a e r e adin ac r oss t h e c el l g
ct t t c wh c t
w h e n c urr ent I , in am per es , ow s as sh ow n at 11 .

EXAMPLE
v t vc tt v tc tc
— Wh a
t is t h e a ual in e rn al r esis an e of

v t tt t c c t
t he cell sh ow n in

t
Fig 1 75 ? Th e ol m e t e r in di a es
. ol a r oss it en a urr en of
am p flow s, as at II and t h e ol m et e r in di a es ol on open ir ui as

SO L UTI O N —Sub s i u
.

w t tt t t c ch c t h wt
at I I I w hil e t h e cell ill pol ariz ed
is s in t h e fO l ? '
. . e

m ul a R4 (E ; V) I = 2 ohms .

NO TE — Th e

t hvchtt th tct v ct v h
foll o ing da a rel a e s t o t h e cell an d ir ui s o n in Fig .

v ol s In e rn al resis an

c
1 75 ? E m f . . . . e 2 o ms . C oun er e m f . . .

onl y w

h t t t
of pol ariz a ion ol ; is coun e r e . m f is
. . e ffe i e en the
ell
is pol ariz ed , at w i im e t h e e ffe i e e m f of t h e cell is : volts . . .

volt volt, as s own at I I I Th e resis an ce of t h e ex ernal cir cui

is 3 oh ms .
 SE C T ION 1 8

Y
T PES AND C O NNEC TIO NS O F PRIM AR Y C ELL S

y v
3 57 yv v
Diff e r e nt T pe s of Prim ary C e lls ar e alm ost n m b e rless ug
yugg
. .

Man h a e b een in ent ed, li e d t h eir day and ar e now for ott en .

T able 358 list s t h e m ost im por t ant , eit h er h ist oric all or com

u
m er cially, an d sh ow s t h eir c h ar act erist ic s Art 3 7 2 s
s it ab le appl ic ations for c ells of diff er e nt t pes
est s t h e

D e sc riptions
.

y .

1 Sme e
“

FI G .
11 Grov e

176 — O l de r
and

t
Bunse n

ypes of c ell s.
lil Danie ll

of som e of

gv g
c ells and dir e ctions for t h eir se ttin up and
t he g
. . g
t enan ce ar e i e n in follow in ar tic les

vg u g u u u z
358 Th e Sm e e C e ll (Fig so n am e d fr om it s or i inat or
.

c om prises a plat e of sil er or lead s spende d be t w e e n t w o inc

.

-
,

p l at es A
.

y
ll dip
vin t o a l

y v v g u ug u ugg y uv y
ass j ar c on t ainin dil t e s l ph ric
As a r em e d for polariz ation t h e sil er or lead plate is c oate d w ith
,

fi nel di ided or r an lat e d platin m . Th e r em e d is n ot er

ac id .

effe ct i e

u v
Sm ee c ells t h o h sim ple an d r
.
,

now be ca se be tt e r c e lls ar e a ailab le

e d ar e sel dom

23 1
se d

.
,
23 2 PR AC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T . 359

3 59 . C h ar acte r istic s

Na m e

C e lls e m pl oy ing m e ch ani cal d epol ar i z at ion

O O O O O O O O O O O O O

C ells e m pl oying ch e m ical d e pol ar i z at ion

F ull e r Sul ph ur ic ac id or Por ous c up B ic h r om at e
c om m on sal t

Sul ph ur ic acid B ich r om at e

Sul ph ur ic ac id B ic hr om ate
Sul ph ur ic ac id Bich r om at e
Sul ph uric acid Nit r ic acid

Sul ph ur ic acid Nit ric acid

Sal-am m oniac M ang an ese dioxide

C upr ic oxid e
C u pr ous oxid e
C ar b on and m an
g anese

Ir on chl or ide

None C ar b on and m an
g an ese pe r oxid e

C e lls e m pl oy ing e l e c t r oc h e m ic al d e pol ar iz at ion

D aniel l Por ous c up C opper sul ph at e

Gr av it y or cr owfoot . None C oppe r sul ph at e

C opper sul ph at e
C oppe r sul ph ate
Sil v e r chl or id e
M er cur ous sul ph at e
k
L at im er C l ar ( st and ar d ) M e r cur ous sul ph at e
West on (standar d) M er cur ous sul ph at e

V on Hel m h ol t z . M er cur ous c h l ori d e

Th e v al ues in t h e e . m f
. . an d the In te r n al resist an c e c ol u m ns ar e n e ce ss aril y

part icul ar is su b e c t j to c on sid e r ab l e v a riat ions w it h ce ll s of t h e sa m e m at e rials b u t of

t h e di m e nsions and cons t r u c t ion or di n ar ily u se d in t h e Uni t e d St at e s an d ar e the a ppa r en t

2 3 4: PRAC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

u uy
. 361

r e siden e

infr e qu y v g kv
c door bells and ann n c iat or s or w h er e it w ill b e se d
entl an d for sh or t int er als It polari e s t oo r apidl z
u u g
.

for t eleph one or se er e si nal w or It s e m f is low er t h an t h at

g
. . . .

of L eclan ch e c ells b e c a se it ses no pe r oxide of m an an e se

v g z g
.

Som e t im es m an is m ixe d int o t h e

c ar b on c at h ode c om posi
anese

z
tion pr o idin a de polari er Th is arran e m ent m inim iz es .

ctth
polari ation t o som e e xt ent and in c r eases t h e e m f of t h e c e ll . . . .

gi
ou t
T o SE T
v en u n de r

l ined .
U P
“
AND M AI NT AI N
Le cl an ch e C el ls m ay b e fol l o w
C ARB O N- C Y L I N D E R C E L L s
e d, sub s antt
.
—
Th e dire
ially as
ion s
e re

lll Zinc
‘

I Asse mbly
.

FI G 1 77 — C ar b on c li d — cc
II Se c t ion

( a am m onia )
l e ll .

u y Hfiv
. .
-
y n er s

u
3 61 .

bic h r om at e
Th e F ll e r C e ll
c ell as s ugg u
i
( g
F 178
t
es e d
i
) s
. r eall

in Se c 362
a m odi c at ion
ow e er ,
of t h e
in t h e

uy uu
. .
,

F ller c ell t h e bic h r om at e sol tion is not mi xe d w it h t h e ele c

z u
,

t r olyt e b ut is fr om it b y t h e por o s
separ a e d t cup Th e r es lt

u zg u
.

is t h at t h e in c is not c ons m e d appr e c iab l on open cir c it .

Th e e m f an d c h em ic al action ar e ab o t t h e t h ose of sam e as

u u g qu u k u
. . .

b ic h rom at e c ells Th e bic h rom at e or de polari in

. sol t ion

s rr o nds t h e c arb on c at h ode in t h e o t er por t ion of t h e c el l

u u u u
.

Th e exc itin li id w h ic h m ay b e a w e a sol tion of eit h er

u u g
,

s lph ric ac id am m oni m c h loride (sal am m oniac ) or sodi m -

z
,

c h loride ( c om m on salt ) , is plac ed in t h e poro s cup surro n din

t h e in c anode .
 T YPE S OF PR I M AR Y C ELLS 23 5

u y u
SE C .
‘
1 8]

Fig
k
uu y u
t eleph one w or
. 1 78
u v
sh ow s

z
c ell sed in Am eric a for
the t
It can st an d on open c ir c it for se eral m ont hs
pe of F ller

gu
.

c ontin o sl w ith o t appre c iabl e det erioration Th e in c is c as t

u
.

c one— sh ape d w it h a c opper wir e l eadin fr om it It s diam e t er

g g z
.

is m ade sm alle r at it s t o p t o fac ili t at e nif or m c ons m pt ion of

g yu z v qu u
tion of this c one sh ape d in c is v
t h e m e t al alon t h e ent ire len t h of t h e in c

u
-
Th e consum p
ite nifor m o er its entir e
.

le n th

vvy
.

u u
F ller c ells with se er al c arb on plat es in m ltiple or
w it h a c lindric al c arb on for c at h ode s can b e p r c h ase d ; s c h
,

ct
c ells h a e er l ow int ernal r esistan c es .

wa er
.t
Pour
c.
t h
t c c
T HE F UL LE R C E L L Is SE T UP As FoLL ow s

t th t t t — M ix t h e ele rolyte b y addin g

6 oz of po assium b i h rom a e an d 1 7 oz of sul p uri a id t o 56 oz of sof
is m ix ure in o t h e gl ass j ar In o t h e porous cup put one
.
.

.
.

1 Asse mbly
'

c t h — F ull e r
CW

—
ll Componem Part s
'

t
cc t t tc tt
FI G . 1 78 . ell el e p one y pe .

c t c
t e aspoonful of m e r ury and t w o e aspoonful s of om m on sal
Th e m e r ury provides for t h e cons an am al gam a ion of t h e c
t th t t
ide ) . z in .

c th c c
Place t h e porous cup, n ow on ainin g t h e z in in t h e gl ass j ar and fill
an od e ,

Put on t h e cove r ,

t
t h e porous cup t o w i hin 2 in of it s t op w i . sof w a e r .

inse r t t h e arb on ca od e and t h e cell is re ad y for use Wh en t h e e ll is in .

G
prope r w orking or der t h e ol or of t h e sol u ion is or ange .

3 62 Bich rom ate

.

y
or
Plunge Batt e rie s (Fig 1 7 9) —Th e r e ar e m an diff er ent form s
C h r omic
t C e ll Acid C e ll s

fi y . re ne .

z uu
. .

Th e F uller c ell (Ar t 36 1 ) is re all a m odi e d bic hr om at e c ell

u uu
. .

In th ese c ells a in c anode is so s spe n de d b e t w ee n t w o c arbon

z W y g y
plat e c at h odes th at it doe s not t o c h t h e m S lph ric ac id and
w at er is t h e ele ct r ol t e and b ic h r om at e of pot assi m is t h e
de pol ari e r h e n h dr o e n is lib er at e d b y t h e action of t h e
.
,
.
23 6 PRAC TI CAL ELE C TRI CI T Y [ AR T 3 63

u u z
.

s lph
yg
vu g g v y g u v
c id on t h e in c it c om b ines with t h e bic h r om at e
ri

w h ic h is ric h in ox
c a

en pr e e n t in p ol ar i at ion
,

Th ese c ells g z ,

H v yy
.
,

h a e a hi h e m f an d low int ern al r esist an c e s h enc e are c apable

u
. . .
,

of f rnish in r el at i el l ar e c rr e nt s ow e e r t h e ele ct r ol t e

uy y v y v y k
.
,

soon b e c om e s e xh a st e d so t h e c ells ar e n ot appli c ab l e t o m an

c om m erical ses Th e ar e er c on eni e nt for l ab or at or w or

z uy
.

an d pr ob abl t h er e fi nd t h eir w idest applic ation Th e Grenet

y v
.

C ell ( Fig 1 7 I ) h as it s in c anode m o n t e d on a r od so t h at it

.

can b e e asil r e m o e d fr om t h e el e ct r ol t e w h en t h e c ell is not

in use

y g
A plunge batter y (F ig 1 7 9 I ) c onsists of a series of b i
.

u
c hr om ate c ells so arran e d t h at t h e ele ctr odes can all b e r aise d
.
,

gv g k gg u u g
y v
,

fr om t h e ele ct r ol t e at w ill b y t rnin a c r an A lar e pl n e .

b att e r m ay de el op a c onsider able ol t a e an d a l ar e c rr ent .

l Plunge

c t h cc c
Bat t ery
-

lI- Gr ene t C e ll
— Bi

cc t
FI G . 1 79 . h r om a e or c r omi a id e l l s.

t c ch t t t wt w c t
E LE C TR O L Y TE F O R BI C HR O M ATE C E L L S m ay b e m ade in a ordan ce wi h

t h c ct t h c c
any on e of a num b e r of diff e re n re ce ip s Th e foll o ing, hi h is som e .

im es all e d E le ctr opoian Solution w ill giv e good resul s : 1 gal of w a e r , 1

cc t t c c
.

th c c h c tt c c t tt ch
lb . of bi r om a e of po as rys al s an d from V2 t o 1 pt . of sul p uri a id ,
a or din g t o t h e e n r gy of a
e ion d esire d . A sm all am oun of ni ri a id
io A C hrom ic

c t t cc ht
added t o th e sol u n in r e ase s the ons an y of t h e ba e ry .

Acid Solution w i h is used w e re an in ense urr en is desire d is : ro m ic

—

Gv v
a id, 1 0 part s ; w a er, 1 0 par s ; sul ph u ri a id 4 part s all b y w eig .

363 . ro e and Bunse n

Th e Gro e c ell c om prises a lass j ar c ont ainin dil t e s lph ric g y z g u uu u
in Fig 1 76, I I C e ll s ar e sh ow n .

ac id in w hi c h ar e im m er se d : a c lindric al

in w h ic h is a st rip or pl at e of pl at in m
st r ong nit ric a c id
in c and a por o s cup

y g v u
Th e por o s cup c ont ains
Th e h dro en, e olv ed by the action of t h e
.
u .
23 8 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ ART 3 65

u yy u
.

lar gy
w as at one
el by
t im e sed
t h e c ar b on -
w idel
cup t pe T hz ug
but it h as now b ee n s pers e de d
e in c is a r od or p
y
e n c il

u gk u
. .

Th e c ar b on in t h e n l az e d pott e r
por o s cu i
p s pac e d ar o n d w it h

pe r oxideof m an anese an d c arb on

u y
.

Th e canvas- bag type Fi

( g

y g
.

diffe r s fr om t h e por o s- cup t pe

onl in t h at t h e m an ane se and

vy u
c ar b on ar e r e t aine d in a b ag of
h ea
e n w ar e u zg
cl oth inst e ad of in an e ar th
por o s cup Ar bb e r rin

v
.

on the l ow e r e nd of t h e pe n c il in c
pe
r

The
1 80
en s

anduca
t it s c ont act
r bon-
por

181 )
ou

ys-
gcu p
ct ic all t h e
ses pr a
w it h t h e b ag
type ( Fi s
.

ug u y
sam e m at e r ial s as t h e ot h e r s b ut

t h e c or r at e d c arb on c linder

g
it self for m s t h e por o s cup

y
m an anese and pow der e d c ar b on
Th e .

ct c c z g u
ar e w it h in in it Th e c lin dric al
,

in c offers a l ar e s r fac e
.

c ch wh t
.

FI G 1 8 1 Se
-
ion of a ar b on por ou s
UP
.

c c c
cu p e ll .
T o SE T A L E C L AN C HE C E LL .

4 oz — —

t vt th w t t t
Pla e . not m ore O f i e pow
“
de r ed sal -am m oni a in t h e j ar . If t oo m u sal - am m oni a is use d , r ee ping ,

”
sal s w il l gi e r oub l e . Fill t h e j ar on e- ird full of a e r an d s ir un il t h e

I Por ous Cup Type

c
“

c w tt c
FI G . 1 82 .
— L e cl an ch e e l ls.

posi ion t
sal-am m on ia

.
is
Som e
en irely d issolved
a er poure d in t h e
. Put t h e
ven th carb on and z in

ol e or funne l of t h e porous
ele ct rod es

cu p
in
 T YPE S OF PR I M AR Y C ELL S

t h
SE C . 1 8] 239

cc ct
AI NTE NAN C E O F A LE CL ANC HE
t c h c t c th t
be added to suppl y
C E LL
W e re a e ll fails, e xam in e t h e e rm inal s
.
-
Wa e r s oul d

t
t h e loss due t o ev apor a ion .

c w wt
for poor onne ions If t h e z in is b adl y e a e n , re pl a e it w i
. a n e w on e .

If t h e ell is n ot im pr ove d b y t h e new z in c, discard t h e Old solu ion an d pour

ct th th h c
'

If n ow , t h e e ll d oes n ot ork pr ope rly, t h e porous cup or car

t c th t t h c
in a n ew one .

b on a od e s oul d b e soake d in arm w a e r t o dissol v e out an y ryst al l ine

sal s

c
re pl a e d
If. is d oe s n ot aff ord r elief, t h e e n ir e a od e el e m en s oul d be
It sel dom pays t o m erel y disasse m bl e t h e elem en and re pla e
.

u
‘

t h e d e pol ariz er .

for
366 Th e Edison- Le lande or Edison C e ll

u
.

t h er open or cl osed cir c it

ei

st r ction of t his c ell is part icu

u k -
w or .
(Fig . 1 83 ) is
Th e m e c h anic al
s it able
con

l arly good Th e c at h ode is a

u
.

p l at e o f c om pr esse d oxide of

p r o
uv
c opper t h e s r fac es of w hic h ar e

e u vy
t h e c on
,

r e d c e d t o m et allic c opper t o im

d ct i it T his

z
pol a

in c
r i
g gu y u y g
z er u
form of plat e also act s as a de

h om o
. Th e
ene o sl
anode is of p
am al am
re

a ed

the
t
g u
t r olyt e is a
by

uu
c astin is
addin

sol
m ade
m er c
.

tion of c a stic
c
r

Th e
w h en
el e

soda.

is v v v vy
co
Th e t op
er e d w it h a h e a
of t h e sol t ion
miner al

Sev
oil t o pr e

y
er al u en

differ ent
t e

t
a por a

pes ar e m an
t ion .

form ation
sh o ld be
u
fact ur e d, h en c e for

u u the
c ons lt e d
c om pl et e in
m anufact r e r

vk u
.

— T li
g dz
FI G 1 83 lil n- L e l an d e
D ry C e ll s (Fl g 1 84 ) i or
fi
. .

yu y
.

Ez is orl z
A e c a, or ope C c i t
.

ha e In m ri f n- ir

w or
“

y
”
, al m os

u ug
u
tc ells of oth er t pes Th e t erm
en tirel s

dry c ell is in a sense a misn om er b e c a se alt h o h t h e c ells

per se de d .

u y ufi u
,

ar e dry ext er nall t h e c om posit ions w ithin t h e m m st b e m oist

y ug
,

t o ins r e t h e pr op lsion of el e ct ric c rr ent In t h e dry c ell

y g
.
,

w hic h is m er el a m odi c ation of t h e L e clan ch e c ell onl en o h

gg z gy
,

m
w at er is adde d t o t h e el e ct r ol t e t o oist e n t h e b lott in pape r
-
,

cloth or past e linin t h at separat es t h e in c c asin anode fr om -

y g u z
-

u
t h e c ar b on an d m an anese dioxide c at h ode
can dry c ell s ar e 6 in hi h an d 2% in in diam et er

t rat i on In dic ates t pic al c onstr ction

-
Nearl all Am eri
. Th e ill s
Th e in c c hl oride is in
-

.
.

.
.

.
240 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

z u
. 3 68

u u
t r oduce d t o m inim i e the r apid de t erior at ion t h at w o ld ot h er s

t vc t
w ise occ r on ope n c ir c it .

c t t v t c c ct h h t t
NO TE — Th e
. e . m f . . of all n ew dry cells is ab ou or

c ht
ol s . A good

t c v t t t tc c c t w tht
d ry ell m ay s and on open ir ui for m any m on h s w i h a de rease in e . m f
. .

A good v

cc c t
of onl y ab ou ol . el l s ould a e an open-cir ui e . m f of
. . at

th v
l e as olt s . In e rn al re sis an e in re ases i age . T us, w hil e a

ct t c ct th v h t c ttc t th h
good ell h as an in ern al r esis an e of ab ou oh m , hi s m ay in re ase in 1 0
or 12 m on s to oh m , e en if t h e cell h as b e en onl y on ope n ir ui . A

th ct th
new ell of good m anufa ure sh oul d gi e a s or -c ir ui urr en ,
roug an

t t
e x e rnal r esis an e of not m ore an oh m , of at l e as 1 5 am p an d of not
.

m ore an 25 am p . A ell v
g i ing m or e an 25 am p
w ill , pr ob ab ly , polariz e
.

rapidl y . One givin g l e ss h an 1 5 am p is, . k

li ely, m ade w i h infe rior m a e rials .

t ct t c c c
1 Asse mb lg
’

— C ons
lI~ Se c t ion

t h t c c tt c t c tc t ch h
FI G . 1 84 . ru ion of ypi al Am eri an dr y e ll .

Af

t c ct t t t
er it h as b een s or e d on open ir ui for a ye ar , a good n ew ell s oul d

giv e a s or ir ui urr en of ab ou 10 am p C ells n ot in use oul d be

- . s

u u
s or ed in a ool pl a e ; his pre ve n s r apid de e riora ion .

3 68

u
in Fig
.

u g
v u u u
Th e D aniel l C e ll is sh ow n in

u Th e lassj ar c ont ains a

one of

sa
it s
t
nm er o
r at e d sol
s form s
t ion of

u u u g vz u z u
.

c oppe r s l ph at e (b l e itriol) Th e por o s cup c on t ain s dil t e

.

s lph ri c a c id (ab o t 1 0 per c e nt by ol m e) or in c s lph at e

y ku v y gy
.

or b oth . Th e an ode is am al am at e d in c Th e c at h ode is a .

c lindric al c opper c oppe r arr an ed

pl at e A poc e t of sh ee t

u u u
.

ne ar t h e t op of t h e j ar c ont ains bl e itriol c r st als w h er eb t h e

u y u u
sat r ation of t h e sol t ion is m ain t ain e d In E r ope por t able
Daniell c ells are se d w h er ein a la er of sand or saw d st is til
.
,
 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y

hwh ch w t cctc c ch t t c h t w
2 42 [ ART . 3 70

t tc
s oul d b e sh ort ir uit ed for a d ay or so, so ha z in sulp a e ill b e form e d

t t h t
i ill pro e th e z in . Su a pr elim in ary run w ill also r e du ce the

c t t c c v th
in e rn al r e sis an e .

M AI NT AI NI N G — It s kep

c c t t t c hc w th t tt c t c t t
T HE GR AV I TY C E LL e m pe r a u re s oul d be
ab o e v 7 0 de g F , sin e t h e in e rn al r esis an e in re ases e ry r apidl y w i
. . a

A blue olor in t h e b o om of t h e ell deno e s a

c h t t c w th t
de r e ase in e m pe r a ur e .

Wh en
ct t h ch tw c
g ood ondi ion , b ut a b row n ol or s o s a the z in is de e rior a in g .

hct t c h t ch t c t h w ctw
r enew in g the opper sul p a e , e m p y t h e ell and se t it up i an e n ire ly
n ew ele rol y e . Th e blue line , w i m arks t h e b oun d ary b e een the oppe r

hc t c h h t c h t c c t w t h
sul p a e an d th e z in sul p a e , s oul d s an d ab ou alf ay be ee n the
el e r ode s. If t h e b l ue line is t oo l ose t o t h e z in , som e of t he oppe r sul

ht c t h
p b
a e cane sip on e d out or t h e e ll c an b e s or -
ir u i ed . T is w ill pro
du e m ore z in sul p a e If t h e b lue l ine is t oo l ow , som e
. a e r and copper

sul p a e rys als s oul d b e adde d .

Z Z
wt c
11 “
inc s Pa c ked

l inc m Jar

1 86 — D
’
FIG I n fr e v ill e as e l e ss z in

G vy uy
. . .

by
g
3 70 .

gwaste l e ss Z in c s for
t h e t el e r aph c om panie s
ra

an d
it
ot h er
C e ll s (Fig 1 86) ar e se d .

c on c erns t h at e m pl o

th c w t c c th t c th t c t
l ar e b att erie s .

t
NO TE — Wi

t th wt th t tht t t ch a

Af
ro foo z in lik e

c
a

ct
of

t
Fig .

vi
e re is a e r ain

t ct t c c ct cc t t
am oun of w ast e . e r su a z in h as b ee n in se r e for som e im e it is so

c c t t th c
e a en a ay a onl y a s ub r e m ains . Th e su rfa e offe r ed t o the el e r oly e

cc c t t t c t th c ch
by is s ub is so sm all a t h e in e rn al re sis an e of the is gre a l y in
e ll

ive

t t h w
re ase d an d it is ereb y r en de r e d in e ff e . To orre ondi ion s t h e ol d

Wi
cc t c c t cth t c t thch c wh t t
z in s ub m us b e di s ar ded and a n ew z in sub s i u ed for it . z in s of

t h e w as el e ss ype s o n in Fig 1 86, . a oni al lug A as on t h e t op of e a

vi y also

t h w t ct ct w c t
z in fi t s in o a orrespondin g a as in ea z in T u s, par ly
.

ct ct c t
onsum e d z in es are pa ed oge e r as at II and e re is no as e Th e .

ve s as a

ch ct c c t ct
b rass suppor , s o n at I is so arran ge d h a it al so se r e r m in al or
onne or for t h e z in an ode . Th e b are d onne ing ire is l am pe d b e

u y k
w e e n t h e t w o spring-b rass s rips, w hi affor ds a good el e ri al on a .

37 1
Standar d C e ll s (Fig 187) ar e se d in lab orat or w or as
.

st an dar ds of e m f and ar e tili e d in m eas r em ents w h ere a

. . . u z
.

u
 1 8] T YPE S OF PRI M AR Y C ELL S 2 43

v g kg fi vug quu
SE C .

for
ol a e of
t

y
n ow n an d

c alibratin instrum ents L ar e c rr ents ar e not r e ired

xed al e is re

v g qu ir e d for c om parison or

qu y g
.

fr om st andar d c ells h enc e t h e m ay an d do h a e hi h in t e rnal

vyg u
,

r esist an c es
— fr e e nt l as h i h as 50 0 to oh ms Som et im es .

a er hi h ext e rn al r esist an c e is c onne ct e d in series w it h st andar d

c ells t o lim it t h e c rr ent .

c c
T
h YP E S O FS

t
TAND

t
A R D C E LL S are num e r ous The Daniell standa rd cell, .

t th w w ct c
w t t
m ade as S ow n in Fig 1 7 6 w as used during t h e pion ee r d ays of t h e el e ri al
.

It h as an e m f of ab ou 1 v ol and is s ill used as a rough and

t t cc t t w
s ien e . . . .

Ho ev e r, it de e riora es rapidly and is o e r ise not ell

t t t ct c
ready st an dard .

ork

h
ad ap e d for a ura e lab ora ory The Clark standa r d cell ( Fig 1 87 , I ) -

. .

c ctt t c c t
w as adop e d as t h e st andard of e m f b y t h e In e rna ional El e ri al Con . . .

gress of C i cag o in 1 89 3 At 1 5 deg C its e m f is . vol s Th e e m f . . . . . . . . .

de reases as t h e e m pe ra u re in reases b ut corre t ion can be m ade for his by

appl yin g e r ain form u l as . The We s ton normal stand ar d ce ll h as an e . m f
. .

t
lI Comple t e
-

l C la r
-
kC e ll We ston Ce ll
—S an dar d

t c t t
FI G . 1 87 . cell s.

t
of v ol s at

cw t t th h c c c t c t th c
20 d e g C . . It s e .

for ye ar s, pr ovide d no
m f is
. . ons an at all or dinary t em pe r

ct t th t t c
a ur es an d re m ain s on s an urre n gr e a er an

w c ct
am p . is all o ed to pass r ou g t h e e ll Be . ause of it s onst an y

un de r v arious on di ions, t h e Wes on h as l ar g ely supe r se de d t h e C l ar k e ll

G v g
as a ork ing s an dar d . O er ypes of st an dar d ells ar e m anufa u re d .

fi
3 72
pr oposi
. Se l e ction of C e ll s for
tion a c ell t h at is s u
u v g H gvv u k it able for
i en Se rv ic e s
ope n-
— As
c ir c it w or
a ener al

is n ot

g
,

tt e d for cl ose d c ir c it Ser ic e

- ow e er , t h er e ar e e x ep c tions

y
.

t o t h is m axim . Th e follow in n o es t i e infor m at ion rel at in

Z
to t h e pr oper applic at ions of c ells of different t pes :

whht w
C ARB O N- —
I N C -S AL AM M O NI AC

k ch t cc c tw t c ht c c t w OR L E C L AN C R E C E LL S ar e best suit ed for

t t c t h w
lig Sign al or , su as residen e, d oor b e ll - -
an d-annun ia or appli a ions
e re l ong pe riods of re s o u r be ee n ope r a ions . T e se ells, if ell

mad e are also sa isfac ory for l o al e le p one or k . Large cells of t h e

244 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

t w c t h t tt
. 3 73

tt t w v c th tht c thv t
Le ol an ch e ype
Hen
t
ill prov ide h eav y urr en
t s for s or pe riods and re q uire li l e

th c t c t t t t t t t thcc c
a en ion . e, ey ar e som e im e s on e ni en ly use d in e xpe rim en al
w or k . Ho e er , re gardl e ss of eir siz e , ey soon pol ariz e e m por aril y,

Af

c c c th c c c w th
e r eb y de re asing the urre n ou pu . er a pe riod of res ey re uper

th th c t w c c th h cc h t ct t t c
at e an d are h en as pow e rful as b efore il pol ariz a ion again o
un u rs . C ar
b on-z in -
sal -am m onia ells wi ylin dri al z in s are m ore po e r ful an

c t w
ose w i r od or pe n il z in s an d en e s oul d be u se d for im por an b ell
k

Z c c
and annun ia or or . C ells w i pen il z in es are sa isfa ory for residen e

t ttt t hc c ch tth tw thc c thc ttc t h

b ell an d ann un ia or or .

C O PP E R - I N C -C O PPE R SUL P HATE CE LLS can be u se d for

b ell s b ut el e t ri
fi vi

t c t
ar e b es ed for ser e , su as a of l ose d - ir ui el e gr ap an d b u rgl ar

flo

ct w c w c t wh c t
al ar m ins all a ion s, w ere urren s r ou gh em on in u all y .

B I C HR O MATE PL UN GE C E L LS , t h e Grene

ch c t
ell for e xam pl e , are su i ab l e for
vi q v

w th t tt t c h t
ser e h e r e l ar ge urr en s ar e re uire d b ut ere it is on eni e n t o dis

twh ch t ct thth tt th h c
m an le t h e ell h en it is not in u se . Bi r om at e ells w ill n ot ope r a e for

t
l ong periods i ou a en ion as do oppe r-sul p a e cells . Th e d isadv an

ct c h t c th t t t
age of t h e b i rom a e e lls is a ey s oul d b e l e an ed and disasse m bl ed
en n ot in u se . In spi e of is, h ey are l ar gel y u se d in e xpe rim en al w or k

h c c t c t t
be ause of t h e l arge urrent s a can b e propel le d b y h em un il th e sol u

h t c c c t w wh ch ch c c
ion b e om es ex aus ed .

—T

ch t t ct c
L E LAND E C E L LS . ose u sing oppe r oxides an d au s i po ash ar e sui

vie s k

tt t t t th h c th t c w c t
ab l e for t h e ea l ose d- ir ui or for i e m i al ell s can be
applie d , su as ope ra ing m o ors, l am ps an d indu ion oilsTh e y are prob
.

h c hv ch ch c c t w c
ab l y be e r adap e d an any of t h e o er el l s for suppl yin g l ar ge u r re n s
at inf r e q ue n in er v als . T ey ar e e x ell en for Sign al or k b ut ar e e xpe n si e v
en e a e n ot b een m u u se d for su se rv i e ex ep for r ail ay b lo k and

y G
fi re -
al arm sign alin g .

y y .

u g
Th e Applic ation of Prim ar C e ll s as e ne rator s of El e c
3 73

v qu
trical Ene rg is, in eneral , lim it e d t o c on ditions for w h ic h a
y
ug yk gg
r el a

se d
ti
widel
el sm all

g gg y
for r in in
c rr en t is
b ells,
re ir e d int er m itt entl C e ll s
oper at in si nals, for t el eph on e
.

and
ar e

t ele

u v gy g v
r aph w or
g mu
ctric al t estin
m er cially applic abl e Wh er e lar e a o nt s of ener
an d

gy
Th e ar e not com
ar e r e ir e d
for
qu el e

u
.

be c a se el e ctric al ener

v gg y
gy k
m or e expensi e t h an t h at de el ope d b y d n am os or en er at ors
Se e Ar t 509 E en for t el e r aph an d si nal w or it is in som e
. .
g
e n er at e d b y c h em ic al act ion is m c h

,
.

c ases m or e e c onom ic al t o ener at e w it h d nam os t h an w it h c ells

g G y
,

or b att e ries

v gy y u y u g
.

3 7 4 Th e C ost of El e ctric al Ener y e ne rat e d w ith Prim ar

y g
.

Batt e rie s arie s w it h t h e t pe of c ell b ut it is al w a s m c h r e at e r

ct c th ch t c
t h an t h e c ost of ener pr od c e d wit h d nam os or enerat ors .

wh
EXAMP LE S —
ch
tt t t t w c t
If .

c ch el e

h
ri al e n e r gy

c
c t
is de vel ope d w i t h e bi rom a e el l

tt t
( Art . i prob abl y pr odu e s e n e r gy as e apl y as any prim ary ell ,

the cos of t h e ma e rials al on e oul d be ab ou 30 cts . h p -h r

per . T is os
. .

assum es ha th e m a e rial s w oul d b e pur h ase d in l arge quan i ies i h . W

246 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

y yug
. 3 76

3 76
gg u.

C h an in th e Arr an e m e nt o t s C e ll s
‘
f I — g
M e th od s of Var ing th e Curre nt O utput of a Batt e r b y
Th e c rr ent t h r o h u
yW v
i
any el e ct ric c r c it can b e in c r ease d in t w o w a s : ( 1 ) B y decr eas

v
ing the r esistance; (2) by increasing the e m f h e r e se er al c ells
ar e a ail ab l e t h e e m f m ay b e in c r e ase d b y oinin t h e c ells in
. . .

j g
g vuy
. . .
,

series as in Fig 1 89 Th e in t ernal r esist an c e can b e de c r e ase d

. .

by c onne ct in t h e c ells in parallel as in Fig 1 90 Ob io sl by . .

,

ct c ct
1 Ce lls in Se r ies
“

— C onne

g gg u gu u ug
FI G . 1 89 . ion of pri m ar y e l l s an d e n rifug al pu m ps in se r ie s.

c h an c onne ctions of a ro p of c ell s t h e c rr ent o t put

in the

u uu u
,

of t h e r o p can b e alt er e d Th e differ e nt m e t h ods of arr an e

gu
.

m ent and t h eir effe ct s on c rr en t o tp t will b e disc sse d in

foll owin ar tic l es
3 7 7 C rr ent O tp t
.

uuW v j
h e n C e ll s Ar e C onne cte d in Se rie s

g v g g gu
. .

F or a series c onne ct ion t h e posit i e pole of on e c ell oins t h e ,

n e at i e pol e of it s n ei h b or t h e c ells b ein arr an e d in t ande m ,

See Ar t 187
”
as sh own in Fig 1 89 I Series C ir c it s
“
. .
.
,
.
,

FI G . 190 .
— C onne ct
I Ce lls in Paral le l
’

ion of prim ary ct ct

e ll s an d e n rifu g al pu m ps in par all el

h w
or m ul ipl e .

hc ct
A HY D R AU L I C ANAL O GY To C E L L S C O NNE C T E D

c
IN

cc c t t whct ch th t
SE R IE S is s o n in

w t c ch th
Fig . T r e e sm all e n rifugal pum ps of t h e ons ru ion of a of

whv v cth
Fig . ar e oupl ed in pipe ir ui
se ries i is full of
in a h yd r auli
v

t t h w
a er . Sin e e a pu m p c an de el op a pr essure of 2 lb per sq in , t h e re e . . .

v al e A is l osed t o v

w c w t th h h ccc c t t th
in se ries de e l op a pr essure of 6 lb pe r sq in en t h e . . .

pre v en fl
If, o e er, t h e al e A is open e d, v v

c
w a e r fr om ow in g . e r eb y

all o ing t h e pum ps t o for e a e r r oug t h e ydr auli ir ui , ere w ill b e

a sm all d r op or de re ase in t h e pressure im posed on t h e cir ui b y t h e pum ps .

 T YPE S OF PRI M AR Y C ELL S

w w t c ct wt
SE C . 1 8] 24 7

t tc c h ct
Th is loss in pressure h en a e r flows is aused b y t h e fri ion of t h e a er

ct
th c t c th t t h
agains t h e in t e rior of t h e pum p This int ernal pum p fri ion is anal ogous t o .

c
t h e int e rnal resis an e of a prim ary ell . en t h e pu m ps are ou pl e d in

ct
se ries, int ernal resis an es are added t oge e r
eir T h e gr e a e r t h e . num

b e r of pum ps oupl ed in se ries th e gre at e r is t h e o al yd rauli pressure

u y
dev el oped b ut t h e gre at er is th e int ernal pum p fri ion .

Th e e . m f . . of a gro p or batt er c ell s c onne ct e d in series is

of

the sum of t he m fs of t h e
e c om ponent c ells In Fig

vW y
. . . . .

t h ree c ells ar e j oine d in series an d sin c e eac h h as an e m f of 2 . . .

ol ts, t h e e m f of t h e b att er is : 2 volts X 3 cells 6 v olts

y qu
. . . .

c ell s ar e c onne ct ed in
h ere series, t h e int e rnal r esist an c e of

t h e b att er

fo
g
is e
t h e c om pone nt c ells
al t o t h e sum of t h e in t er nal r esist an c es of

St atin t h ese facts in a form la w hic h

llow s fr om Ohm s law (Art 1 34)
’
.

.
u
S XE
(95) am p

Wu u l ( S X RI)
uv
.

R: “ “

n
h er ein 1
m b er of c ells in
c rr en t in
se ries
, am per es

in t h e b att er y
in t h e e x ernal

E
t
e
c ir c it
m f in
. S
ol s of
t

u
. . . .

each c ell fr om ,
Table 3 59 . R ,c r esis an e ,
t c in oh m s ,
of t h e ex

tern al c ir c it . RI in ternal r esist an c e in oh m s of ea ch ce ll ,

t c vt wth h t c c t h c c t c t c
fr om T ab le 3 59 .

E XAMPLE — Wh a

h ch c t
. urren ill b a t e ry of six ells, onne t e d in se ries
a

aving an e x e rn al r esis an e

t th t c t t c tt t
as in Fig 1 9 1 , I
. and I I , dri e r oug a ir ui
of (a) oh m , (b) 500 o m s? Ea e ll h as an e . m f . . of 2 v ol s and an

in e rn al resis an e of oh m . SO L UTI O N — Sub s i . u e in t h e for m ul a

(a) Wi oh m e x e rn al r esis an e :

x S XE 6 X2 12 12

th h tc
am p
R. (S RI ) (6 x 3 351
'

( b) Wi 5 00 o m s e xt e rn al r esis an e

6 X 2 12 12
m
u u W
am p
3
.

W g v u
3 78 C .

it h t h e par allel or
rr e n

g
t O utp h e n C e ll s Ar e C onn e ct e d in Parall el
t
m l tiple m e t h od of c onne ction (see Ar t 191)
.

u v
.

all of t h e ne at i e or pol es ar e j oin ed t o e t h er an d in c om bina

k u
tion c onstit t e one t erm inal All of t h e positi e or pol es ar e
li e wise c onne ct e d and in c om b inat ion c onstit t e t h e ot h er
t erminal as Sh own in Fig 1 90 .
.

t c ct th t th
A HYD R AUL I C AN AL O GY
Wi h
C E LL S C O NNE CT E D IN PAR ALL E L is sh own in
To

v w tc
Fig . the pum ps onne e d in is w ay, eir pressures ar e n ot

adde d b ut t h e pressure im posed b y t h e gr oup or b a t e ry is t h e sam e as t h e

pressure de eloped b y an y one pum p . Ho e ver , t h e in t e rnal resis an e of
 PR AC TI CAL EL E C TRI C I T Y

th c t th tc tc c c
8 [ AR T . 3 78

t h e gr oup of
on e pum p . Sim il ar
r ee pum ps in par all el is l ess
ondi ions e xis t wh en
an

prim ary
t h e in e rn al resis an e

el ls ar e onne t e d
Of any
in

gu y
par allel .

Th e

y vg
e . m f . . c ells c onne ct e d in par allel
of a

is t h e sam e as t h at of e ac h m em b er of t h e r o p
ro

differ ent t pes h a in differ ent e m fs Sh o l d n ot b e c onn e ct e d in

p or

(C ells of
b att er of

g
u y u .

v Huv y
. .
,
.

p a ra ll el ) T h er
. e for e t h e e m f o f t h e b a tt e r of F,
ig 1 9 0 I . . . .
,

is 2 olt s ow e er t h e int er nal r esist an c e of t h e b att e r de

y
.
,

c reases as t h e n m b er of c ell s in it is in c r eased If t h er e are t w o .

c ells in t h e b att er it s int ernal re sist an c e w ill b e one h alf t h at -

of one c ell ; w it h t h r ee c ells t h e in t e rn al r e sist an c e w ill b e one

qu v u g
t hi r d t h at of one c ell and so on C onn e ct in c ell s in par all el is g
qu uu y u
.

e i al ent t o in c r e asin t h e ar e as of t h e pl at e s E ac h c ell .

c ontr ib t es an e al sh ar e t o t h e o t p t of t h e b att e r Th s : .

I Cur r e nt 3-87 Amp HI Curre nt Am p

"

6 Cellsin Ser ies E MF of cu h is 2 Voh s

. c ‘
6 Cells in Par allel E M l of each .
”

. 15 2 Vol t s

FI G . 191 .
ll Cufi
— V ar yin g
'
e nt

c t t t ch
Amp

urr e n ou pu by
H -
C urre nt

an gi n g arr an g e m e n
Amp

t c
.

of ell s.

(am p ) .

Wv h e r ein P u g qu t h e n m b e r of c e lls in par alle l an d t h e ot h e r le t te rs

ha e

h t c t w th tth c c tch c ct t t
th e
EXAMP L E
sam e

—W
m e anin s as in e ation

c t t c h ch c t t t t
a urr en ill a ba e ry of Six ells, onn e ed in par all el
as in Fig . an d I V d riv e r ou g a ir ui a ving an ex e rn al resis

th t t c
an e of : ( a) oh m ( b) 500 o m s ? Ea e ll h as an e m f of 2 v ol s and
, . . .

an in e rn al r esis an e of oh m . SO L UTI O N .
— Sub s i u e in t h e for m ul a
(a) Wi oh m e x e rn al r e sis an e :

2 2
I I“ “m ”

(b) th h t t c
Wi 5 00 o m s
E
e x e rn al r es is an e

2 2 2
amp
5 00
.

R, 5 00
 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y

c t tt ch c
250 [ AR T . 3 80

EX AM P L E
h as an e t . t
t cc c tt h cch c t c t c—It
t
is desir ed t o arr ange 26
c
m f of 1 v ol a nd an in e r nal r e sis
. .

How S all t h e
ell s

an e
in
of 1 ohm
b a e ry
o a Ea e ll

T h e r e sis a n e
.
.

th t
of t h e e x e r nal ir ui is 2 o ms . ell s b e arr ange d t o se u r e

t h e m axim um u rr e n ? SO L UT I O N — A or ding t o t h e de fi ni ion of batter y.

g iv e n ab ov e ,

ch th t th t t t
e r e ar e onl y four possib l e arr ang e m e n s : ( 1 ) P 1, S 26 .

= 2 S =

t tctc tt wct t t
= 2 6, S
( )
2 P 1 ( 3 ) P , . 1 3 ( 4 ) P 2 B a
y pp yl . .

ing For .
(41 ) t o e a of e se arr a ng e m e n s, it is fou nd a the o al in

e r n al r e sis an e of t h e ba e ry il l b e m os ne ar ly e qual to the e x e r n al

if Arr an gem en t 4 is Arr an ge

t t wh ch w ct c
r e sis a n e se l e e d . By appl ying For .
( 9 7) to

t
m en t 4 , t h e c ur r en t ( 1 3 X 2 X 1) X 2) (2 X am p .

By D u n For ( 96 A) , Ar r an gem ent 3

’
on s Rul e , . oul d be sel e e d , sin e

it is t h e arr a n ge m e n i m ak e s P m os ne ar l y e qual t o ( R; R x) X S .

Ar r angem ent 3 , t h e

h t
By appl yin g For .
( 9 7) to cu rr en t (2 X 1 3 X 1 )

t c t w th c
X 2) ( 13 X am p .

NO TE — W

tc th t c t c c c c
. ere P d iffe r s gr e a ly fr om (R, R .) X S, and yet it is t h e
sm all es diffe r e n e ob ainab l e i t h e g iv e n num b e r of e ll s, it m ay som e

t th t th
im e s b e fou nd a th e ur r e n c an b e in r e ase d by de r e asin g t h e nu m b e r
of e l l s. If, in t h e ab o ve e xam pl e , t h e num b er of e ll s be r e du e d t o 24 ,
a nd the arr a ng e m e n so m ad e a P 3 an d S 8, en b y For .

uu fi
the curr en t ( 3 X 8 X 1) X 2) (8 X am p .

380 C urr ent O tp t of Se rie s and Par all el C om b inations of

y g
.

C e ll s — See Art 200 for de nition s of t h e w or ds parallel-series

y g u g
.

and series- parallel and n o e t th at wit h prim ar c ells arr an e d

equ v g
int o

r e asonin
i
a

al e n

g g u
b att er
t g yg
t o t h e par allelg
of t h e pr e c e din
the se e s par alle
r i -

series

se ct ions an d appl in
1
l ro

Follow in t h e
ro
’
O h m s law
pin
pin

of
of

.
.
Fig . is

it c an b e sh ow n t h at ,
for any par alle l ser ie s c om b in at ion of c e lls :
-

P XS XE
(9 7 )

Wu h er ein 1
g uv c u rr en t in am pe r es in t h e e x
t ern al cir c i t uu S

gu
.
, ,

n c ells in series in e ac h par allel ro p P

m b e r of n m b e r of

u
.

r o ps of c ells in par allel E in ol t s of e ac h c ell .

,
.

R , r esist an c e in oh m s of t h e ext ernal c ir c it

,
R1 int er nal ,
.

h c t tt v th h
r esist an c e in oh m s, of e ac h c ell
,
.

t c c t h chc v ch ch c t t th t c c
X
E AM PL E — W at urr en w ill t h e b a Fig I 92, I dri e
e ry of . r oug th e
el ls

t c t t
e x ern al ir ui ? T e re ar e four paral lel gr ou ps e a on aining ree

h as an in e rn al resis an e

tt t
in se r ie s. Th e e . m f of e a
. . ell is 2 ol t s an d e a

of oh m Th e r esis an e of t h e ex ernal cir cui is 10 oh m s . SO L UTI O N .

XX
.

Sub s i u e in t h e for m ul a (9 7 )

P XS XE 4 3 2
0 58. am p .
 SE C TION 1 9

Y
y
ELE C TR O L SIS

d u gu
381
ctin
.

u y sug y ug
Electr ol
b st an ce
sis is t h e c h e m ic al de c om position of a con
c a sed by t h e flow of c rr ent t h r o h it

u yg u u u u g
.

One spe c ifi c form of ele ct r ol sis is t h e e atin aw a or c orr osion

“

of nder r o nd m e t allic str ct r es (Art 3 83) due t o t h e passa e

y y
.

of st r a el e ct r ic c rr en t s fr om t h e m Th e ot h er im port ant for m

g y g
.

of ele ct r ol sis ctr ol t es b y ele ctric

is t h e de c om position of el e

u
-

c urre nts ; ele ctr opl atin (Ar t 384) an d ele ctr ot pin (Art 3 85)

u v u g v ug
. .

ar e pract ic al e xam pl e s of t his If a c rr ent passes fr om one .

c ond ct or (positi e pl at e or an ode Fig 1 9 3 I ) th r o h an ele c

y u
.
, ,

t r olyt e t o anot h er c ond ct or (ne at i e pl at e or c at h ode ) t h e ,

el e ct r ol t e w ill b e de c om pose d and t h e anode m ay nder c er t ain ,

c onditions also b e de c om pose d

,
.

t t ct I Pr inciple
'

— Ill us
m e nt al O ut f it

c t c t ct th
FI G . 1 93 . ra ing el e r ol ysis.

th w h c c t h t ct t t h w t c tht c
EX AM PL E — If . a urr en b e for ed fr om on e pl a in u m e l e r od e t o ano er

ct c t c t c w
roug a oppe r sul p a e e l e r ol y e , as S o n in Fig 1 93 , I , m e alli c op
.

tc ct t c t h t w t t w thc th w
pe r ill b e di sso ia ed fr om t h e sol u ion and d eposi e d on the a ode . If
fi

t
t he a ion is on in ue d for pe riod all of t h e opper
a su f ie n ill b e e x

h c c h t t ct c c t
ra e d fr om t h e sol u ion an d d e posi e d on t h e a ode Th e re m aining .

ct c t c c c tc t
om pone n s of t h e oppe r sul p a e ill uni e i the at e r in t h e sol u ion

t o form sul p u ri a id T is ill us r a e s h ow an el e ri

. urre n c an d e c om

ctw t t t w tt c ct h tt c t t
pose el e This prin ipl e c an b e
r oly es . re adil y de m ons ra e d ( Fig .

b y usin g a oupl e of d ry ells as a sour e of e ne r gy, a oupl e of ir on n ails as

el e r odes and a sol u ion of b l ue v i riol ( oppe r sul p a e — a rys al the siz e

of a aln u in a um b l er full of a er ) for an el e r ol y e an d a gl ass um b l er

yy u k
for a j ar .

382
an d sal s
. El e ctr ol t e s ar e sol
t . Th e ar e u tions in w at e r of acids b ases (al alies)
de c om pose d w h en an el e ctric c rr e nt passes
2 51
,
2 52 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

ug gu u u y g y
. 3 33

t h r o h t h e m Th e exc itin sol tions in prim ar and se c ondar

y g y
.

c ells (Art 33 2) an d t h e sol tions se d in el e ct ropl at in ( Art

y u
. .

3 84 ) an d ele ct r ot pin ar e e xam pl es of el e ctr ol t es

uy y u y y
.

3 83 El e ctr ol sis of Unde r gr o nd M e tallic Str uctur e s is

k u u u
.

ill st r at e d in Fig 1 94 D ir e ct c rr e nt r ailw a s st e m s pr ae -

u k k ku yu
. .

t ic all al w a s use t h e t rac as a ret r n c ond ct or Th e r et r n

ug
.

c rr e nt le a s fr om t h e t r ac w h ic h is alw a s in c ont act with t h e

u ug u u
,

eart h and oft e n see s a r o t e of mi nim m r e sist an c e t h r o h

uy W kg u u
,

wat er m ains c ab l e sh e at h s an d ot h er m e t allic n der r o n d st r e

,

t r es h er e t h ese l ea a e c rr e nt s ent er t h e b rie d m et allic

yu u v y g y
.

s st e m s (A F ig 1 94) t h e r e is no t r o b l e
,
. B ut at l oc at ions (B ) .
,

w h e re t h e st ra —
c rr ent s lea e ele ct r ol sis w astin aw a of ,

ct th t ct t c c c
t h e m e t al occ rs .

sal s
w t
NO TE — Th e

t th c t w t Th e
in t h e
t
.

t e ar
a er
a

in
ion is sim il ar

m ain in t h e illus
om b in a ion
to
ra
a

ion
i h t h e m ois
of an e l e
at

t c tt t c
B is t h e
ure
ropl a ing pr o
anode

in it
Th e
ons
.

i
e ss

h em i al
u e an el e
(Art .

tt c ct w t —Il lus r a in g

t c ct t t t
FI G . 1 94 . ause of th e el e r ol y sis of a a er m ain .

cwhthch c thc tw t t w
t r olyte . Th e ground pl a
W vt t t e or onne ion at t h e ge ne ra ing
k
s a ion is t h e

c t t th t
a ode . i l ar ge r ail ay sys e m s the le a age m ay b e e ry gre a ,
in
q v

ct th c ct ch ct t c ct
i ase the onse ue n ea ing a ay of u nde rground me als is e x e n si e .

t c ct ccth c v c tct w thc h ct c t tt

In som e ases, a pipe m ay b e ea en e n irely rough in a m on h . Th e m ost
e ff e iv e m e od of orr e in g su el e r ol y i ion is t o m inim iz e t h e
a

c ct
e nde n
y for it s o urr en e Thi s can b e e ffe . e d b y on ne in g t h e s a ion
ground d ire ly w i t h e r ails at arious l o a ions i eavy oppe r re urn

g W v u
ondu ors .

ug y u
384 .

uu
(Fig
El e ctr oplatin e r a c rre nt passes

gg v
t h ro h a sol tion of a sal t of a m e t al t h e m et al w ill b e e xtract e d
ele ct ric all from t h e sol tion and de posit e d on t h e n e ati e
.
— h e ne

p l at e or c at
gg v k g
h ode F i g 193 ill st r at e s a

y
sor
. t of e l e ct r

c ess Ele ctr opl atin c onsist s in c oatin by el e ctr ol sis a b aser
.
o
.
pl at in pr o- f

h w t t t c c
m e t al wit h c oppe r old sil e r nic el or alm ost any ot h er m e t al
, , ,
.

ou t t t ct t t ct c w
Ex AM PLE
fi s l ow -v ol
—Fig
.

age,
. 1 95
dir e
s o
-
curre n
s a sil ver pl a ing
gene r a ors are
ou fi . In m ode rn
pr a i ally al
om m er
ays used t o
ial
2 54 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

y fi g
. 3 86

38 6 In th e Ele ctrol t ic Re ning of

.

som e w h a t
fi
sim ilar to
u e le ctr opl atin
u u M e tal s
(Fig
t h e pr oc ess is
Th e im p re

u u u
.

m et al t o b e re ne d is s spe n de d as an anode tion of one in a sol

y
r e nt is for c e d t hr oug ,

u
of it s salt s (for c opper c opper s lph at e sol t ion is se d)

u u
C ur
h t h e sol tion fr om t h ese anodes t o c ath odes
.

k u
.

P re m e t al onl is deposit e d on t h e c ath ode Th e im p rities in

yy fi g
.

t h e an odes fall t o t h e b ott om of t h e t an as t h e p r e c opper is

vy
e xt r act e d fr om t h e m

er
Th e el e ct r ol t ic r e nin of c opper is a
.

im port ant pr oc e ss c om m er c iall .

 SE CTION 20

G
STO RA E BATTERIE S

387
v A Stora g e c om prises t w o r elati el
or Se condar y C e ll vu y
y uy
.

inact i e plat es or ele ct r odes of m e t als or m e t allic c om po nds

im m erse d in an ele ctr ol t e w h ic h w ill n ot act on t h e plate s ntil
aft er an ele ct ric c urr e nt h as be e n for c e d t hr o

fr om on e pl at e t o t h e ot h er
h t h e ele ctr ol te
Th e action of t h e c rr ent c h an es
ug u g
u u y u
.

t h e c h em ic al r elations of t h e el e m ents of t h e c ell and it w ill t h en

u v
,

w h e n c onne ct e d t o an ext ernal c ir c it for c e c rr ent t h r o g h t h at

‘

c ir c it In practic e se eral plat es are ele ctric all c onne c t ed

.
,

,
" Am m e t e r

Lead Pla tes

tt c t c t lI Ar range me nt of C ir c uit
'

1 Ele m e nt s
— Appar a

g y v g v v
FI G . 1 96 us for ill us ra in g t h e prin iple s of t h e l e ad s or ag e e ll .

to e th e r so as t o in r ealit form one positi e plat e an d se er al

u g uv u v
, ,

oth er pl at es ar e asse m b le d so as t o for m on e ne at i e plate A

g
.

c om b in ation of a m ltipl e ne ati e pl at e and a m l tiple positi e

g v g y u
pl at e m ade as desc rib e d an d s spe n de d in a lass j ar or oth er
c ont ainer h a in in it ele ctr ol t e constit t es a c om m e r cial

g g
,

stor a e c ell A stor age battery secondary battery or accumulat or

u
.
,

c om prises t w o or m ore st ora e c ells so c onne ct ed t o et h er as t o

,

act in c onj n ction

u gv
.

388 Th e Distinction Be tw e e n a Prim ary C e ll an d a Se condar y

.

C e ll is disc ssed in Ar t 3 3 2 Th e inform ation t h ere i en relat

. .

25 5
2 56 P R AC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u v y g
. 3 89

ing t o prim ar c ells sh o l d b e

i

re ew e d b e for e t h e follow in se c

389
vu y
tion s ar e r e ad

W .

uu yz y .

C e rt ain Prim ar
h e n t h e posit i e pl at e ( Art y C e ll s Ar e Essentiall
s all
Stor age C el ls
in c , of a pr im ar
.

H v y
.

c ell is al m ost c ons m e d, it is r e pl a e d c Wi t h a n ew one to re

v z y zu
h ab ilit at e t h e
g v yy v c ell . t h e or e tic all possible
in c ell s of t h e r e er sabl e t pe s c h as t h e r a it or D aniell
ow e er , it w oul d b e ,

y v g u u
,

t o r e deposit on t h e inc t h e inc el e ctr o c h e mi c all dissol e d -

u ug z
,

in t h e el e ct r ol t e by dr i in a s it able c rr e nt fr om an out

u y
,

side so r c e t h r o h t h e c ell fr om t h e c ar b on t o t h e inc

u g g
, .

B y t his pr oc ess t h e c ell w o l d b e r e ne w e d by ele ct r ol s is

u ugug u u y u
A r .

y g g
( t 3 8 1 ) and w o l d of it self b e a ain c apabl e of for c in
c r r ent t hr o h a c ir c it It h as t h erefor e be c om e a st or a e

yfi u u u u y uu v y u
.
, ,

c ell Alt h o h s c h pr im ar cell s ar e f ndam e nt all st or a e c ells

.
, ,

t h e ar e not se d as s c h be c a se of m e c h anic al and c h emi c al

only gygy g
e ner ( W r t g g gy
h
y
di f c l ties an d b e c a se t h e w o l d b e er
390 A Sto a e C e ll D oe s Not Store El ectricit
r

A
.

e n a c el l is b e in
ne c onomi c al
— It st or es
c h ar ed t h e ele c
.
.

g
.

t rical en er im part e d t o it is t r ansform e d in t o c h emi c al ene r

u
w h ic h is st or e d in t h e c ell
ug u gy
Th en w h e n t h e c ell disc h ar es t h at
is w h en an e xt er n al cir c it is c om pl e t e d t h r o h w hic h c rr ent
.
, ,

v gy
,

c an b e for c e d b yt h e e m f of t h e c ell t h e st or e d c h emi c al en e r

W ug
. . .
,

is r e c on ert e d int o ele ctric al e ner

gy g g
.

391 C h ar ging a C e ll h en c urr en t is for c e d t h r o h a c ell

-

g g v g u g g ug u g
. .

t o st or e c h emi c al ener
“
in it t h e c ell is bein ch ar e d Th e .

c h ar in c ur r ent m st b e for c e d in a ainst t h e e m f of t h e c ell

u ufi v
. . .
,

h en c e t h e olt a e of t h e c h ar in c rr ent m st b e r eat er t h an

t h e e m f of t h e c ell b y an am o n t s f c ient t o o er c om e t h e
. . .

in t e rnal r esist an c e of t h e c ell Th at is : .

ug yg y
(9 8) C harging v oltage o f cell ) (I R dr op in ce ll )
F t h er m or e
r

g g
c h ar e d t h an g u , c ell is al w a s r eat e r w h en it is
th e e . m f . .

w h en disc h ar e d b e c a se t h e el e ct r ol t e b e c om es
of a

u g
v g gg y
r aphs of F i s
g
m ore dense on c h ar in an d h e n c e is m or e pow er f l

g v
ing olt a e is al w a s r e at er t h an disc h ar in
Th e c h ar
ol t a e

1 97 and 198 sh ow t h e olt a es of c ells on c h ar e

Th e gg g v g g .

gu W u g ug u
.

an d on dis c h ar e .

392 Disch ar ing a C e ll — h en a st or a e c ell is c onne ct e d t o

u fl gy
. .

an e xt ern al c ir c it it s e m f for c e s a c rr ent t h r o h t h e c ir c it

v gy W u
. . .

an d as t h e c rr e nt
, ow s t h e c h e m ic al e ne r of t h e c ell is r e c on
,

er t e d int o ele ct ric al ene r h en t h is condit ion occ r s t h e .

2 58 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

gy g g ugg
. 3 94

e ne r but w ill in dic at e t h e en eral oper a tion as s t

es e d in

t h t t c w
t he followin exam pl e :

h tw h c c
EX AM PL E — .

t t w t ct th c c t
If t w o s rips of s ee le ad b e m oun e d on a b l o k of ood as

t t
t c h wc th tch ch c t th t
s o n at Fig I 9G, I an d im m e rse d in a um bl e r of e l e
. rolyt e onsis in g of 1

par sulp uri a id and 1 0 par t s dis ill e d or rain a e r, ey w ill ons i ute a

wh ch h c t t th t c t c t
sim pl e s orage ell T his ell can b e
. ar ge d in ab ou 30 m in b y r ee d ry .

c ells arr anged as s ow n — A lose d and B open

ct h ch w w h w c t
i sw i T h e am m e e r , .

cB c ch c h ch t ch t ch cw ctch t t
i s oul d b e of t h e
“
z e ro e n e r
”
ype so a it w ill indi a e t h e ur re n

re gar dl ess of t h e dir e ion in w i it fl o s, ill s o t h e u rr e n flow ing as

W e n t h e s orage ell is arge d, if s i A b e opened
th c
t h e el l is arging .

and l osed , t h e ell w ill dis arge T a is, it w il l for e urre n

. h r ough
t h e b ell ereb y ausing it t o ring .

t c h
I Cc l l wit h Plant e or For med Plat es
-

— E xam ples
lI Ce ll w it h Faure
-

t or Past e ol Plat e s

t ct c c ch cc ch
FI G . 199 . of s or a g e e ll s a ving pl at e s of t h e t w o y pes .

As t h e s

cc t
orage ell des r ib e d ab o v e is arge d , the
ct
ol or of its anode anges

c w c ch h th ch h
from t h e gr ay na ur al le ad -
ol or t o b r own . This is ause d by a oa in g of

t c c t c th t t
le ad pe r oxide , a om poun d of le ad an d oxyge n form e d on t h e an ode by t he
Wh en t h e
t c w t tc t t
passage of t h e u rre n . ell is all o ed t o dis arge r oug t he
W
ch t th ch c ct
e x e rn al ir ui it re ally is e n on e form of prim ary ell . en dis ar ging,

ve r

th t t cc t t t c
t h e le ad pe r oxide is re on ed in o t h e m e al le ad . It ill im pe l urre n
onv e r e d in o m e al

ct v
as a prim ary ell u n il all of t h e le ad pe r oxide h as b een
lic le ad .T e re are o er e m i al a ions a o ur in le ad s orage e l ls

g g
b ut t h e one indi a e d ab o e is pr ob ab l y t h e m os im por an .

vy
e er
394Emcie ncy of a Stora e C e ll
.
—A st ora e c e ll r e se m b les
ot h er m e c h anic al or ele ct ric al de ic e in one r espe ct in

th at it is im possible t o get out ) f it all of t h e ener y im parted \

.

v g ,
 20] S TORAGE B A TTE RI E S 2 59

W gy g yg y u v
SE C .

t o it t it h c ell or batter onl abo t 75 per c en t

a lead s or a e

g u fi g y
.
, .

“ ”
of t h e ener im par t e d t o it on c h ar e c an b e re c o e r e d on
disc h ar e
fi y
Th at is t h e ef c ien c y of t h e le ad st or a e b att er
“

y gy u gy
.
, ,

( A rt 4 00
.
) is a b o t 7 5 p e r c en t T h e e f c ien c of t h e E dison .

batt er (Ar t 40 5) is said t o b e 60 per c ent Th e loss of ener

ug g ug y g
. .

in t h e c ell is lar el c a se d by t h e I X R l oss (Ar t 1 67) due t o

2
.

t h e p assage of t h e c rr en t t h r o h t h e el e ctr ol t e b ot h in c h ar

t tt w ch c c c t
_

in g and in disc h ar in

ch ch wwth th t c
.

E X AM PLE — If . a s orage ba ery , hi h as an e f fi ie n y of 7 5 pe r en .

,
is
arge d i kw -h r of e ne r gy, t h e e ne r gy a c an be re v
o e re d on

y g
. .

dis ar ge ill b e : X 7 50 low -hr .

39 5 Th e
”

g
.

y
h our an d t h e c apacit isu u
Unit of C apacit
y u s
of Any Stora e
all b ase d on
C e ll Is th e
the n or m al or
Am pe r e
8—
ho r

r at e of disc h ar e

h t c tt
EXAM PLE — A 100- am p -h r b a
cw h c .

t ch c t ill pr ovide a

c t ct c
. . . e ry on inuous ur r e n of
ell s oul d giv e

t ch c
am p for 8 h r T e or e i ally the a dis ar ge of 25 am p
'

. . .

inu ously for 4 h r 50 am p for 2 h r Act uall y, h ow ev e r , t h e am pe re

‘

on or

W y y g
. . .

h our c apa i y de r e ases as the r a e of dis ar ge i n r e ases .

3 96 h at D e term ine s th e C apacit of a Stora e C e ll or B at

y qu y
.

t e ry —Th e c apacit of a cell is pr opor tional t o t h e ar e a of t h e

vy y
.

pl at es expose d to the ctr ol t e

el e an d it de pen ds on t h e antit

of a cti e m at erial on
a b att er

g u t h ese plat es
depends on t h e expose d area and t h e n m b e r of pl at e s
. It foll ow s t h at t h e c apacit of

uu W
t em pe rat r e g
in par all el t h eir c h ar act er t h e r at e of disc h ar e an d also on t h e
,

ith t h e st an dar d 8 hr r at e of di sc h ar e an d a
,

v
. .

t e m per at r e of 60 deg F t h e c apacities w hi c h ob t ain in Am eri

u
. .
,

can pr actic e ar e fr om 40 t o 60 am p h r per sq ft of posit i e .

-
. . .

p la t e s rfa c e n u m b er ofp o si ti ve pla te s i n par alle l X length X

breadth X 2
397 Th e Voltage
. g y .

y y of a
ch ar act er of t h e ele ctr odes t h e densit of t h e ele ctr ol t e and t h e
Stor a e C e ll is de t er m ine d solel by t h e

g
,

c ondi tion of t h e c ell It is in depen dent of t h e siz e of t h e c ell

vg g g yv g
. .

1] t h ese r espe ct s t h e e m f of a st or a e c ell d e pen ds on t h e sam e

g
. . .
,

ol t a e of a prim ar c ell See Ar t 340 . . .

r aph s sh ow in t h e ol t a e s of st or a e

uv u g g v g g
le ad-s l ph ri c acid st or a
-
e c ell w h en b e in c h ar ed

vu vv g v to
ol t s
g g
ol s, w hil e on

Th e
t
ol a e of t h e
t
disc h ar e

E dison
it arie s

c ell on
fr om
c h ar e

v v
.

ab o t ol s t to ol s w hile on
t disc h ar e it
In ol t s dow n t o olt .
2 60 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

gu g
. 398

u 3 98 To O b tain

in se ries
.

u
High Batt e ry Volta e s with Stora e C e ll s a

u u v qu
n m b er of c ells of s it abl e am per e h o r c apac it ar e c onne ct e d

Th s for a 1 00 ol t c ir c it appr oxim at el 50 ce lls -

-

u y y
G g
. ,
’

conne ct e d in serie s w o l d b e r e ir e d .

3 99 Th e re Ar e Tw o e ne ral Classe s of St ora e C e ll s In Use

. .

The le ad su lphuric acid cells (Fig - -

.

desc rib e d m ore in de t ail in

Ar t . 400 an d the nicke l-i r on or
E dison cell Fi
( g t reat e d in

g
.

Art 405

G y
. .

400 Le ad Stora e C e ll s Th e

u u v g
. .

Two e ne r al T pe s
- — In all l ead .

s lph ric ac id c ell s t h e act i e m a

-

t erials ar e l ead per oxide an d spon

dil u u
l ead
te
and

s
th e
lph
yu ri
ar e

c acid
-
y
im m er se d in
el e ctr ol t e
e

v g
.

Th e l ead per oxide is on t h e posi

t i e plat e an d t h e spon e l e ad
on
v th e ne g ati v e

u l
p at e Th ese

yg
.

a cti e m at erials ar e poor c ond e

uu u y
t ors
s ppor e d
an d ar e sof

t in a
t ,
h en c e

y y
fr am e or
th e
r id
ar e

s all

w h ic h
gy p r o i d e s
tim on all o
m
st r en t h an d c on d ct iv it
of

e c h av
l e ad
n i c a

Th e
l
-
an

u yk
*

yg
.

el e ctr ol t e does not att ac this

all o h en c e t h e r e is n o l oc al action
,

A raph in dic atin t pic al c h ar ac gyg .

t erist ics of lead st or a e c ells is

sh ow n in Fig 1 98

of plat es ar e
Th e t w o t pe s
. . y
F rG
t ct
. 20 0
t c ctcv t
.
- th t
Sh ow iri g t
ch ccg e n er al c on .
1
( Fig
.

.
T HE PL ANT E
— In is
OR F O R M E D T Y PE
ype of pla e the

t th c th t
s ru ion of E dison s or ag e e ll . a i e ma form e d b y
e r ials are e m i al

t t
pr o esse s out of an d on t h e l e ad su rfa es

ves

t th t
of t h e pl a es e m sel . Th e Gould ell is an e xam pl e of one a uses

épl a es

ct v t ch c c ch
Pl an .

T HE FAUR E —Pl a

t tt t t c t t c twhtchc c
2 . O R PAST E D T Y PE ( Fig . es of is ype ar e m ad e
by appl yin g the a i e ma e rial by som e me ani al pr o ess, su as m ixing

t
it in o a pas e an d spre ading it on t h e su rfa e or in o t h e in ers i es of t h e
auses it

t
grid or pl a e Th e pas e d m a e rial h as in it som e sub s an e
. i
to set or h ar de n Th e C h l oride Accum ul a or is an exam ple of a cell u sing
.

pas ed plat es .
2 62 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ ART 402

yy gg v u jy gy
.

el e

c h ar gg
ctrol t e
in
v ju
. Th e ar e , h ow e er, c apable of st andin more rapid
an d disc h ar in r at es w it h o t in ur T h e are l ess

y
.

liable t o lose t h eir acti e m at erial and b e in r ed by t h e accum u

d u
lation of

y
r ablev g g sedim e n

and ha
t in
e lon
t h e b ott om of t h e
er life In
c ells
ener al
.

th e y
Th e
ar e
ar e

a
m or e
m or e

v y gv u u g uu y
.

depen dable t pe of
t h an t h e paste d Th e past ed plat es
l
p at e .
,

h ow e er for a i en o t p t ar e c h e ap li h t and occ p a sm alle r

y fi y y g
, , ,

Th e also ar e not so b adly dam age d by im p rities in t h e

'

spac e .

e le ct rol t e Th e e f c ien c of past ed c ells is low er at hi h cur

.

r ent rat es t h an t h at of t h e Plan té t pe

u ku
.

402 Application of Plant éand Faur e or Paste d type C e ll s -

u
. .

Eac h h as applic at ions for w hic h it is b est s it e d For w or s c h

u g g k
.

as m ot or car pr op l sion t h e past e d c ell is b e tt e r adapt e d t h an t h e

-

Plantébe c a se of it s li h t w ei h t and low c ost ( Th e nic el .

l -

t t
Posit iv e Pl at e
— Pl a t t c ll Ne gat N e Plat e
'
'

gv y u
FI G . 2 03 . e s of a l e ad s or ag e ell using pas e d pl a e s .

ir on or c ell (Art 405) is now bein Widel

E dison se d for m ot or

u v
.

car applic at ions ) For pow er st ation ser ic e t h e Plan téc ell is -

yg y y g g
,
.

t h e m or e s it abl e Th er e ar e c e r t ain cl asses of ser ic e for w h ich

k fiu
.

eith e r t pe is fairl w ell adapt e d nam el : Train li h tin r ail

,
-
,

w ay si nal an d t el eph one w or

-
In e ac h spe c i c c ase all of t h e

y u u
.

c ondit ions c om mer cial as w ell as t e c h nic al sh o l d b e c onside red

, ,

befor e t h e t pe t h at is m ost s it able for t h e req irem ent s is

v
det er m ine d

vu fl g v yu
.

H
402A Positi e and Ne ati e Plat e S —
( S T A ND A R D A N DB O O K )

g
. .

T h e positi e t e rm inal or pole of a b att e r is th at one fr om

y g v v
w h ic h t h e c r r e nt
v
ow s int o t h e e xt e r n al c ir c it In st or a e
b att e r pr act ic e a positi e pl at e is one c onne ct e d t o t h e positi e
.

g v v y y
,

p o l e a
,
n d t h e n e at i e pl at e is t h e o n e w h ic h is c on n e ct e d t o t h e

ne at i e pole Not e th at th is is t h e re erse of prim ar b att er

.
-
SE C 2 0] S TORAGE B AT TE RI E S 2 63

gy vg v u fi
.

g
t er m in olo as i en in Ar t 3 34 Th e U S Pate nt Of c e h as
at t e m pt e d t o a oid c onf sion in th is r e ar d b y in sist in on t h e g . . . .

ug y
t erm s P osi tive pole plate and N egativ e pole plate b ut th is
” ” “
- -

g g
,

sa e h as n ot b ee n foll owe d gen e r all .

403 To D istin ui sh th e El e ctr od e s of Le ad Stora e C e ll s

gg v g vv
. .

Th e ctr ode w h ich is t h e c ath ode (Art 334) w h en t h e c e ll is

e le

y g
.

b ein disc h ar e d is t h e posit i e pl at e Th e oth er e l e ctr od e is

g v u g v vk g y
.

t h e n e ati e plat e Th e positi e plat e al w a s h as on e l ess r id

.

th an t h e ne ati e F r th e r m or e t h e posit i e pl at e is r e ddish

u
.
,

br ow n in c olor Wh ile t h e n e at i e pl at e is dar ra

g u g v u
.

404 M ainte nanc e and O pe r ation of Le ad sulph r ic ac id - -

u u fi
.

Stora e C e ll s — It is not possib l e t o i e h er e c om ple t e inst r o

kqu u fiu qu u
.

tions b e c a se e ach m an fact rer h as spe ci c dir e ctions for h is

m a e of c ell Any m an fact r er w ill f rn ish c om ple t e dat a on
.

re est or w ill answ e r Spe c i c e st ion s Th e m ost im por t an t .

p o in t s ar e t h ese

ct
ctct t w tt c t t ct c c ttt
E L E C T R O L Y TE t .
— Be sur e

ve
th e t el e r ol y e is fr e e fr om in j uriou s im puri ie s
M ain ain t h e spe ifi gr avi y Of
.

t ct c t
K ee p el e r ol yt e el l ab o ops of pl a e s .

ifi e d b y t h e m an ufa ur e r of t h e b a e ry

tt th h w c hwh ch t t ch c t
th e el e r ol y e at t h e de nsi y spe .

DO l e t t h e de n si y
n ot of t h e el e r ol yt e in an y ell diffe r fr om t h e s an d ar d

ving n orm al

w th h t c c c w t
den si y m or e an T us a ell a d en si y of m us
v

t wh
r e gis e r ab o e an d b el o en full y ar ge d Tes ea ell

t w t t
i ydr om e er on e a ee at l e as .

— K e ep

cc t t t c c t c ct
CELL s . ell s l e an e d out an d r e m ov e se dim e n en it h as d e pos

ch th
it e d m e al n e ar t h e l o e r e dge s of t h e pl a e s B e sur e se par a . ors ar e all in

No e any e v iden e s of ank l e ak age an d

ch t t
pl a e an d in good or d e r . orr e at

Main

ch th t ct c c t ch
on e . ain in sul a ion of e ll s fr om gr oun d an d fr om e a o er .

t tt t t c t cc
C H AR G I N G AND D I SC H AR GI N G . B e gin ar g e im m e d ia el y af e r t h e e n d

ch c t w
of dis ar ge or as soon e r e af e r as pr a i ab l e D o not on in u e . ar ge

tt t c t t w t chc w th chc wht ttt

“
af e r t h e n e g a iv e pl a e s b e gin t o gi e off g as, ex ep t h e o asion al b oil
in g
”
,
t o b e m e n ion e d l a er Ne e r l e t ar gin g ur r e n fall b el o
. vt h e 8~h r .

c ch tch c t t c thch t
r a e ex e p o ar d the e n d of ar ge , an d st op dis ar ge en th e ba e ry

v ol

w ht
po en ial fall s t o s pe r ell i t h e norm al urr e n ; v ol s per

v ol

t t c htt t
el l dis ar g in g at t h e 4- h r or . s pe r ell dis ar gin g at t h e 1 - h r r a e . .

—
Wa

ch t c
PL AT E s . the ol or s of t h e pl a e s an d if e y b e gin t o gr o lig e r

th h ch h c t t c t
rea at O n e for r em ov al of sul p a e .

OVE R C H AR GE — Giv e t h e b a v

t t t t ct
.
prol on ge d o er
e ry a ar ge ab ou on e a
m on . T is ov e r- ar ge s oul d on in u e at ab ou 60 pe r e n of t h e 8—
hr . .

g
r a e un il fr e e g assin g of th e v
ne g a i e pl a e s h as on inu e d for 1 h r .

th e
40 5
u
u v uy u
.

res
h
T e N
lt
c
v
i e l ir on or Edison Stor a
k -

u
c om e c er t ain of t h e n de sir ab le
O f an e ffor t to o
u er
e C e ll (Fig . 200 ) is

fe at res of le ad s l ph ric ac id c e lls

uIt is a r adic al de par t re
-

t h e r efr om in e er de t ail of c onstr ction Th e positi e plat e

I Fig 20 1 c onsist s of h ollow perfor ate d sh ee t st e el t b es ll e d
,
.
,
vu fi -

,
.

,
.

-
,
2 64 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T

y k y k
. 4 06

w ith
y
al ern a e
t
v y flk k v g
t la ers

Th e h dr at e is t h e act i e m at e r ial
of n i
c el h dr at e an d m et allic nic el
Th e nic el w h ic h is m ade in
.

uv v y u
.
,

t h e form of m ic r osc opic all t h in a es is adde d t o pr o ide ood

g v
,

c on d cti it b e t w e en t h e w alls O f t h e t b e and t h e r e m ot est

act i e m at e r ial

u
.

u y k
Th e n e at i e pl at e I I Fig 2 0 1 is m ade u p of
pe rfor at e d flat sh e e t st ee l b oxe s or poc e t s l oade d w it h ir on
-
, ,
.
,

vk u v y g u u
, ,

oxide an d a sm all am o n t of m er c r oxide Th e oxide is adde d .

t o pr o ide c on d ct i it T h e r ids w hi ch s ppor t t h ese t b e s

k v y
.

an d poc e ts ar e pun chings of sh ee t st e el Th e c ell t erm in als and

k y u u
.

c ont ain er are li e w ise of st eel an d all m e t allic par t s ar e h e a il

ni c el pl at e d

g g uu u y
Th e el e ct r ol te is a 2 1 per c e nt sol t ion O f c a s
.

t ic pot ash c ont ainin also a sm all am o nt of lith i m h dr at e

.

g
.

All se par at ors an d insul atin par ts ar e of r b b er

uggu u g
.

406 Th e C hie f C h ar acte ristic s of th e E dison Stora e C e ll ar e

g v g yu g g
.

r e dness due t o it s solid st e el c onst r ct ion ; l ow w ei h t b e

, , ,

c a se of its st r on er an d li h t er s ppor t in m e t al ; lon life b e

g v u u u
,

c ause of t h e c om pl et e re ersibilit Of c h e m ic al r e actions and t h e

ab se n c e of sh e ddin act i e m at er ial ; and l ow c ost of m aint e n an c e

u g y
,

due t o its fr ee dom fr om t h e t r o b l es s c h as s lph at ion so com

y g
,

m only e n c o nt er e d in st or a e b att er pr act ic e an d fr om t h e

-

u fi yu
,

n e c e ssit of int er n al c l e anin an d pl at e r e ne w als Th e im por

u
.

t an c e of th ese fe at r es sh o l d b e c onsider e d in e ach pr opose d

inst allat ion

v g
Th e e f c ie n c
.

fi y v
of t h e E dison c ell is ab o t 60

per c e n t as ag ainst 7 5 pe r c e nt for t h e l e ad c e lls ; h ow e er t h is

v u y g g ugg
. .
,

disad ant a e of l ow er ef c ien c is m or e t h an offse t in c ert ain

se r ic es b e c a se of it s r eliabili t li h t w ei h t r e dne ss and

v u g g
, ,

l ow m aint en an c e c ost Th e Edison c ell h as att ain e d it s c hief

v g ggg
.

pr om in en c e in el e ct r ic eh icl e pr op ls ion an d in t r ain li h t in

- -

ser ic e Se e Fig 1 9 7 for c h ar e an d disc h ar e r aph

g g u u
. . .

407 Th e C h e m ic al Action in th e E di son Stor a e C e ll is as

v u k yg v yg
.

Foll ow s — Th e ch ar in c r r ent c a ses an oxidat ion of t h e

posit i e pl at e an d a r e d ct ion of t h e ne at i e T h at is ox e n

gy v y
.
,

is adde d t o t h e i i pl at e an d t a en aw a fr om t h e l
p at e On

u
.

disc h ar e t h ese O per at ions ar e r e ersed Th e ele ct r ol t e acts

v
.

m er el as a m e di m an d does n ot e nt er int o c om binat ion w it h

‘

cifi c g yv y g
r a it yg
r e m ains pr act ic all ugg u g
any of t h e act i e m at e r ial as it does in t h e ac id c e ll s Its spe
c onst ant t h r o h o t t h e com
.

g M g
l
p e t e c cl e of c h ar e and disc h ar e
r aph s ar e sh ow n

g in Fig 1 9 7
Th e c h ar e an d disc h ar e
.

y qu
. .

40 8 In
. t
ain ainin Edison Stor a e C e ll s, t h e a tt en tion me c es
sar is of t h e sim pl es t c h aract er . Th e prin c ipal re ir e m ent is
 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI CI T Y [ AR T

tct c ct h
266 . 41 1

v ol
se rie s
m ains ( Fig .

on ainin g fi v e 3 2 c p l am ps In b o
—
—
c ch
2 04, I ) b y onn e in g in par all el fi v e series of l am ps, e ac
ase s, t w o 1 6- c p l am ps in
. . . th c . .

g g u
pa r all el c an b e u se d in pl a e O f e a 3 2 c p l am p . . .

u
41 0 Applic ations of Stora e
.

W y
t ion fr om t h e AM E R I C AN ANDB O O K H B att e rie s — Th e followin
F OR EL E C T R I C AL ENGI N E E R S,
t ab la

p b l ish e d by
g il e and Sons, in dic at es t h e prin cipal appli a c

cv t t t c
t ions of st or a e b att er ies

vi

t
“ ”
1 E m e rgen y reserv e or s an d b y
.
-
se r e.

tt t
2 Load or ol age re gul a ion
. .

3 Takin g pe aks

c t t c t w tc t
C en r al . .

s a i on s 4 . Day l oad on sm all sys em s.

5 . Ex i e r r eser ve .

ttt thc t h t ht t
6 . Re m o e- on r ol s i h ope r a ion .

Mine h ois h e avy m o

tt h ct vc t v t t c c ht
1 . s, s eel m ills an d o er or re gula ion .

2 . C arr ying en ir e l oad durin g e r ain ours of lig l oad .

v c c
Isol a ed 3 . L oad an d ol age r egul a ion in Of e b uil din gs an d o el s

t
pl an s w er e e l e ri el e a ors are in se rv i e .

4 Giv in g 2 4—
. h r se r i e in residen . es .

t t tt
5 Ope r a ion of dr aw b ridges
. .

- R egul at tv ct t t c
Miscell an e ous Applica ions
t t t ch of S or ag e B a e rie s

t
ion of ol age on l on g fee de rs of r ol l ey sys e m s.
s

Pr opul sion— ks

ww ht t ht
o
r ru s re e ars, sub m arin e b oa s, l aun es, et c .
,
a
o Gas-e n gin e igni ion .

in g—

ht t t t
h Rail ay c ar lig r ain lig ing
n
.

p Rail ay sign allin g .

t
Tel e p on e an d el e gr aph .
a
c

ctt t th c
l
s Por ab l e and sm al l -s a ionary l am ps .

o
o Fire and b ur gl ar-al arm sys e m s.

cch c vt tt t cht c c t t w ch
o Ele
c ro ypin g .

10 . D en al an d o er sur gi al w or k .

th vt v t
11 . Sour e of ons an po en ial an d urr e n in l ab or a ory or .

t t t
12 For an gin g ol age by ar ging the ell s in se ries and dis ar ging
—
.

in par all el O r t h e re erse

tht t tt htw t
em .

1 3 For pr oviding t h e diffe ren

. ol ages for a m ul i-v ol age sys e m , as

for a r ee -w ir e sys e m or a fi v e—ire sys e m .

g u y gy H u u u u
1 4 For au omob ile s ar ing an d l ig in g
. .

41 1 St ora e B att e rie s on S s em s

t av ing Fl c t t
a ing Loads

v u g y
. .

— A c entr al st ation s th at is s b j e ct t o s dde n and

ppl in a l oad

u vH gv g g y u y
e xt re m e ar iat ions ( F ig 20 5) m ust

se d h a e a e n e r at in u yg g
nless a st or a e b att er .

c apac it s ffi c ien t t o s ppl t h e m axi

is ,

m um
yy .

g y u
ow e e r if a st or a e b att e r ,

v g
is inst alle d t h e ene r at in
c apac it nee d be onl s ffi c ie nt for t h e a er a e dem and Th e
b att e r is so arran ed som ewh at as indic ate d in Fig 206 th at
, .
.

,
SE C 20 ] S TORAGE B A T TE RI E S 26 7

gg v g
.

it w ill be

y y v v g
c h ar ed w h e n t h e load de m and is below t h e a er a e
an d w ill disc h ar e w h e n t h e l oad de m an d is ab o e t h e a e r a e

g g qu
.

Th us t h e b att er m aint ains a pr actic all c onst ant l oad on t h e

,

e ner at in e ipm ent Th is m in I .

m iz es w e ar and te ar on t h e m ac h in

yu g
e ry and pe r m it s t h e O per at ion of t h e

m achiner
y at a c onst an t load t h at

g y
w ill ins r e h i h e ffic ien c
41 2 Stora e B att e rie s for C arr
.

H vy W
.

ing Part of th e Load at Tim e s of

p e
ea

a k loa d
v: it h ce
c
r h
t
t
a in cct
D e m an d , t h at is at tim es of

ct t l asse s o f F m 2 0 5 —
,T im

G ap in di a in g r
e

y
, .

fl u a ion O f urr e n O f a r ail

”

c e ntral st ation ser ic e t h e l oad for u

g u gg g y y k
,
w ay l o ad .

som e por t i on of e ac h 24 h r i s al w a s .

r e ate r t h an d rin t h e b al an c e of e ac h dail pe riod For e x

v g u
.

am m
” “
e w ith ele ctr ic li h tin
,
st at ions t h e r e is al w a s a
-
pe a
in t h e e enin fr om ab o t R M to P M as Sh own . . .
,

FIG . 2 06 . t t h w t c tt
— Ele m e n ary diagr am s o in g h ow a s or ag e ba e ry is appl ie d for

gu fi g g W y u g v
“
s an d -
by
”
k
or pe a - l oad se r vi e.

in t h e
use d ,

t h e pe a
s

k
r aph

f
sg y. ugg
cient y
of

B ut if
Fig .

e ne r a

a
tin c apac it
st or a e b att e r
h e re
m
is
t
s or a e

s t
inst alle d, as s
b atte ries
b e pr o ide d t o
ar e not

c arr
e st e d

l1 2 6 8 10 12 2
}
4 6 4 IO I
h mw hf Noon -7
T me m 140
'

e '

h ct ct t c
ging Ent ire Load
n D ur ing
-
B t e rg C ll Bat t erg Taking Pe ak of Load
gl
-

c t H
— Gr ap

y u
F IG . 207 . s indi a ing appl i a ions of s or age e ll s .

g
in Fig 206,

pe r
ene r a ors

iods O f
.

t
.
Of

can h an dle t h e pe a

light load and

kg u g y k g u g
t h e pr ope r c apac it , it in c onj n ct ion w ith t h e
Th e b att er is c h ar e d d rin
disc h ar
.

es d r in t h e pe a pe r iod .
 th t t c
2 68 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TR I CI T Y [ AR T . 4 13

tt c c t tct t t th t t w tt th
NO TE — By . is arr angem en t h e l oad on t h e gen e r a in g m a hine r y is
T h e ge n e r a in g e q uipm e n

w t tt w v t t
m ain ain e d r e ason ab l y on s an . ill en

fir s

tc c tc whc th h ww ch
ope r a e at good e on om y an d os w ill b e l e ss an if a s or age b a e ry is
Ho v er inv ol v e in

c c
n ot u se d . e ,
the s or age ba e ry ill al so es m en an d

Hen

t t t tt h t t t
ope r a in g os s . e , a c om parison s oul d al ays b e m ade for ea spe

c ifi c as e to as e rt ain e er , in t h e l on g run , it ill b e m or e e onom i al to

in s all a s or ag e ba e ry t o assis d urin g t h e pe a k or t o ins all addi ion al gen

g y g u g
e r at in g e quipm en to an dl e t h e pe a k .

H
41 3
C e rtain
.

g
Stor a
g y u y
e B att e rie s for C arr in
our s ar e arr an e d as dia
th e Entir e Load D
r am m a t ic all in dic at e d in
r in

Fig 2 06 .

v
l oad m ay b e so
y u vg . In
ug
c e r t ain c ases

g qu sm all d
,

r in
in isol at e d
c er t ain
pl an t s par t ic l ar l
ho rs, as Sh ow n
th e
in Fig
,

u yy u g gg y
.

2 O7 , I , t h at it is er e xpe nsi e to O pe r a e t ener a t in e ipm en t

to s ppl ch c ases a st or a e b att er m ay b e in st alle d
it In s

W g g u
. .

Th e b att er can b e c h ar e d w h il e t h e en e r at ors ar e in oper at ion

y y
.

h e n t h e l oad b e c om e s li h t t h e en er at ors c an b e sh t dow n

g g
an d t h e b att e r

uW u
sw itc h e d on t h e line t o c arr

Th e r aph of Fig ZO7 I ill st r at e s th is sit at ion

t h e ent ir e l oad .

y g W k u
. .
, ,

414 Stor a e B att e rie s Ar e e ll Ad apt e d for C e rtain Classe s

uu u v y uy y
.

of L ab or ator an d Te stin or b e c a se t h e h en ce th e
c r r ent s s pplie d b y t h em are pe rfe ctl ste ad — t h e ar e n ot

g v vy v g g v
,

s b j e ct t o t h e ariat ion s t h at ob t ain w h e n c rr e n t is pr ope ll e d

b y e ner at ors dr i e n b y e n in e s or ot h e r pr im e m o ers Fur

y u g u g
.

t h er m or e a ar ie t of , ol t a es m ay b e O b t ain e d fr om one

b att er by sin diffe r e nt ser ie s an d m l tiple arr an e m ent s Of

t h e c ells .
270 P RAC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

y y g
. 41 8

now n e essar

tion
u
w o l d be gy gy c
v
of ele ctric al ener u
,
it is

u uy v
ob
ex ee dinc
io s t h at t h e use of ely
t o depend on prim ar c ells for t h e ener a
for
e ct r i
us

c it
l res ri t ct ed Th e n m b erl ess pr esent- day

vg u qu gyu u
.

ele ctric al appli a c tions an d t h e m oder n w on derf ll e xt ensi e

de t w o l d b e out of t h e
el opm en e st ion F rt h er m or e t h e

y g
.
,

l on —dist an c e t r ansm ission of el e ct ric al ener w o l d n ot be

u u
c om m er ciall possible w er e it n ot for t h e prin ciple of m a ne tic

W
in d ction b e c a se it is on t his prin cipl e t h at t r ansform ers
u
g
(Art 82 6) also de pend for th eir oper ation
.

u
it h o t t r ans
for m er s l on dist anc e el e ct ric al t ransm ission w o l d not b e
-
.

fe asibl e
W 418
u
.

u u u
ts Across Line s of For ce an
h e ne v e r a C onductor C

g uv u u
.

E m f Is In d ce d in Th at C ond ctor , or w h at am o n t s t o t h e

u y
. . .
,

sam e t hi n w h en e er a flux of lines of for c e c ts ac r oss a c on d ct or

v u
,

an e m f is in d c e d in t h e c on d ct or Mic h ael F ar ada dis

u u
. . . .

c o er e d t h ese im por t an t fact s in 1 83 1 If t h e c on d ct or in

v u ug u
.

w hi c h t h e e m f is in d c e d for m s part of a cl ose d c ir c it it

u u
. . .
,

(t h e w ill dri e a c r r ent of ele ctron s t h r o h t h e c ir c it .

t t t t v c
S c h a c rr ent is an induced current or an induction current
N
c c
— Ins
th t c ct ct c t c Wh ene
.

t t t v tht t h c tc t
O TE e ad of t h e s a e m en , er a on du or u s a r oss
”
lines of for e an e m f is in du e d in a on du or .t h e follow ing syn ony
. .

W en a m agne i flux w i hin

h v t c c t c
m ous s a e m e n s ar e som e im es use d : ( 1 )
“

c ct c c t th t v t
”
a l oop of w ir e aries w i t h e im e , an e m f is indu e d in t h e l oop . . . .

( 2 ) W e ne er t h e num b e r of m agne i lines linkn a ir cui is h anged an

e m f is d e v el ope d in t h e

c th t c tt
”
. . . ondu or for m in g t h e ir ui .

t t th c t c c t c
“
Th e ide a of cutt ing of lines appe ars pr efe r abl e t o a of aria ion of
flux or linkin g of flux b e ause it see m s
”
a t h e id e a of u ing is t h e m ore
“

h tht t ht w c w c t c c c t thc ctc

r e adil y und e rs ood . Fur e rm or e , a om pl e e l oop or ir ui is not ne ces
sary for t h e d e v el opm en of an e . m f. . An e . m f . . can r e adil y b e indu ed in a

c c c t
s or s r aig pie e of ir e not formin g a l ose d ir ui and n ot onn e in g t o
Ho v er

t vth t t t t t wh cht
any in g . e ,
no urr e n c an flow un l ess t h e e . m f . . us in du e d is

c t c
im pr essed on a l ose d ir ui .

R el a i e t o his si u a ion, C arl He rin g h as m ade expe rim e n s

ct c c ct c ct ct h
i en d

t o prov e a an e m f c an n ot b e indu e d b y a m agn e i flux unl ess t h e flux

. . .

a uall y ut s t h e on du or or unl ess t h e flux is a u all y out or s e ar e d

u W
b y t h e on du or .

pr ov
419

en
.

C ut s Line s of For ce t
by u
.

u
An E m f Is Al so Induce d in

e xper im e n
. .

t
or w h en

. B ut sin c e
lin es of for c e
c rr en
a Non - cond

t
c t it
can n ot
.
t
c or

This h as b een
flow in
h e n It

a n on
T RAN S A I E E V ol 2 7 par t 2 , p 1 34 1 A l ist of ot h er r e fer e n ces , b e arin g
”

. . . . .
, . . .

on t his m at te r is g iv e n in K ar ape t ofi s T H E M A G N E TI C C I R C UI T ( M c Gr a w -Hill , 1 9 1 1 ) at

,
'

t h e foot of p 57 . .

TFor ad dit ional infor m at ion see PHI L T R A N S , R oy al Socie t y of L ond on , V ol ZO4 A, p 1 2 1 . . . . .

Als o PB oc Al s o Fl e m ing
'
190 5 . . RO Y . Soc
7 3 , p 4 90 . 1 904.
, V ol . . . s PR O PA G A TI O N or
EL E C T RI C C URR E N TS . p 56 , V an Nos t r and , N Y
. . .
 EL E C TROM AGNE TI C I ND U C TI ON 271

u g g
SE C . 2 1]

c ond ct or this m eth od of eneratin an e m f is of litt le com

,

m er cial im por t an c e and will t h er efor e not b e disc sse d f r t h er

. . .

u u
u
, , .

420 Wh y It Is Th at an E m f Is Induce d in a C onductor

u
. . . .

Wh en th e C onductor C ts or Is C ut by Flux Is Not Known

‘

y
.

Th e st at e m e nt m st b e acc e pt e d as t h at of a fact t h at can b e

wt tw c ct t c c c t
r eadil dem onstr at e d b y experim ent .

N
thth c h t th t ct c ctc t c ct c c tht c
e TE .
— We kn o ha h en a on du or , form ing par of a losed ir ui ,

t c t th th h th t t cct t w th c ct ct
is m ov e d r oug flux a th e e le r on s in t h e ondu or ar e e r eb y for e d

to m o ve ,
us re a in g an e l e ri u rre n . E ve n if t h e ir ui is ope n , an d

is a enden y o ar d m ak in g t h e ele rons

th h t c th w t c h
par of it u s rou g flux, er e

mov e — an e m f is es Th a is, if ele r on s—

th w
. . . ab lis ed . ose in t h e on du or
—ar e m ov e d r ou a m agn e i fi el d e r e is al ays a ende n y t o pus
g

W My
em out of t h e field side ise .

421 .

g
duce d b y Any Possib le
Th e Flux

g u h e re b
e
an

th od It m ay b e
E m f Is Induce d
.

-
. .

pr od
M ay Be Pro
c e d b y e it h er

v g u y g u v g
.

a per m an e n t m a ne t , or an el e ctr om a ne t or it m ay b e t h e cir

cul ar

the u yg u
flux
r es

th e or e tic all
ltin
en

uqu y el opin

flux h as t h e
b e ind
a c on d ct or c arr in c

c e d w ith
sam e n

e
m b er
al facili t
of line s,
rr en t Pr o idin
an e
.

w it h t h e flux pr o
. m f . . can,

g g u
,

duce d by any of t h e m e t h ods A flux of lin es of for c e h as t h e

H vu gy g
.

sam e ene r al pr oper t ie s r e ar dless O f t h e m e t h od of it s pr od ction

g
.

ow e in t h e pr actic al
er , en e r ation of a st r on flux can
be

g
m e an s
pr o

H
d c e

.
d m or e r e

gadil
u c
en e , e l e ctr om a
by ele ct r om a n e t s t h an b y ot h er
n e t s ar e tiliz e d in all pr act ic al e m f . . .

c w w ch
e n e r a or s t .

c ct tth c c c t th hh v t th h h
EX AM PLE .
— An e . m f . . b e in du e d in
c an a w ire b y s in gin g t h e w ire ( hi

th h c ct tc tt w c t t c
is onn e ed in o a l ose d ir ui r oug a gal an om e er ) r oug t h e flux
due t o t h e e ar
’
s fi eld (Ar t W e ne v e r it . is sw un g so as to S e ar

a d e fle ion of t h e gal v anom e e r

c
r oug t h e flux, ill indi a e th e e xis en e

of an in du ed e . m f . . Wh en t h e w ire is not u in g flux, no e . m f will b e

. .

G u
indu ed .

C utting
.

lines of for c efl u
422 An Exam pl e of th e
a Flux is ill g
ow s out of t h e gy t
s r a te d
e ne r a

in Fig 2 08
tion of an E m
Th e .

N pole fac e of t h e per m anent m a

.
. . f by a C ond ctor
.

flux of m a n e tic
ne t

flu fi u
c
a r oss the air a an d int o t h e S pol e —
fac e sin c e flux al w a s
g p
ow s fr om N pol e t o

ug fi v
a pie c e of a ny con

d ct or is r st h el d in t h e position AA an d t h en m o e d dow n
'

v g
S pol e Ass m e th at
.

u ug W g
’
w ar dly th r o h position BB t o nal position CC In m o in
'

u u g
.

fr om AA t o CC it w ill c t th r o h all of t h e lin e s c om prisin t h e

' ’

u
flux b e t w een t h e t w o pole fac es
lines an e m f will b e ind c e d in it
. . vuy
Ob io sl t h e c ond ct or
. u
hil e t h e c on d ct or is c ttin .

.
272 PR AC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u
. 4

g u
can out n o

en e r a e d
t (t h e pol e fac e s
lines
an d flu

vx b
ye

uig
n st at i
nl ess
onar )
it is in m otion ; h en c e ,
nless t h e
no e

yu
. mf . . can be

u v u y
c on d ct or is m o ed and t h er eb c ts lines
If t h e c ond ct or w er e h el d st at ionar at AA and t h e pole fac es
an d t h eir flux w er e m o e d
’

pw ar d (at t h e sam e r at e of spe e d as

.

fi rs f Pa s/h on
of Cana’
v e for

L MF

fi na l Pos i t i on

t c tt c
of Cond uc tor "

air e d /on of

FI G 20 8 —G en ion of E M F by u ing lin e s of for

u v u
. . er a . . . e.

uu ’
u y
t h at at w hic h t h e c ond ct or w as m o e d dow n w ar d) ntil t h e
c ond ct or ass m e d position C C in r elation t o t h e poles t h e e ffe ct
uu v
ug
,

w o l d b e pr e c isel t h e sam e as if t h e c on d ct or w e r e m o e d
dow nw ar d t hr o h t h e flux An e m f is ind c e d in t h e con . . . .

Dirac/i on of

t t tct htc h t
I St a t i on ary Conduct or,
.

Mov in g Fla x . II
. Mov ing Conductor , St ati onary Flux .

FI G . 209 .
— Il l us ra ing appli a ionof r ig -
an d r ul e for d e er m i ni n g t h e d ir e e
ion of an in d u ed E M F

u v uu u u u uu
. . .

d ctor w h e ne flux
c t s a c ond ct or or t h e c ond ct or c t s a
er a

flux Th e e m f is in d c e d in t h e c on d ct or w h et h e r t h e c ir c it

v u u v
. . . .

is open as sh ow n in Fig 2 08 or c lose d as in Fig . How , .

e e r w h en t h e c ir c it is o en n o c rr ent can flow b ut t h e e xist

, p ,

e nc e of t h e e m f can b e de t e ct e d wit h a olt m e t e r— as for inst an c e

. . .
2 74 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y (A m 42 7

uu uv u W
.

’
c it by t h e in d c ed e m f will b e fr om B tow ar d B h en t h e

u u
. . . .

c ond ctor is m o ed pw ar d fr om CC t o AA t h e e m f is in t h e
'

’ ’
. . .

’
opposit e dir e ction or fr om B t o B If t h e c on d ct or w e r e m ade

uu
.

t o osc ill at e b e t w een positions AA an d C C t h e in d c e d e m f

’ ’

u
. . .

w o l d b e fir st in one dir e ction an d t h en in t h e oth er

k g g
.

F r t h er m or e if t h e N and S pol es of t h e ill st r at ion w er e t r ans

u v u
,

p o se d m a i n
, t h e dir e ct ion o f t h e fl u x fr o m l e ft t o r i h t t his ,

also w o l d r e erse t h e dir e ct ion of t h e in d c e d e m f It is ob

uu
. . .

v ious t h en t h at t h er e is a r el at ion b e t w ee n : ( 1 ) t h e dir e ction of

, ,

m otion of t h e c on d ct or (2) t h e dir e ction of t h e flux an d (3 )

gH
, ,

t h e dir e ct ion of t h e in d c e d e m f Thi s relation is e xplain e d in . . .

foll ow in art icl es

u v u .

g
42 7 A and Rul e for D e te rminin g th e Dir e ction of an E m f

uu fi fi g u
In d ce d in a C ond ctor w as pr opose d b y Flem in It is t h e
. . .

fi g
.

m ost ser ic e able of all of t h e r l es for t his p r pose It is : Use

yu g g u
.

t h e r igh t hand Ext en d it s t h m b

. r st n er an d m iddle n er ,

so t h at t h e ar e at r i h t an l e s t o one anot h er as sh ow n in Fig .

20 9 . Th en t r n t h e h and in t o s c h a position : ( 1 ) tha t the thum b

p o i n ts in th e d ir e cti on o f th e m oti on or eq u iva le n t m oti on o f e con
th
ductor and (2) that the fir st fi nger points in the direction of the m ag
neti c flux Then the middle fi nger wi ll point in the direction of

k yg
.
,

the in duced e m f If t h e dir e ctions of any t w o of t h e fact or s ar e

. . .

n ow n t h e dir e ct ion of t h e ot h er can b e de t er m ine d by appl in

,

ct
t h is h and ru le .

c ctth
N
w or ds t
O TE

”
t .

“
— This
u mb
rul e c an
-
m o ion,
If t h e flux m ov es t o cut t h e on du
”
be
“
firs
c c ct ct thth t
rem e m b e r e d

fi n ge r flux -
by
”
asso

an d
ia in g t h e soun ds of t h e
“
m iddl e fi nger- m o ive t
t ctt
t t t w ch
for e . or , t h e u m b m us poin in

t h e dir e ion of eq ui val ent motion of t h e on du or , a is, in a dire ion

opposi e t o h a in hi t h e flux is m ov ing .

u
Ind k
428 A Rul e for th e D e te rm ination of th e D ire ction of an E m f
ce d
.

t h e lin es of for c e ,
in a C oil is : L oo
th at is loo alon t h e lin es of for c e fr om t h e
th ro ug
k g h the c oil in t h e dir e ction of
. . .

u k u
,

N t o t h e S pol e t h en a de c r ease in t h e flux e n cl ose d by t h e c oil

-

in d c es an e m f in a c l oc wise dir e ction ar o nd t h e c oil

u k
. . . C on
v e r sely an in c r e ase in t h e flu x e n c l ose d b y t h e c oil in d c es an
,

u u .

w h t ct
e m f in a c o n t e r c l oc w ise dir e ct ion ar o n d t h e c oil
. . . .

w h w th c ct
NO TE .
— Th ls r ul e foll o s fr om t h e

t ct w c t c
an d rul e alr e ady g iv e n in Art 42 7, as .

th th c c
ill b e s o n . Re fe r t o Fig 2 1 1 and no e t h e dir e . ion of t h e e m f in . . .

or L M Firs , assum e L M t o b e par of oil

c tcc
d uce d in t h e l e ng of on du .

L M OP; e n , if is oil is m ov e d up (in d ire ion AB ) it ill e n l ose addi

ional
t- flux and the ,
e . m f in du
. . ed in it will b e in a oun e r lo kw ise direc
 U EL E C TROM AGNE TI C I ND

t h t ct ct th t cwt h ht t wh chw
SE C . 2 1] C TI ON 2 75

ion L M it

t
ion . T a is, in se ill b e fr om rig t o le f , i is also t he
m ov e

th t t c Q th th c
sam e e . m f dire
. . ion as a indi a ed by t he an d r ul e for an up ard

LM

w ct c w c
m en of .

NO W if it b e assum e d L M is of oil RL M , en if is oil is

‘

a a par
m ov e d up ard (in dire ion AB ) th e flux en l osed b y it ill b e d e re ased ,

FI G 211 —S
c hw
hth o c t
I Perspect iv e View

tw th
in g h ow t h e c r ig an d r u l e is on sis en i the In r e ase or

cht t c c w ct h ch
.

”
de r e ase of flux l aw

t o lef in L M h
c vt ct ch
indu ing an e m f in it in a l o k ise dire ion, w i

h
. . .

cttw t
again will b e fr om

t c
“ ”
rig T us, t h e an ge -of- flux r ul e is in agr ee m e n
. i h

c ch c th c t
the and rul e If a oil is m o e d in a dir e ion par al lel t o t h e dire ion of
“
.

flux, or if it is m ov e d par allel t o i self in a unifor m m agn e i fi el d, t h e flux

en

h c
lose d b y it d oes

th ht
not , ob viously ,
an ge . He n e , u nde r e se ondi ions,

hwh ch tt t
no e . m f is in du
. . ed .

NO TE .
—T ere is an o er rig

th th t t c t
”
an d rul e , illus ra ed in Fig . 2 1 2,
fr e q ue n ly b e m ore c onv e n

t ht
i c an

j us re i ed

h th ct ct thct t
ient ly applie d an a .

It is : Ex e nd t h e fin gers of t h e rig

t c c ct th
and al ong the ondu or so a : (a)
the um b
poin s in t h e dir e ion of

t ct
m o ion of t h e ondu or an d ( b) the

palm re v
e i es t h e flux lines ; en the
fingers poin in t h e d ire ion of t h e in

g
duce d e . m f . .

(Art
42 9
u u u y y g c thtth c t
.

680)
An Alte rnatin
c o l d b e r eadil pr o F G 2 1 2 — Ill u a in a li a ion
Em f . . .

u k
'

g pp I . s r

duce d b y c ont in o sl osc illat in of on d ri g an d ul se

“
-
”
r e.

t h e c on d ct or of Fig 2 08 b ac

u uu u u fi
.

and for t h b e t w ee n positions AA and C C

’
Th at is t h e e m f
’
. . .
,

t h s ind c e d w o ld alt ernat e in dir e ction It w o l d rst t e nd

u
.

—
t o im pel a c rr ent in one dir e ction an d t h en in t h e ot h er If .
,

while being oscillate d, t h e c ond ct or BB w ere c onne ct e d into a

276 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u u
. 43 0

ugug u
c lose d cir c it it w o ld for c e an alter nating current (Ar t 678)
,

t h ro h t h e c ir c it Th e c ont ent s of t his par a r aph s e st in g uggg u .

g W
.
,

a ro h w ay t h e prin c ipl e of oper ation of t h e alt e rnat in c rr e nt -

u ug
,

e ne r at or

uu u v g fi u
.

430 h e n an In d c e d E m f For c e s C urr e nt Th r o h a C ir

. . . .

c it — If a c on d ct or t h at is m o e d in a m a ne t ic eld SO as t o

ug uu
c t flux as in Fig
.
,
is c onn e ct e d t o a c l ose d c ir c it t h e
e m f in d c e d in it (as de sc r ib e d in Art 4 2 2 ) w ill for c e c r r e n t
.

t h ro h t h e cir c it Th e int ensit of t h e c rr en t t h s pr od c e d

.

y uu u u u .
,

v g yu u v u vu g
.

w ill b e de t er m in e d b y t h e r esist an c e of t h e c ir c it an d t h e e m f . . .

or olt a e in d c e d in t h e c on d ct or Th e al e of t h is c rr en t

u k u
.

det ermin e d b y Oh m s law (Ar t 1 34) if t h e olt a e

’
can b e r eadil .

c ct t c t
in d c e d is n ow n t h s ,

12 v t c ct
EX AMPL E
ol s an d
— If a
is onn e
on du
ed
or

in
m ov e d in
se ries in c c th
a
a

ir tc h
m agn e i
ui a
fi el d ge ne r a
ving a resis
es an e

an e of
.

6 o ms
m f of . .

h w th t c
I E mF Consum ed byResist ance 11 E MF Cons ume d by Re s is t a nc e and
“
. . .

Count er E mF
. .

ct
.

. . .

FI G . 2 13 — S o in g a t h e im pr e sse d is e n t ir el y onsu m e d in

t t hc c t c c t wht chwc cth cth t c c twth t

an y cir ui .

c t w
( his 6 o m s in l udes t h e r esis an e of th e ond u or i se lf an d a of t h e

th h c ct t cct c t
e x e rn al ir ui ) , the u rr e n i ill flow r oug the ir ui ill b e : I
E R 12 v olts 6 ohms 2 am p . This u rr e n of 2 am p . ill flow
r ou g the on du or an d t h e e x e rn al ir ui , in asm u h as he y are c on

u u
ne ct e d in ser ies .

e vy 43 1
er y u u v y u qu
. Th e E m f Im pr e sse d on Any El e ctric Cir c it m
. . .

inst ant b e e n t ir el c ons m e d in r e sist an c e , in c o nt e r e

s t
m f
at

z
. . .

or in b ot h . Th e sum of t h e for c es m s t at e er inst ant e al

c c t
er o .

hw
E X A M PL E — In Fig
O m s L aw (Art
flo
’

h tt c cct
.

.
. 2 l 3, I,
I E
1 10
R
v ol t s

1 10
is im pr esse d
(1 1
on t h e
1 98)
ir ui .

am p
By
.

v c wht ch t t
dr op in t h e ir ui is : E
’
s . B ut again , by O m s l aw , t h e resis an e

A v ol age or e m f of 1 1 0 is im presse d

v t c c t
I X R X 2 00 1 1 0 volts . . . .

v erifi es t h e ab ov e-s a e d l aw

t vtc h c ct
an d 1 1 0 ol t s is onsum e d, i .

In Fig 2 1 3 , I I , t h e gen e r a or im pr e sse s 2 1 0 ol s on t h e ir ui

. Th e v ol .

t v t c
age d rop or t h e ol s onsum e d in t h e l in e ondu ors is : E I X R
l OX 1 0 volts . T is l e av es a v ol t age of : 2 10 10 200 v olts

v
a ail ab l e at t h e mo or t e rm in als. This 200 ol ts is en ir ely ons um ed by
2 78 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u ug
. 43 4

g fi W c lose d c ir c it— th ro
i c of c o e w i — n ot c onn ct d in a h
p e e pp r r e e e

t h e str on e st eld ob t ainable

G
434 Th e R e ason
u u v ug
h y For ce Is Re q ir e d t o M o e a C onduc
.

u u v yy u y gu u ugg u y
.

t or e ne r ating an In d ce d E m f and a C urr e nt Th ro h th e . . .

Fl x, w h ereb t h e e m f is in d c e d, is s e st e d in Fig 2 14

u u
. . . . .

Aro nd e c ond ct or c arr in a c rr ent a c ir c lar c lin dric al

er

yu g u u u u ug
,

flux of lines of for c e e st ablish es (Ar t W h en s c h a c ond e .

t or (one c arr in c rr en t) is p sh e d ac r oss t h at is t h r o h a

u u
, ,

flux t h e c ir c lar lin es ar o nd t h e c on d ct or c om bine w it h t h e

u u
,
—
line s of t h e flux on one side of t h e c ond ct or se e t h e ill st r a
.

u
tion On t h e ot h er side of t h e c on d ct or t h e cir c lar for c e lines
of t h e c on d ct or an d t h e lin es of t h e flux oppose e ac h ot h er
,

k
.

This t e nds t o c r ow d t h e line s of t h e flux t o one side of t h e conduc

u
t or as sh ow n an d t o dist or t t h e m Th e lin es of for c e ar e li e t aut

g
r bb e r b an ds (Ar t 56) an d t h e dis
.

H y u gfi
.

t or t e d one s t end t o st r ai h t en .

en c e t h e exert a for c e t en din to

g uu v
e xpel t h e c on d ct or fr om t h e

Thi s expellin for c e m st b e o er

el d .

v ug
c om e if t h e c on d ct or is t o b e
"

FI G 2 1 4 — tt u fi yg u u
m o e d t h r o h t h e flux
D i o ion of flu x c rr e nt c arr in
s r
If t h e
c ond ct or so lies -
.

t c u
. .

ggggxfig ffi fig fi
h d y f e f

gfi s
c ct ct
in the el d t h at t h e c on d ct or as

fi
o w o
T h e m ag ne i fi el d a oun d t h s m es a position parallel t o t h e
r e

t c ct g u
on d u or r e a s on t h fi l d d ue e e
d ir e ct i on of t h e el d t h er e Is n o
t o t h N an d S pol e s oppo ing t h e
e , s ,

t c t h c ct
m ov e m e n of th e on d u or for c e t en din t o expel t h e c on d ct or
.
.

h
E XAM PL E

tht h th t
208 is pus e d d o nw th h c tt
— Fig

c th t c ct c chct
.

c
2 14
h
represen s

r oug t h e flux,
on di
u
ions w
in g lin e s
en

of
the
for
on du
e . As it
or of
s
Fig
e ars
.

cc tc c t c c t thc ct w h h
r oug t h e lin es, an e . m f is in du
. . ed in it and the e . m f is in
. . su a dir ec
ion, Art 42 7, . a (it is now assum e d a the on d u or is onn e ed in a
l osed ir ui ) the urr e n im pel le d e r eb y is a ay fr om t h e r e ade r . T his
fi el d Art

t th c ct c
urr en produ es a around th e on du or as s ow n (see an d rul e , .

c t t t t t t ht h
q

Th e lines of t h e m agne s fi el d and fi el d

c ct c c t t h
’ ’
ose of t h e on du or s om b in e as

hv tht h c ct t t
in di a ed Th e b en or dis or e d line s en d t o s r aig en an d t o pus t h e
—out
.

ondu or upw ar d m us b e of t h e fi eld . Hen e, for e e xe r e d t o pus

it d ow nw ar d t o m ak e it s e ar

c c t th c t
r ou g t h e lin es of t h e flux an d gene r a e an

h c ct
e m f
. . Ob v iousl y, if m o e m en of t h e ondu or is s oppe d, n o lin es are cut
.

b y it , no e m f is in d u e d, no ur ren fl ow s an d
. . . e r e is n o for e e n d in g t o

g y u
pus th e ond u or fr om t h e fi eld .

y Hv u El e ctr om a n e tic all

’
435 L e nz . s Law : Ind ce d C urr e nt s
Alw a s a e S ch a Dire ction That th e Action of th e M agne tic
 ELE C TROM AGNE TI C I ND U C TI ON 2 79

M W u
SE C . 2 1]

uu
Fie l ds Se t Up by Th e m Tends to St0 p th e
d ce s Th e m —
otion

y u
h ich Pro
In ot h er w or ds, t h e dire ction of an ind c ed
“

u g
.

c rr ent is al wa s s c h t h at it t ends t o st op t h e m otion w hich

d c es it Fig
u 2 14 an d the
z u t ext cc om panyin it indic at e
“

pr o a

g
. .

one pr oof of t h e t r
’
th of t his law . Le n s law also a cc o t
n s for
t he c ondi tion desc rib e d in follow in ar tic les : That ener gy m ust
always be expended to pr oduce an electri c curr ent by electr om agne tic
induction but that, theoretically, n o ener gy (practically, ver y little)

u
is ne cessary to induce m erely an e m f Any in d c e d c o nter
y u ug u u
g u
. . .

e m f
.
— or c rr ent
. .
— is alw a s in s c h a dire ction as t o Oppose
any c h an e in t h e c rr en t pr od c in it .

FI G 2 1 5
. .

c th tc tt ’

— Fl ux of a m ovin g c
1 Apparat us

ct t t b ar m ag ne u in g on du
lI- Line s Cut t ing Conduct or

or of s a ion ar y coil and

t t t t t
in du ing er ein an e m f . . .

cc c t thth hh c c t c ct c c c h t
E XAM PL E — Wh en t h e perm anen m agne sh ow n in Fig 2 1 5 is h rus in
. o

c t t vc t t thc ct t c cct c t t
the oil of w ir e ere s ow n, an e . m f is in du
. . in t h e
ed oil . T is e . m f
. .

for es a urr en r oug the ir ui onn e ed t o t h e oil . It w ill b e no e d

quired

th t c c t c c w w th c
if areful ob se r a ions are m ade, a no for e is re to h rus t he

h t t c th h c c t c
m agne in o th e oil if t h e e x e rn al ir ui onn e ed to the oil is open .

— k—

c ht tc thc h c ct c c t wh t
But if is e x e rn al ir ui is l osed, for e or ill en be ne essary t o

pus t h e m agne in o t h e oil . Th e r e ason is is : W en the ir ui is lose d,

h ch th t wh t
urre n is for ed r oug the oil by t he e . m f in du
. . ed en t h e b ar m agn e
v

th ct ct t c c
is pus e d in o t he oil Th e dire ion of t h e (by Le nz ab o e
’
. ur r en s l aw
Art 427 ) is

t w t h
and b y t h e an d rul e of . su a en t h e b ar m agne is

t t c th t c c c c h
rus in o the oil , t h e u pper e nd of t h e oil h as, due t o t h e flow of t h e
indu ed urr en , the sam e pol ari y as t h e l o e r e nd of t h e m agne . T ey

t c c c t
e nd t o r epel h o m agne i ally, h en e for e is n e essary t o pus d own
“

ea er

th h c t ct c
t h e m agne .

Wh en t h e m agne is b ein g pull e d out of t h e oil , t h e ind u ed urr e n

roug t h e oil is in t h e opposi e dire ion a nd t h e uppe r e nd of t h e oil
 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y

t t th t w t h
2 80 [ AR T . 43 5A

tt ct ch th t c c w tt ct t t t tth wwth
now h as a pol ari y opposi e t o a of t h e lo e r e nd of t h e m agne
v
T ey .

h h c c tc ct c
a ra ea o er m agne i ally . This a ra ion e n ds t o pr e e n t h e i
— —
k m us

c t th h
dr aw al of t h e b ar m agent . F or e or be e xe r e d t o wi dra it .

cc vc cc t c t
l aw is again v e ri e d
’
T us L mz s .

W en t h e ir ui onn e ed to the oil is ope n , n o u rr e n c an flow r ou g

the oil Hen e, it s e n ds c an n ot de v el op pol ari ie s and the on d i ions

u y u
.

des rib e d ab o e c an n ot o ur .

g
'

43 5A An In d . ce d C urr e nt Is Alw a s in S ch a Dir e ction

Th at It s Fie l d O ppose s Any Ch an e in th e Existing Fie ld is

W y u
’
anot h e r (an d an im por t ant on e ) for m of L e n z s l aw

u ug g y M g u
.

436 h at D e te rm ine s th e Pow er Ne c e ssar t o Pr od ce an

g v u
.

Ind ced c of a ne tic In d ction

C urre nt Th r o h th e A en

u k gy qu u
.

Fr om t h e pr e c e din it is e ide nt t h at w h en n o c rr e n t is im pell e d

u —
gy g
b y an in d c e d e m f n o w or or e n er — is r e ir e d in ind c

gy y u u gy quy
. . .

in g t h e e m f Th at is nl ess e n e r is ener at e d b y t h e e m f

u
. . . .
.
,
.

n o e n er is ne c e ssar t o pr od c e it Simi lar l w h e n an in

u qu
.
,

duce d e m f does im pel a c rr ent en er is r e ir e d t o pr od c e

gv u g
. . .
,

the e m f .Th e am o nt of pow er ( Ar t 159) r e

. . ir e d t o m ain t ain .

a i en e m f is pr opor t ional t o t h e c rr e nt pr opa at e d b y t h e -

u u g
. . .

e m f

u ug g u
. . .

— —
Th e c rr en t t h e n m b er of am pe r e s pr opa at e d is de t er
m ine d by t h e r esist an c e of t h e c ir c it t h r o h w hi c h t h e c r r e n t

u
is for c e d by t h e e m f ( Oh m s l aw , Art
u Th e r e at er t h e
’
. . . .

r esis an e of a
t c cir c it t h e l ess t h e c rr en t an d vice versa— as

ug
, ,

sum ing th at c onst ant I t follow s t h en t h at t h e

the e m f is

g u ug qu
. . . .

r esi stance — r opposition

— of a cir cuit t h r o h w hic h any e m f
o

g u
. . .

ener at or im pels c r r en t de t er m in es t h e pow e r r e ire d b y or

p o w e r qu
r e ir e d t o v
dri e or t h e p
m
ow ek
c ons m e d by t h e ener at or for i pellin t h e c rr e nt Th e
r t a e n b y an yg e n e r at or o f a
.

—
t erist ics r esist an c e
u
—
. . .

u
c ert ain e m f at any inst ant is t h en det er m ined by t h e c h arac

gg ug
at t h at in st an t of t h e c ir c it t h r o h w h ic h
t h e ener at or for c es c rre nt r at h er t h an by t h e c h ar act e r ist ic s ,
,

,
,

of t h e

t
enerat or it se lf

tc c th tt ct c t h tht t cw ct c th h t
NO TE — If a gene ra or im presses an e m f on a ir ui
. c c t h ch
av in g su l ow
.

. . .

c cc t t tc c t ct h t c v t
r esis an e a a urr e n ,
l arge r an t h e in e r n al on du ors of t h e ge n e r a or

c an arr y w i h ou e x essi e v ea in g (Art . ill b e for ed r ou g t he

th t c ct c ct c
ir ui an d gener a or, t h e ge ne r a or ondu ors w il l ea e x essi el y an d th e
Hen v el oping l arge am oun

c c t t wth wt c h ct t t
m a hine m ay b e ruine d . e, ge ne r a ors for d e s of
_

pow e r m us av e in e rn al ondu ors of l ar ge r osss e ional are a t o arry the

ve

c t th t t c ct t t c ct
orrespondin gl y l arge ur re n s w i ou e x essi ea ing . Ge ne r a ors for
dev el opin g sm all am oun s of po er ill , in gene r al , arry rel a iv ely sm all
urre n s ; e r efore , the r oss-se ional are as of h e ir in e rn al ondu ors
m ay b e propor iona el y sm all .
2 82 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T

u
. 440

du ctor w hich
in a foll ow in g cu ts

ar
lines
ticle
u
. E ac h

Wu
of th ese fact or s w ill b e disc sse d

g u
.

440 Th e Spe e d with h ich a C onductor C t s Line s Affe cts

u u g
.

th e Val ue of th e E m f Ind ce d — Th e r e at er t h e n m b er of

uu u v u y uu
. . . .

linesc t in a se c on d b y a c ond ct or t h e r eat er will b e t h e e m f

v ug fi g
, . . .

ind c e d in t h e c on d ct or Ob io sl t h e fast er t h e in d ct or
.
,

c ond ct or m o es t h r o h a el d t h e r e at er will b e t h e n m b er ,

I Conduct or Cutt ing Fie ld

‘
II De ns e r Fie ld

res en t
'

Dofs re l ines
of for e e fla on
-
’
War

FI G 2 16 — Ill us
t tt
III Cut ingLines at
in gt h
an

fa ct ct
Angl e
ors a ff e in g t h e
IY S
v al u
h or t

e of an
Conduct or

in d u c ed e .m f

u v g g
. . ra e . .

of

c on v y v
lines
er sel

u
c t

gu fi g per
Thi s
se c on d

sam e
— th er efor e t h e
ide a can be expr e sse d
t
r e a er th e
th s:
ol a e , an d

Th e
t
t
r e a er

g u
.

t he t r a e of mo e m en t of the c on d ct or an d m a n etic el d w it h
r espe ct to ea ch ot h er , t h e r eat er t h e in d c e d e m f — an d . . . vi ce

c ct w th h
versa.

h ctt
EXAM PL E
fi e ld s ct vt .

wc
— If the ondu or AA ( Fig 2 1 6, I ) b e m ov ed d o
’
. n, r oug

hw th t tht c
il l b e
’
the ow n t o posi ion B B in 1 se c .
, a er ain nu m b e r of lin es cut

per secon d an d a e r ain say for e xam pl e 4 ol s, w ill b e indu e d in it .

if, o e ve r ,
it b e m ov ed fr om AA t o B B in ’ '
sec .
, a is w i w i e t he
 E LE C TROM AGNE TI C I ND UC TI ON

tw c w t c
SE C . 2 1] 2 83

t thw t c h
speed ,

vol w th h
i e t h e num b e r of lines ill b e cut per second and w i e t h e
If it b e m ov ed from AA t o B B
or

h t c
’ '
8 s, ill b e indu ed in it .i alf the
spee d , a is in 2 sec , one- alf t h e nu m b er of lines w ill b e cut per
. secon d

y Wu
an d one- alf the or 2 v ol s, w ill b e indu ed .

44 1

y
.

Afi e ct s th e Value
fi
Th e D ensit

u u of th e E
of th e Fie l d
m f in d c ed in t h e c ond c t or
h ich th e Conductor C ut s
Th e
‘

qu fi ug g fi v u ug k
. . . .

densit ,
B, of a el d can b e e xpressed by t h e n m b er of lin es pe r
s ar e in c h in t h e t h en t h at m or e
el d (Art It is ob io s

g u
.

lines of for c e t h read t h r o h a st r on eld t h an t hr o h a w ea

u k
one .

gv ug g fi
It foll ow s t h at a r eat er e m f w il l b e in d c e d in a con
d ct or for c e d in a i en t im e t h r o h a str on ug
el d t h an t h r o h
. . .

a w ea

th
EX AM PL E
h tcton e

t
.

— If t h e t
th h h w c th ct w c c w th h
. Fig 2 1 6, I b e push ed down h rough t h e
condu or of .

fiel d e re s ow n fr om posi ion AA t o posi ion B B in , say, 1 se c , it w ill cut

' ’
.

lines of t h e fi eld and

h ch t t th t t h
r oug the e re ill b e indu ed in it an e m f of say . . .

4 v olts . If now , o e ver , the ondu or b e for ed do n r oug the field of

t t c
I I, w i is four im es as d e ns e ( a is, it h as four im es as m any lines) from

v t th t c
’
CC to B B in 1 sec , four im es as m any lines w ill b e cut T t h e n um b e r
'
. . en ,

of lines cut per second w ill b e four im es as gr e a and if t h e e m f indu ed in

u
. . .

I w ere 4 ol s, a indu ed in I I will b e : 4 X4 1 6 v olts .

442 Th e Dire ction of M otion of th e C tting C onductor with

u u ug u g fi v g ug
.

Re spe ct to th e Dire ction of th e Fie l d Afi e ct s th e Value of th e

Ind ce d Em f If a c ond ct or b ein mo ed w it h nifor m

u
. . .

spee d c t s t hr o h t h e lin e s of a flux or el d at ri ht an les t o

uH
t h e lines it w ill
nit of t im e — u
u u u g ug
en c e t h e m axim m e m f is
ug
t h em in a

ener at e d in any
c t m or e

fi g ggv
t h an if it c t s t hr o h t h e lines at an an le
eld in a i en
g
any ot h er

. .
of

.
se c ond
— or in

EX AM PL E cw ct ht c t v t
tim e w h en t h e c ond ct or c ts t h ro h t h e lines at r i h t an les
—If
.

th tt v w th t c
. the ondu or of Fi g Z1 6, II I w ere m o
. ed w i h uniform
spee d fr om G t o H it ould cut at r ig an gl es a e r ain num b er of lines .

Assum e fr om G t o H in 1

w c
a it m o ed sec . an d a the e . m f indu. . ed in
v ol m oved H,

t cth t c
it w as 4 from G t o sam e
'
s . If n ow it ere at an angle at the
speed as b efore , it oul d cut t h e sam e num b er of lin es b ut sin e it h as m oved
) it h as required

th c th tct c v t th t c c
a gr e at er dis an e (b ut at th e sam e speed a l onge r im e , say

sec , t o c ut. is sam e num b er of l in es . Th ere fore t h e e . m f in du . . ed

firs

th c
w ould b e sm all er an in ase .
‘

e d in t h e firs

th
If t h e e . m f indu
. . in t h e se ond ase ase w e re 4 ol s, a

Th e fi el d in b o

th c c c
w oul d b e : 4 volts ases is assum ed t o b e t h e .

sam e Th e num b e r of lines cut per secon d is sm all er in t h e se cond cas e

. an

in t h e fi rs , en e t h e e m f in t h e se ond ase is t h e sm all er

. . . .

mo
443

v fi ed
.

th e Val ue of th e Induce d E m f
in a
W

ug
Th e Le ngth of th e C onductor

el d,
u v g
t h e m or e lines it will
. . .
— Th e lon
h ich C ut s Line s Afi e ct s

c t
er t he
p er
c ond ct or b ein
se c on d pr o ide d ,
2 84 PRAC T IC AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

ufi u g u yu y
. 444

of

t he
co

u el d
rse

.
t h at the
Th er efor e , t h e l onger t h e
c tt in c on d ct or
'
al w a s

c ond ct or
lies w h oll
, the g r e a er t
wit hin
the

c ctc w
e m f in d c ed an d vice ver sa

w t w c t
. . . .

— m ov e d fr om AA t o B B

c ct
Em ma If t h e on du or of Fig 2 1 6, I. ere
' ’

v ol

th t t c
in 1 sec .
,
and the e . m f in du
. . ed in it e re 4 s, t h e e m f indu e d in t h e
. . .

I V in m ovin g fr om E E t o FF v ol

h th t h c th tc thc c ct
’ '
on du or of ,
in 1 sec . ould be onl y 2 s .

Th e fi el d of I V is t h e s am e as a of I . Th e v ol age in du
in I V is onl yed

in t h e fi el d, of t h e on du or

ccc h th t c c
one - alf of a in du e d in I be ause t h e l e n g ,

of I V is onl y one - alf of a of I . He n e, t h e nu m b er of lin es c u t per

se on d in I V is onl y alf of a cu t in I an d t h e in du ed e m f is de r e ase d

uu uu u
. . .

a or din gly .

in d uu444 .

v
c e an e m f of 1 olt
To D e t e rm in e th e
in a
Val
c on d ct or
e of an In d

fi ux m
ced E
t
s
m f — To
be
.

c t by
. .

th e

fi
.
,
. .

c on d ct or at t h e r at e of one hund r ed m illion line s

per second
22 6 .

lin es per se c
u u
This foll ow s fr om t h e d e ni tion of a flux lin e ,
.

If flux is c t b y a c on d ct or at t h e r at e of
the e m f in d c e d in
u u the v c on d ct or w ill b e 2
Art

ol s,
t
.

t t t
. . . .
,

an d so on

wh ch ct th th w t
.

NO TE .
— Th e v al ue lin es is fre q u e n ly s a e d as 1 0 3 lin e s

h th th t
i m e ans exa ly t h e sam e ing . Thi s m e od of e xpr ession is e r m e d
ke

t ht t
i ndex notation . Th e e xpr ession 10 2
10 X 10 1 00 , li ise 1 0 3
Simil arly, 1 0 is a s 8
or an d me od of e xpr essing t h e v alue 1 0 m ul iplie d b y

v ugg u u
i s elf eig im es, or

Th e ab o e s es e d t l aw c an be s a e d as a
t t for m la t h s

(9 9a) E m f indu ced

. . .
fl ux li ne s cu t per second

( 1 00 ) xt
an d

( 10 1)
an d

W u v g v u u
( 1 0 2) (15 10 8
X t XE ( es)
l in

qt
u
h er ein E
t ot al n m b er of line s of for c e or t h e
a er a e in ol s, t in d

u u
c e d in c on d ct or
t ot al flux c t by t h e
.

u uu
c ond ct or t t h e t im e in se c on ds c ons m e d w hil e t h e con
d ct or c t s t h e flux (15 ( If
.

t h e r at e at w hi c h t h e c on d ct or c t s
, ,

u
u u g u
g y u
.

flux is nifor m or t h e sam e at all t im e s t h e in d c e d e m f w ill

v u vy
. . .
,

b e c orr espon din l nifor m or c onst ant If t h e r at e of c tt in .

aries fr om in st an t t o inst ant t h e in d c e d e m f w ill also ar ,

. . .

fr om inst ant t o inst ant ) .

 tt c t
286 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ AR T . 4 47

cct
2
ir
am p

ui
.

.
X 4 volts 8 watts . Th is illus r a es t h e prin ipl e of t h e ge ne r a or and

447 .

O pe ration on Thi s Prin c ipl e of a

M otor s D epend for Th e ir
Dire ct - curr e nt Generator s
ov ing C ond ctor C ttin a M and

u u g
g fi
Flux
ug
Th e arm atur es of t h e m ac hin es ar e m ade t o r ot at e in
g uy
-

uy
.

m a n et ic el ds p r od c e d b y e l e ct r om a n e t s C on d ct or s

u u ug fi u
.
,

c arrie d on an d r ot atin wit h t h e arm at r es ar e t h er eb for c e d ,

t o c t t h r o h t h ese el ds an d t h er eb e m fs ar e in d c e d in

u z u y
. . .

t h e c on d ct ors Rotary conver ter s an d h om opola r gener ator s also

.

tili e t his prin cipl e Gener at ors ar e disc sse d in an el em ent ar

.

w ay in Art 50 9 an d m ot ors in .

Art 62 5

y
. .

448 G e n e r ation of an In duce d

u W g
.

Em f. . . with a Station ar C on
d ctor an d a M ov in Flux (Fig

g
.

— ith t his m et h od b oth

u v
,

the ex citin m m f an d t h e flux . . .

pr od c e d by it m o e This is . .

Am m e ter or

t th ct
Perm an enf

c ct t t
na
‘

—G
t t
K G . 2 17 . e ner a ion of e .m . f
. wi FI G 2 1 8 — I n d u ion of an e m f
. . . . .

v
m o ing on du or an d s a ion ary flux . in a l oop of Wir e c u t b y t h e flux of a

y v u
per m an e n m ag n e .

m e r el

u k
tion of t h e m e th od descr ib e d in Ar t 44 6 Insofar

v
a

g
aria

as t h e e m f in d c e d is c on c er n e d it m a e s no differ en c e w h e t h er
. .

uqu y u ug
. . .
,

it is t h e flux or t h e c on d ct or t h at m o e s so l on as t h e con~
-

g
,

— —
d ct or by som e m e ans or ot h er c ts t hr o h t h e flux Fr e

y gv v y u
.

en t l t his m e th od an d t h at of Ar t 44 6 are t r e at e d as b ein

, .

t h e sam e m e t h od it m er el b ein n e c essar for t h e in d ct ion

uu fiy u
,

of an e m f t h at t h er e b e a r el at i e m o em e n t of t h e flux an d

v
. . .

t h e c ond ct or Spe c i c exam ple s of e m f in d ction w h ere

. . . .

t h w th t w t
t h e c on d ct or is st ationar an d t h e flux m o es ar e

l
so n o d
e i c— tw w
EXAM PL E — 1f t h e b ar m agn e
a oil of insul a e d
.

ire c s o in Fig 2 1 5 is
n

oun d on a spool —
rus d o n in o t h e
.

t h e lines of for e of t h e
 ELE C TRO M AGNE TI C I N D U
t t c c ct
SE C . 2 1] C TI ON 2 87

fl ux
th c cc wht th h tc
of t h e m agne
cc ct
cut the urns of t h e oil or ondu

ctwc ct w ch
t h e spool
or on
is b e in g m ov ed ) in t h e ondu
. An

tt t t c tt c h c t
e . m f is
. . e reb y indu ed ( ile t h e m agn e or .

T his e . m f for
. . es a urr e n r ou g t h e l osed ir ui hi in l ud es t h e

t t t t c
am m e e r or v ol me e r an d the oil . T is urre n ill ause t h e am m e e r or
vol

t c tw ct w th w t
me er t o in di a e .

th w t ct ct ct w c
As t h e m agne is b ein g hr us in o t h e sol e noid, t h e in du ed e . m f . . an d

As t h e m agne is b ein g

w th w
r esul in g ur re n ill b e in on e dir e ion . i dra n
v erse dire ion— q uired

t t ht tt
ey ill b e in t h e re an d som e for e ill b e re t o e ffe

c w th ct c tc t t tt t
t h e ins e r ion an d the i dr a al of t h e m agn e , all as des rib ed in Ar t 434 . .

A v e ry s

ct c
r on g b ar m ag ne an d a sol en oid of a l ar ge num b er of urns mi g be

t
n e e ssary to e ffe an in di a ion on an or din ary am m e e r or v ol me er .

B ut i su fii cie n t l y d eli a e ins rum e n t s an in di a ion oul d be ob ain ed

—

u
re adil y by usin g any b ar m agne and sol en oid .

u yg
448A Th e E m f In d
Turns in Th e Sol e noid
.

g v y
.

v . .

-
ced Is Pr opor tional to th e
If t h e b ar m a ne t des crib e d ab o e w e r e
Num b er of

g u u v y
.

th r s t tir el
en t o t h e b ott om of t h e sol e n oid, e er lin e of t h e

tu
flux
rn

side r e d
e m anat in

of

v k theu
as an d
fr om t h e N pole of t h e m a n e t w o l d c t e er

u H uv
sol enoid Ea c h t rn of t h e solenoid m ay b e con
b eh a
.

es li
c on d ct or e ow e er
a se par a e t

ug g u u
.
,

all of t h ese turn s ar e c onn e ct e d in series sin c e t h e c on d ctor

u
,

c onstit tin t h e sole noid is w o n d ont o t h e spool in one c on t in

u qu
ous l en t h

w o ld be
.

e
Th er efor e t h e t ot al e m f in d c e d in t h e sol enoid
al t o that induced in
,
.

each
. .

little conductor or tur n , by

the
the
m er ely
flux
sole noid

ano
cutting

g g . u
it per second, m ultiplied by the number of turns in
—
u
This m ay b e expr esse d in a form l a w hic h is
t h er w ay of denotin the e ner al l aw of Art 444, t h
. s:

xt

(t u r ns )

E x t x 10 8

( 1 06) (lin es)

W h er ein E t in d c e d in t h e solen oid w hil e t h e

in vu g u u
ol s,

u
lin es of t h e flux qt ar e c ttin t h e t rns of t h e sole n oid

qu
n m b er of lines or t ot al flux t h at c ts t h e t rns

in se c onds r e ir ed t o effe ct t h e c ttin

, N
oS
t h e tim e
n m be r of t rns
uu g u u .
.
.

u ,

in t h e sol enoid .
 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI CI T Y

tc
2 88 [ ART . 44 8A

tt h tt
EX AM PL E
wh ch
.
— If
lin es em ana es from t h e N pole of t h e b ar
a flux of

tht t tt
th t tt
m agne of Fig 2 1 5, w a e m f w ill b e indu e d in t h e sole noid,
. .i .h as
.

th tt t t tc t c t
400 urns , w hile t h e m agne is b e ing r us t o t h e b o om of t h e sol e n oid ? It
r e q uir e s 1 se c t o ru s t h e m agne fr om ab ov e t h e sol e noid t o it s b o om
. .

It is assum e d a al l of t h e flux of t h e m agne u s e a h urn of t h e sole n oid .

U
SO L T O NI — Sub s i u e in t h e for m ul a ( 10 3 )
.

N xc 4 00 x

v g
x t x1

in 1
u
If t h e
v
se c u t u ab o e

an e
desc rib e d m a
l d also b e in d c e d b ut t h is
m f of
ne

ol s w o
t w er e dr aw n fr om t h e sole noid

u u u g u
.
,
. . .
,

e m f w o l d b e in t h e opposit e dir e ct ion Th e dir e ction of any

v g y g
. . . .

s c h in d c e d e m f can b e de t e r m ine d by sin t h e h an d r le of

u u gv u u
. . .

Ar t 42 7 . Th e flux de el ope d b y a m ov in sol e noid c arr in

.

c rr ent (Fig 2 19) w o ld pr o ided it h ad t h e sam e n m b er of

.
,

line s as t h e per m anent m a ne t in d c e an e m f in anot h e r

,
. . .

éo/e/ w/ d

FI G .

tt t
2 1 9 — Fl ux of a m o in g sol e n oid , v th hwhc chcth t w c tt
r ou g i ur r e n is flo in g , u in g

y g y
ur n s of a s a ion ar y sol e n oid an d in d u in g e r e in an e m f . . .

s a t tionar sol e n oid in pr e cisel th e sam e w ay as does t h e flux of

c c t tw th t t
a pe r m an en t ma ne : t

th t t w
EX AM P L E .
-
If a sol e n oid -

c tt
ar ryin g ur r e n ( Fig . 2 19)
t c w th
be rus in o

t
an o er s a ion ary sol e n oid , t h e flux of t h e fi rs il l cut t h e urns of t h e sec

t t t hc
on d and an e . m f . . ill b e indu ed in t h e ion ary sol en oid , pre isely
s a as i
m ov ing sole noid h ad a flux of

tt t w t c tt w
t h e b ar m agne of Fig 2 1 5 . . If t h e
line s, t h e s a ion ary sol e noid 400 urn s, an d it re quired 1 se c . t o pus the
fi rs v ol s

t c ct t w c
sol en oid do n in o t h e se on d , an e . m f. . of oul d b e indu e d in

sol en oid— v An

t t
t he s a ion ary the sam e as in t h e b ar-m agne e xam pl e ab o e .

fi rs v

wh c wh w th t
e . m f
. . of v ol s w oul d also b e in du ed if t h e sol en oid ere r e m o ed

h w
fr om t h e s a ionar y sol en oid in 1 sec . T h e dire ion of t h e e . m f in du
. . ed

ile t h e m ov ing sol e n oid w as b e ing i d r aw n w oul d b e opposi e

v g
in du ed ile it w as b eing pus ed do n .

In eit h er of the ab o e exam pl es, if t h e b ar m a ne t or t h

 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TRI C I T Y [ ART

v y u ug yfl
290 45
'

Fig 2 2 1 , I I
Th ese
.

u
y g ug u
cir c
y u
c arr in a c rr en t of ele ctricit
e

c on d
lar lin e s do
er c on d ct or t h r o
is no
It is t h e c ir c l ar lines of s c h 2
not s rr o nd any
h w hi c h
uu e lectricit
ct or w h ic h
u
ow s

vyg u
.

flux e m anat in for e xam pl e fr om B (Fig 2 2 1 ) w h ic h w hile t h e

, ,
.
,

flux is ar in out A and in d c e t h er ein an e m f

,
. . .

t c th t t
I Ke y Ope n II Ke y Cl os e d
-

( Fi rst Ins t a nt )

c ct
'

FI G . 22 1 .
— E xa m pl e of t h e g e n e r a ion of an in d u ed e . m f wi
. . a s a ion ar y
on d u or an d a va r ia b l e flux

t c v t t t
.

t c c ct c c cchth t
EX AM P L E —Af er K , Fig 2 2 1 is l ose d, it is se er al in s an s (b y an ins an
.

t
.

t c
is m e an a sm all fr a ion of a se on d ) b efore t h e urr en and c onse q uent l:

c t c t c ct
t h e flux of ir ul ar lin es of for e surr oun din g B r e a eir m axim u m in e nsi
—
is v aryin g in re asin g In Art 48 1 it i

c thtt th v v t t t t ct t th th t
ies In t e m e ant
. h fl h
e t e flu x . .

e xpl ain e d w hy t h e urre n an d ons e quen flux of any on du or c an no

K t c c
re a eir m axim um alu es ins an ly . Th e fa of in e r es e r e is a t h e;

c ct hw h t
do not a ain e ir m axim u m al u e s ins an ly .

In Fi g . t h e ke y j
h as us b e e n l ose d an d a fe w lin e s of for e en c ir
cl e on du or B . Fig 22 2, I I I , I V , V an d V I s o in a r ou g d iagr am m a i
.

c t c c tt Y Fourt h Insta nt III Fift h Inst a nt

-

III Se cond Inst ant

- III -
Th ird Inst a nt

— V ariab l e
.

c c th t ht
Ifi G . 222 . flux on sis in g of c ir c ul ar lin e s of for e u in g c on d u c t or

cc t t
thc tt c th tvt t K ch
w ay t h e in
c t c t
r e asin g

ve
— v aryin g— num b e rs of lin e s of for e b e form e r
a m ig

c c
at su essi ins an s as the ur r e n in B in r e ase s . In V I , it is assu m e t
s e ady v al ue an d w il

c th ct c t wth c c t th c h th h
a the urre n an d flux h as re a e d it s m axim u m ,

on in u e at is opene da T h e m axim u m nu m b e r of ir ul a
al ue un il .

a t h e urr e n fl o in g can ge n er a e is,

t tw c ct
l ines of for e e n , s ow n in VI .

As t e —
in e ases v aries

c c c tc t tc
h flu x r ese ir ul ar line s of for e m ay b e ou g

of as e m an a ing — e xpan din g ou ar dl y — fr om t h e axis of a on du or , I]

mu h t h e sam e w ay as on e n ri k
sm o e rin gs e m ana e from t h e s a k of a
 EL E C TROM AGNE TI C I ND UC TI ON

ct t v w c c t tc
SE C 2 1] 29 1

c thct w
lo om o i e or

ht c c ct t c
t h e ripples e m ana e from t h e poin w h e re a peb ble is dr oppe d
Ho e v er, ir ul ar lines of for e ar ound a urre n - arryin g

w th t c
in o a pond .

c c t ct h c ct
ondu or al ays form and expand at rig angles t o t h e ondu or ( Fig . 2 22 )
yform v ery r apidly

th cht c th ctt th thh ct c t

and e . It ill b e n ot ed fr om Fig 22 2 . a e r t ain cir

c ul ar lines produ ed by ur re n in condu or B v

a e cut ondu or A . Th e
A gener a

h th th
lin es a out e an e . m f . . ereinin t h e dir e ion in di a ed by t h e
k

t c w
arr ows ( e is dire ion w i the and rul e of Ar t . In V I t h e flux

thch t h c t v t c t t th
or num b e r of lines is a m axim um . T e r efore , e re w il l b e n o fur er v a

riat iOn of flux . No addi ional lin es of for e w ill b e form ed n or ill t h e lines
v —

c t w t t
a a e b ee n form e d m o e fr om t h e posi ions indi a ed un il e re is a

c c w th t v c c ct c vc h
ange of urr e n in B .

If key K b e in B ill rapidly b ut not ins an a

opene d , t h e ne ousl y ur ren

tth t t c ctw th th t thw h th h v

d e re ase t o z e ro Th e flux w ill ary (d e r e ase ) t o z e ro
. Th e ir ul ar li n es .

of for e ill e refore re urn t o t h e axis of t h e ondu or an d anis In .

A Th e lines

t wh t w c tt t thct th ct
r e urning t o t h e on du or som e of t h e lines ill cut r ou g .

a cut A in re urnin g ill b e ose a cut r ou g it , in t h e r e e rse dire c

By again u ing A,

t t wh v c t K
ion, en t h e flux w as form ing ey again indu e an .

c c
e m f in it
. . . But his e m f . ill b e in t h e opposi e dire ion fr om . a in. .

c c ct t t w
duce d durin g t h e ins an s il e t h e flux w as aryin g (in re asing) af er w as

ct t t t K c
l ose d .

He n e an e m f w ill b e indu e d in ondu or A and t h e v ol m e er ill b e

h t ch th w c t thc v t h th
. . .

d e fle e d, m om en arily, durin g t h e ins an s aft e r is opene d or is l ose d .

W e n ere
c
T a is, e re ill b e an e m f indu ed w hil e t h e flux is aryin g . . . .

is no an ge in t h e u rr en in B , er e can b e n o v aria ion in flux ; n o l ines

y u
c an out A an d n o e m f c an b e indu ed in A . . . .

M y Induction of an E m f by Var ing th e Rel ctance of th e

452
agne tic C ir cuit —
u
.

g u
This m e t h od is, as o tlin e d in Art 450 ,
y u
. . .

v u g u v
.

m er el one of ind c in an e m f w it h a st ationar c on d ct or an d

ug v g ug y g v
. . .

a ariable flux . As t h e rel ct an c e of t h e m a ne tic cir c it is arie d

t h e flux thro
cc or din l in h it arie s a c om plian c e wit h t h e

u i en in Art 2 3 1
v
“ ’ ”
Oh m s l aw of t h e m a ne t ic c ir c it Th e

y v y u
. .

m m f is ass m e d t o b e c onst ant As t h e flux aries it s lines

y u
. . . .
,

e xpand or c ont r act— —

in effe ct t h e m o e an d t h e t h en c t t h e

g
st ation ar

g u
c on d ct or in a m anner sim ilar t o t h at describ ed in pre

t t t
c edin articl es Th e followin exam ple ill st rat es t h e prin c iple
.

c
EX AMPL E
c t t h ht c c c t th w
.
—C onside r t h e appar a us of Fig 2 20
. Th e per m anen m agne
.

t c thc h t c t c
is t h e sour e of m m f . . . and re a es a flux . Th e m agne i ir ui of is flux .

is : ( 1 ) Out of t h e N pole of t h e m agne .

(2 ) T r ou g t h e air t o t h e l o er
Up

h h t t c t t c
e nd of t h e sof -
ir on or e C .
(3 ) r oug th e sof - ir on or e .
(4) A r oss

cct
t h e air gap from t h e t op end of t h e or e t o t h e S pole of t h e pe rm ane n m ag
,

v c ct c t c c t w
ne t (5) T r oug t h e perm anen m agne t o N, om ple ing t h e m agne i
.

c cc h v c t c c
ir ui .

Now if M b e m o ed l ose r t o C t h e r el u an e of hi s ir ui ill b e

c ct tt
de re ased . T en the flux w ill b e in re ase d In in . r e asin g t h e flux expands
(v aries) o upying m ore olum e , as t h e addi ional lines of for form e . In
e xpanding som e of t h e lines cut th e ondu ors of t h e s a ionary coil and
 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y

thc c vth c t ct w
292 [ AR T . 453

de
c tt c
e r eb y

r e ase
ind u
d , itsct e e r e in an e

ol u m e on r a
. m f .

s
. If M is
and an e .
m ov e d
m f in t h e
. .
a ay fr om C t h e flux is
re v e rse d ir e ion is

GM u
in du ed in t h e s a ion ary oil .

and a
453
u
u u ug u u g g fi
.

W e ne r a

ov ing
tion
C ond
d ct or is for c e d t h r o h a p lsatin m a n e tic el d
of an

ctor —
t h is m e t h od (Fig 22 3) a con
An e m f
.
In d
it h
ce d Em f . . . with a Var iab l e Fl ux
.

v u g u ug u
. . . .

is t h en in d c e d in t h e c on d ct or I t will be due to tw o agen cie s: .

( 1 ) Th e m o em ent of t h e c on d ct or t h r o h t h e flux ind c e s an

e m f
. .

u yg u
.

u
(2) Th e p l sat in flux as it s lines expan d out of and con
tract int o t h e c rr ent c arr in c on d ct ors t h at pr od c e t h em
-

c ct
a r 9 m5 or Putsa fm5
Y . Cond uc tor
f l ux

— M ov in g v a iab l

u g gg g u u u
FI G . 223 . ondu or in a r e flux .

also eff e ct a c ttin c on d ct or and ind c e in it anot h e r

of t h e

e m f
.

bine d
. .

“ ”
,

tr ansfor m er (Art 82 8) an d
u g g
T h at is t h e a r e at e ind c e d e m f is due t o a c om
en er at or
”
(Art 509)
.
. . .

th t v c w t w th hh t
a ction . This action occ rs in sin l e ph as e m ot ors -
.

ct
EX AMP L E .4 —Assum e
h a

c t ct t
a v arying u rr en is flo in g r ou g

c ct
the sol enoid

c ct c th h t
of Fig 22 3
. . T en t h e flux it de el ops ill b e v ariab l e . T a is, it w ill b e
inuall y m oving,

t c t
on e xpan ding ou t of or on r a in g in o the on du ors of

Now if A b e for v arying flux fr om

c c ctth v wc
the sol en oid . ondu or ed r oug his
posi ion A, t o posi ion A2 it w ill cut t h e lin es of t h e flux

cc ctct w t t
Th e r eb y an e m f . . . .

Als o, t h e flux lines as the y m o e ill cut

th c t
w ill b e in du e d in t h e on du or .

t h e on du or and indu e an o e r e m f in it Th e o al e m f in du ed in . . . . . . .

the on du or ill b e t h e sum of ese t w o om pon en e . m fs

. .
2 94 PRAC TI CAL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u uv y
. 4 57

uv457 .

o t line d in Ar t 4 54, e er
c

u u u u
tion Be tw e e n Tw o C oncentric C oil s — As
M tual Ind

u u
c ase of m t al in d ction is one w h e r e

u y u uu u u
.

t h e ariable flux of on e c ir c it c t s a c on d ct or of anot h er cir

c it An e m f is t h ereb ind c e d in t h e se c ond cir c it As will
. . . . .

b e sh ow n t h e ph enom enon of m t al ind ct ion b et w e en t w o

,

FI G . 2 24 .
— D iagr a m tc c t hc wc t
of appar a us for s o in g m u u al in d u ct twion b e ee n two

u uu
on e n ri oil s .

4 50
u g u
.

u
c on c ent ric c oils (Fig 22 5) is due t o t h e sam e c a ses as t h e m t al
in d ction b e t w e en t w o par all el c on d ct ors expl aine d in Art
Th e foll ow in exam ple ill str at es t h e m t all in d ct i e
.
,

uu y u v .

t whc chct h
act ion b et w een t w o c on c e nt ric c oil s :

EXAMPL E
diagr am
—
As s o n in Fig 2 2 6
. hw th ct c
C onside r t h e appar a us of Fig 22 5 of
e r e is n o el e ri al . .
. i
onn e
Fig 224.

ion b e tws ow s a

ee n the

FI G . 2 25 — Appar a t us h w ct
for s
Secon

o
day Coil o Wind/ng
in g m u
r

u al
r

in du ct tw c c t
,
in which E

ion b e
.

e en
H E is Induced
.

t wo
.

on e n ri c

c c ct c c wct c t t wch t thc

oil s .

prim ary and t h e se on dary oils

tt c c t ct
. If t h e t w o ir e e nds be ou ed oge er

at A, Fig 225 , so as t o m ak e e l e

c tth w t c tw
. ri al onn e ion, a urr e n ill b e for ed ,

ct ct t w
by t h e e . m f . . of t h e d ry b a e ry , ar ound t h e prim ary ir ui in t h e dire ion

ct
indi a ed by t h e arr o s in Fi g 224 . .

Fur erm ore , a m om e n ary

'
u rr e n ill b e in du ed in t h e se on d ary ind
in g, as will b e in di a ed by a m om ent ary de flec ion Of t h e v ol me er. Th e
 U M UU C TI ON

cw twc t tt c ct t c t ct t t
se c . 22 1 T AL I ND 2 95

th w
sec ondary urren ill be in t h e opposi e dire ion fr om t h e prim ar y urre n

c c t c t
as t h e arr o s indi a e . Th e m om e n ary urr e n on in u es an ins an onl y

cth c w w w c tt t ch tt th t t
an d en d ec ays t o z er o .

If t h e ir es n ow b e dis onn e ted at A, a m om e n ar y urre n w ill again b e

t t c th t t h chc w tth c t t ct
in du ed in t h e se ondar y in ding This . urre n t oo las s for an ins an onl y
Wh en t h e ires e re firs

w
an d e n dies out . ou ed oge er t h e m om en
flo

c ct t c t c t c t cct c t
ary urr e n w i ed in t h e se ond ary w indin g w as in a dire ion oppo
si e to a of t h e t h e pri m ar y
urre n en b eing s ar ed in in ding Wh en .

t h e ir ui w as ope ned at A, s oppin g t h e urren in t h e prim ary

th t h c c c ttwh ch c t wh
ir ui ,

m om e n ary urre n w as indu e d in t h e sec on d ary in t h e sam e dire ion as

c c t c c c t ch ct
a of t h e prim ar y urre n i w as b ein g s oppe d .

W A

thc t t c tc t c c tc c twh c
e n t h e prim ary ir ui w as b ein g l osed at an d en it w as b e in g
ope ned , t h e in du ed urr e n in t h e se on dar y ir ui w as in su a dire ion

cc c t c c t c c t cct
a it opposed t h e cha nge in urre n in t h e prim ary ir ui Th e ind u e d .

urre n opposed t h e b uilding up of a urre n in t h e prim ary ir ui en t h e

A Wh en t h e
c w tcc t c c
ir ui w as ope n e d at . cha nge in urre n in t h e prim ary ir ui

e as e d , t h e in du ed urre n e as ed al so .

Now fi el ds gene r ate d b y t h e

w th h
onside rin g t h e m agn e i indu ed urre n ts in
Wh en
c
the sec on dary indin g : urre n

flo

c c c th t
ed r oug t h e prim ary ( Fig 22 4) .

c
t h e u ppe r e nd of t h e prim ar y oil be

th ct c tht
am e a n or pol e (Ar t . Th e
indu ed urre n in the se on d ary

ct th th
oppose d is pr od u ion of a n or pol e
at t h e t op e n d of t h e oil b y ryin g Prim a ry .

CO”

cct t c t h
it se lf t o pr od u e ere a sou pol e
( Art Af er the fi el d due t o the

t c t
.

t c ccc t
prim ary urre n w as on e es ab lis e d,
t h e i du i on O f an e m f and a cur
n .

c tc . . .
FI G 2 2 6
. .
— V er i al sec ion of t w o con

t c t t c t
re n i n th e se on dary e ase d . Ope n e n ri coils .

ing t h e prim ar y ir ui t at A e n ded

c
urre n w as in su
c c
a dire
c t ion
w
t o kill t h e fi el d gene r a ed b y t h e urr e n fr om t h e b a t e ry

c t ch ct tt th t t c t th tct
But t h e urre n
indu ed in t h e se ond ary ir ui b y t h e dyin g d o n — v aryin g— of t h e prim ary
a it e n de d t o on in ue t h e fi el d, a is, t o
.

v u yu
oppose t h e killing of it , b y se in g u p a fi el d of it s ow n in t h e sam e dire ion .

Th e abo e- d e s r ib e d
c t h er m an ifest a ph e nom e n a ar e m e r el f r

u
tions of t h e tr t h of L en z s l aw (Art
u g How it is t h at t h e ’
‘

cha nge of c rr en t in on e c oil w ill in d c e an e m f in anot h er coil

ugv g v u
. . .

c on c entric wit h it is explaine d in follow in art icl es Expl an a .

t ions of c rr en t and ele ctr om a n e tic reactions ab o e o tline d

458 Mu
w ill alsob e

y u g
tual Ind ctionu — W i en

h at O c curs
.

W y
h e n th e Flux of th e

g
.

Prim ar C oil C t s th e Turns of th e Se condar C oil of t h e t w o

gvy
c onc entric solenoids is dia r am m e d in Fi s 22 7 an d 228 Fig

v
228 sh ow s a dia r amm atic se ct ion of t h e t w o c oils of Fi s 2 24
and 22 5 t h e w a
g
ar r ow s in t h e t op ie w sh ow t h e dir e ct ions of
. .

.
.
29 6 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u y u
. 458

the
gv g
m fs
in cr easin
e .

y u gu . .

(
and the
aryin
c r r en s

) in t h e prim ar
t im pell e d t h er eb
In t h e lon it dinal se ction,
, as t he c rr en t is

u u g g gy
.

a cr oss in t h e se ctioned end of a c on d ct or indic at es t h at t h e

u u
c rr ent t h er e is oin in (S m b ols Fig

u y y
A dot in dic at es
t h at t h e c rr ent is c om in out A disc ssion of w h at is h appen
,
.

u g gv g
.

ing j st aft er t h e pri m ar c ir c it is close d at A as t h e prim ar

, ,

c rr ent is inc r easin is i en in t h e followin exam ple ,

fi e/d of C/f cu/ar Zine: bf force

'
‘
l
.

h w c c ct
I No Current
-
II Fir st
-
Ill Se c ond V Four t h

ct c c ct c tc
.

Inst ant . lnsta nt . Inst ant . Inst ant .

FI G . 227 .
—S o in g h ow t h e in r e asin g fi eld ar oun d t h e pr im ary on d u or
as t h e pr im ary

c c tt w h ch tw ctc
u s the se on d ar y on du or urr e n in r e ase s.

h ct h
E X AM PL E .
—Sin
s ow n ( Fig 2 28) a fi el d w ill e s ab lis
e the

c t c
flo
in din g in t h e dir e ion
u r r en

t
s in t h e prim ary

c c c w w t
. ar ound e a urn of t h e prim ary oil

as in di a e d ( and rul e , Art As t h e ur re n in re ases, as ou lin e d Ar t

w th t c htc ctt ct
. .

4 51, t h e fi el d of ir ul ar lin e s of for e ill gr o in ab ou t h e sam e m ann e r

as i t h e s r aig ondu ors of Figs 22 1 and 2 2 2 If any pair of adj a en . .

prim ary and se ond ary urns of Fig 2 2 8,. as for e xam pl e S an d P, b e c on

fu/l [ me s sham fla ck fla /Ves of fur /73 .

flatten Zines ind / ca fe fr om fia /ve s of for ms

/ ‘

tc ct t 1 To Vie w

c ccc
lI Longit udina l SC C IIOTI
- ' ’

p
FI G . 228 .
— Ill ust r a in g t h e for m a ion of ir ul ar lin e s of for e ar ou n d th e

v wt c t w th th w
on d u or of t h e pr im ar y oil .

t cc
sid e r e dindi idually, t h e gr o h of t h e fi el d asso ia e d i em ill b e

t cc w
v c ct th ct
ab ou as diagr am m e d in Fig 2 2 7 . .

As t h e ir ul ar lines gr ow or e m ana e out of P and spre ad or expand in

e er—

t c w ctc tt v
w idenin g rings, som e of ese expan din g ir ul ar lin es ill cut t h e sec
A l ar ge r pi ure s o ing h ow ir ular lines of for e h w c cc c
t th h c c
ondary ondu or S .

As t h e for e rin gs ( Fig 2 2 7 )

t t c tt
e m an a e fr om a on du or is gi en in Fig 22 9 . . .

fr om P e xpand up ard u in g S, t h e resul is t h e sam e as if S w e re for e d

down h rough his flux In u in g upw ard roug t h e se ondary t h e
.
29 8 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART

y ug g g uy
. 4 59

r apidl th o h not inst ant ane o sl de c r e ase t o z er o . As it doe s

h t w
so t h e foll owin thin s w ill h appen

t ct
ra t
EX AM P L E — Th e flux
and
.

disappe ar in
e ns r oudin g

o t h e prim ary c ct c
t h e prim ary
on d u or
ur s n
ill gradu ally con
and fin all y e ase t o e xist, as

Fl ux Produced

N
Nofe 777e Prim ary and Jecondaq / Cai/s are 560 m JICe byJiae 1h iii/I
' ' ’
s

I/lusfi a f/on lfm eaa af Concenfr/c m ane/y 50 Mar flre Heft/ re can bc
‘ ’

1 Pr im ary Curre nt I Pr im ary Current

hw c t th t c
. .

Increasing . Decreasing .

—S

hw th c t ct th c c c w
FI G . 23 1 . o in g pol ar i ie s of t h e oil s due t o t h e urr e n s er ein .

s o
again cut

again an e
n in Fig 2 3 2 .

t h e se on d ary
.
c t c th c t t
m f w ill b e indu
. .
. As

c
ey

ct
ur ns—

ed
on r a

in t h e
b ut
, som e of

se
is im e in t h e
ond ary
ese

urns
ir
re

.
‘
ul ar

verse
Hen
lines of for
dire
e
ion— and
e

(b y t h e h and
ill

fi e/a of OrCU/ar l ines of

'
’

l
"
0

V Four t h
Inst ant

h w c c cct c ct
.

( No Current )
FI G . 232 .
—S o
c tc fi
in g h ow t h e d e r e asing e l d ar ou n d t h e pri m ar y ondu or c u t s

c c t c c c tw
the se on d ar y on d u or as t h e pri m ary u r r e n d e r e ase s .

rul e of Art .

t ct th twh c t
t h e in du ed e . m f . . and urr e n in t h e se ond ary ir ui
w as b uild
il l

c tc h t h w c t t c t c
n ow b e in t h e opposi e d ir e ion t o a en t h e prim ary urr e n

in g up .

Also, t h e indu ed urr e n , as s o n in Fig . e nds to on inue t h e

nor th pol e al re ady es ab l is e d by the prim ary urre n . Again , t h e indu ed
 M UT UAL U C TI ON

c t th ct th t t
SE C . 22 ] I ND 299

urre n — al ough it is n ow in t h e re verse dire ion fr om a firs c on

u g uu u z
side re d ( Fig 23 1 , I ) .
—tends to oppose any cha nge in existing condition s .

Th s,t h e prin c ipl e of m t al in d ction h as b een expl aine d

v fiu u a r ee m ent w ith t h e st ate m ents of Len s law ( Ar t 4 3 5)

’
and it s

u
.

h as b ee n eri ed

u g yg
.

460 . Th e M tual
tion B e tw e e n Tw o Par all e l C ond ctor s
Ind c

is ill strate d b y Fi s 22 1 and 222 and t h e ph enom ena is desc ribe d

u u u Mu y u v g v g
.

in t h e artic le acc om pan in t h em A pr actic al exam pl e of .

m t al in d ction b e t w e en par all el wir es is i en in Art 4 5 1

u u y uu v u
. .

461 C ircuit s Ar e tuall In d cti e D esi n at e on e of any -

u
. .

p air of m t a ll in d ct i e c ir c ui ts as A an d t h e ot h e r as B

u u
.

T h en t h e flux w hi c h c ts B pr od c e d b y a c rr e nt of 1 am p in

uu v u u uy
.
,

A w ill b e t h e sam e as t h e flux w hi c h c ts A pr od c e d b y a

, ,

c rr ent of 1 am p in B Th s t h e t w o cir c it s ar e m ut all

. .

in d cti e .

FI G t t ht t ct t tw
. 233
I Unt
-

.
— Ill us cct
ra nsp

ra
os e d

in g m u u al in du ion b e
II Tr a ns pos e d
-

ee n par al l e l ir ui s an d

u
s ow in g r ansposi ion .

p o s
462
itio n — A
.

lin e w g
ir e c arr yin an el e ct ri c ug
M utual Induction B etw e e n Par alle l Cir c it s Trans
c urr e n t will in d c e in
.

u u v
.

w ir es inst all e d parallel t o it (Fig 2 33) an as sh ow n in Fi s

u
. .

22 1 an d 222 w h en t h e c rr ent in t h e lin e w ir e ar ies If t h e

u ug u
.
,

wir es in w hi c h t h e e m f is in d c e d c onst it t e a par t of a cl ose d

u u v y
. . .

c ir c ui t a c rr ent w ill b e for c e d thr o h t h e cir c it In all c ases

uu g y
.
,

in pr actic e t h e e m f t h s ind c e d is r el ati el sm all

. . . If t h e .

ind cin w ir e is far aw a fr om t h e w ir es in w hi c h t h e e m f is

v u c t th
. . .

in d c e d t h e e m f w ill b e so sm all as t o b e im per c e pt ible w it h

t
. . .
,

e en t h e m ost delic at e inst r m e nt s

hth t ct t ct th
.

Nor a — If t h e

t c t c t
w ires are re as onab l y l ose m f m ay b e gre a
oge er the e . . .

en it m ay m ak e

w c c c c ct c ht
e n ou g a it s e ff e s c an b e de e ed an d m e asured an d

is v e ry deli —a

t t t w c c w t w chc cc wh cht h c c c tt
rouble . Th e ordin ary tele phon e r ecei v er a e urre n of

to ill pr od u e an audibl e li k in on e
am p . Hen e, el e ri lig ing , .

arry re l a iv el y

t h ct t c ct
s ree r ail ay and po e r lin es, all of hi e av y urr e n s ,
fre q ue n ly indu e urr en s in telephone i r u its

wh c t ct t c c ct th t t hc vc c t t t t
i re n de r t h e ir ui s
“
noisy
”
Noise in el ep one lines m ay al so b e due t o el e r ost a i in du ion
.

t ct t c t c
as ell as t o el e r om agn e i in du ion . Of en the on ersa ion of one el e

p one irc ui m ay b e re pr od u ed in ano er e l ep one ir ui by vir ue of

t his induc iv e a ion Th e eflect h us pr od u ed is h en all ed cross talk.
'

.
 c t
3 00 PRAC TI CAL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART .

tE XAM PL E — In

t
.

c c c t
r e urning t o t h e lin e w ir e AB , as t h e t v
Fig

c
.

w2BS, I t h e

th
lines of for e em ana ing from cir cul ar

h h th t thw w
urr en in it aries, ill cut wires
and E F (Ar t 45 1 ) of t h e el eph one ir ui an d indu e in b o
. an e m f . . .

c an b e s ow n ( an d rul e, A r t 42 7 )

w v w th c
a t h e e m f in b o ires il l b e in . . . .

t t c t c c w tth hc t thh c c t h c
Ho e er,

Hen
m or e lin es ill cut CD an cut E F, b e ause EF is t h e m ore dis

tc ht w c w h c c t c c t
an .
gr e a e r e m f ill b e in du
e, a . . . e d in CD an in E F T is e x ess .

of e . m f in C D w ill for e a urr e n

. . r oug the el e p one ir ui in t h e d irec
in AB is in r e asin g Wh e n t h e
h c c t w ct v th t c t h
ion s o n by the arr o s w en the urr e n .

urr e n in AB is de r e asin g t h e e x ess e m f an d t h e ur r en it im pels in t h e

c t t t h h c cc c t t t c c c
. . .

tele p on e ir ui ill b e in a dir e ion t h e r e erse of a in di a e d T ese .

urr en s in t h e el e p one ir ui m ay pr odu e noise in t h e r e eiv e rs

tct h h c c t wh tt c t t t c c
.

It now t h e el e p on e ir ui b e ranspose d as at I I , t h e e m fs in du e d in . . .

urren in A B is in r e asin g, w ill b e in t h e

w ct t t c
’
t h e ele p one ir ui ,
'
en t h e

h c t ct tw t c h w ch ct t
’
dire ions s ow n b y t h e do e d arr ow s But t h e o al e m f in du e d in C C , . . .

GJ H an d HD ’
ill e xa ly e q ual t h e o al e m f indu e d in E G, GI H and
’
. . .

HF

h c cc t t h c
'
T is is b e au se r ansposin g t h e el e p on e ir es h as t h e e ff e
. of m ak
ing t h e av e r age d is an e b e e en t h e in d u in g w ir e an d e a side of t h e e l e

Hen e , t h e

wth t th th t hc
p one ir ui t h e sam e .

’
d ra /a CoYe r / I7
g e m f in du e d in on e
. . e l e p one lin e wire
.

tc t
”
ill ne u r aliz e a in du ed in t h e

c v
o er el e p one lin e w ir e . T e n, n o cu r

th t t ct
r en c an b e im pell e d and n o n oise c an be

t
pr odu ed in t h e el e ph one r e ei ers.

wt —T
tw c th t ct
NO TE
2d
”
a t h e l en g h of t h e
O f t h e lin e m us b e e q u al
se ion

th t c ch t h w c c
dupl e x to
FI G is ed pair or
- .
.

t c th t t
“ ” “ ”
i e a of se ions d and d t o in

h ctc c t t c th th t c ct t c tw t t
su re a the e . m fs indu
. . ed in ea of t h e el ep on e lin e w ir es ill an el .

EX AM PL E .
— “ Tw is e d -
pair
”
w ire ( Fig 2 3 4 ) su h as a . use d for el e

ch t t c t ct
p one ir ui t s ofi ers a spl e ndid e xam pl e of r ans pose d w ir es . Ea h is is,
Hen

th u ct t
in e ffe ,
a r ansposi ion . e, wi ese on du ors, t h e r ansposi ions
are onl y an in or t w o apar an d the roub l es aused b y m u ual in du ion
are

463
e reb y e ff e

g
iv ely e lim ina

tion or Ruh mkorfi Coil s (Fig 23 5) ar e r e all tr ans

Ind c y ed.

g u y u
. .

for m ers wit h an open m a ne tic c ir c ui t w h ic h oper at e w it h a pul

u u y g g u
,

sat in dir e ct c r r e nt in t h eir prim ar w in dings Th e in d c e d

g y
.

c r r ent in t h eir se c on dar win din s is al te rnatin Ind ct ion

g v uw g uu u u
.

c oils ar e se d w h ere it is desir ed t o ob t ain a hi h se c ondar v ol

t a e of littl e po er w att a e (Art Th e in d ction c oil-

y g y u u
.

oper at es b y ir t e of t h e prin c ipl e of m t al in d ction (Ar t

v y ug u k vy
.

Th e se c on dar w in din c onsist s of m an t r n s of fin e wir e w o n d

o er t h e pr im ar w in din w hi c h c om prises a fe w t rn s of h e a
w ir e
Art 468
Th e c or e is a b ndle of ir on w ir es

fi
. See Spar
Th e prin ciple can b e b est expl ain ed by c onsider in g .

w tc c c t
. .

a spe c i c exam pl e

c c t w h t h th h t
.

EXAMPLE — If t h e s i h S ( Fig 2 35 ) b e l osed urren w ill flow in t h e

. .
,

rim ar ir ui and ind in g T is es abl is es a flux r oug t h e core w i hin

p y .
 SE C T ION 23

-IND U C TI
SELF ON

u
464
u u y g
u
Se lf- induction is t h at ph enom enon, w h er eb a c h an e i

u yu u u z
.

t he c rr e n t in a c on d ct or ind c es an e m f in t h e c ond
ct . . .

it self This ind c e d e m f is alw a s in s c h a dir e ction t h at i

‘

g u u
. . . .

’
t en ds t o oppose any change in t h e c rrent in t h e c on d ct or (L en
l aw Art

u
,

f g W
Th e opposin e m f t h s pr od c e d is c alle d the

u
.

counter e m f of sel indu ction

u -
. . .

yv gu u u ug
. . . .

465 Se lf ind ction of a Strai h t

.
-
ir e —
Self ind ction occ rs .
-

onl w h en t h er e isa c h an e in c r r ent In Fig 23 7 ar e sh ow n

u y ug u ug u
. .

six ie w s of t h e sam e c on d ct or c t t h r o h At I t h er e is no

uy u y
.

c r r ent Now c r r ent is for c ed t h r o h t h e c ond ct or an d it

.

r apidl t h o h not inst ant ane o sl att ains t h e m axim m st ead

, , ,

Crass Sa na” of Conductor

-

1 No Current
‘
II Flrst Instant III
- -
Second Instant lY Thlrd nstant
-
I Y Fourt h Instant
-
VI Fait h Inst ant
( Curre nt st e ad
y)

FI G . 237 —G e n e r a t c
ion of e . m f in act th
. cc ctt
on d u or by se lf- in d u ion w i

u
in r e asin g u rr e n .

t
vu
of flow due t o t h e
ug m f
u u
applie d

u A flux of c ir c lar lines 0

'

ra e e . . . .

for c e is de el ope d ar o nd
c ond ct or as t h e c rr ent in cr eases t he

u y
.

Th e c ir c lar lines ori inat e at t h e c ent er of t h e c ond ct or and

expan d o t w ar dl

u v u
as desc rib e d in Art 4 5 1 At I I I II I V V
and VI ar e sh ow n t h e c on dit ions t h at m i h t ob t ain at t h e en ds

5 s cc essi e inst ant s aft er t h e sw it c h c onne ct in t h e so r c e

g g u . .
, , ,

. .

u u
e m f t o t h e c on d ct or is c l ose d
.

As t h e c ir c l ar line s of for c e expan d o t w ar dl all of t h em 0 uu y .

yu u
som e of t h e c on d ct or an d part of t h e m c t all of t h e condu c

T h e r eb a c o nt er e m f is in d c e d in t h e c on d ct or
. .

of t h e fo rt h inst ant t h e c rr ent h as att aine d it s m axi

At t h e
. u
u v H u .

u
and n o m or e line s of for c e ar e de el ope d

c ond ct or aft er t h e end of t h e fo rt h inst ant

en c e no

u 30 2
.

.
,
 SEL F-IND UC TI ON 3 03

g g u
Sm . 23]

Only u
t h en r em ain as dia
a fe w of t h e
r am m e d at

y
for c e lin es
VI
ar e sh ow n
as lon

u
as t he

g
in Fig 2 3 7
t is st e ady
c r r en

Act all
. .
uy
u
t h er e w o ld b e m an and som e w o ld lie
t h e c on d ct or
u u
at r e at dist an c es fr om

y y
.

Now if t e h c ir c it o f W hi c h t h e c o n d ct o r o f F ig 2 3 7 f o r m s a

ug yu uy u
.

t i o e n e d fl o w o f e l e ct r ic i t w ill no t c e a s e imm e di a t el a l
p a r s p ,

th o h it w ill die out r apidl but not inst ant aneo sl Th e cir

v gu g u g g y
.

cul arlin es of fo r c e w ill t h e n r e t r n t o t h e c e n t er o f t h e c o n d ct o r

g u
an d

a ain
anish as dia r a
c t the o d c n ct
m
o
m
r
e

a
d
a
i
i
n

n
F
i n
ig
d
2
c i
3
n
8
t h
I
e
n
r e
s

in
o

a
d
n
o in

e m
t
f
h e

T
w
h
ill
i s
. .

uu
g v y ug
. . .
,

e m
. f . w ill
. b e o pp o s it e in di r e ct io n t o t h a t in d c e d w h e n t h e

flow w as in c r e a s in E e r i n d c ed e m f is i n s c h a di r e ct i o n

u u
. . . .

as t o oppose any change in exist in c onditions (Art .

466 Se lf. i n d c tio- n in a C o il is p r o d c e d so m e w h a t a s di a

i F i 2 3 9 I f m f i i m d c t h t m i
gr am e dm o
n an es se a r s s e e r
g .e s .
p r . . .

17 Current Steady II
'

Ftrst Instant Ill second Instant

-
Ill Th traInstant
-
Y Fourt h histarrt ill fifth Instant
-

N urre nt )
( o C

FI G . 238 .
— G e n e r a ion t of e . m f
(
. . cc tct
Flowmg

in a
in g
a

ct th c
on d u
u rr e n
or by se lf- in d u ion w i de re e s

uu uu
.

n als of the
as e xpl aine d in Art 458
c oil t h er e t w ill b il d up in t h e c oil
sh ow n , a

r r ent w ill c a se a flux of c ir c l ar

c
This c
u
r r en

u
u uu uy u y uu
. .

lines of for c e t o e m anat e fr om e ac h t r n of t h e c oil Th ese lin es .

will c t t h e t r n w h ic h pr od c e s t h em an d will also c t all of

u u
t h e ot h er t r ns of t h e c oil as t h e expan d o t w ar dl
t h e c rrent in cr e ase s t h e e xpan din lin e s w ill in d c e an
Th s as
,

in t h e c ond ct ors O f t h e c oil w hi c h w ill b e in s c h a dir e ction

g uu .
,

z W g
,

(h an d r ule Art 42 7) t h at it will oppose t h e in c re ase of cur

u u u
.
,

rent (L e n s l aw Ar t
’
h en t h e switc h c onn e ctin t h e

zu
.
, ,

c oil t er m inals t o t h e so r c e of O pen e d t h e c r r e n t

gu yu g u
,

w ill de c r e ase t o er o an d t h e c ir c l ar line s w ill t h e n c ont r act

v
int o t h eir c on d ct or s
—
In doin t h is th e w ill a ain c t
in a r e er se dir e ction t h e c on d ct or s and in d c e in th em an
.

w hi c h w ill b e (h an d rul e Ar t 4 2 7) in t h e sam e dir e ction as

th at of t h e now -de cre asin c rr ent w hich is pr od cin it
this e m f will t end t o m aint ain t h e c rr ent in t h e c oil
. . .
en c e gu u ,

u g H .
.
 c t t c
3 04 PRAC TI CAL ELE C TR I C I T Y

EXAM PLE — Th e in buil din g

’

t c th w
“
. urr en ,
up

tt htt t
it s m axim um v alue in t h e por ion of t h e oil
in t h e por ions of t h e oil fur e r a ay fr om
an ins an — a v er s or in er v al
— af er t h e
y

c th c t
an d also in du e in em oun e r

th t
c t c ct c th t
sit ion

ur r e n
to c c t
a

in t h e
c
th c c tc t tdue t o t h e
oil is de
“
risin g

re asin g,
or in r e asin g

the e . m f
. . en
urr en

in du
in t h e
ed e nds
oil .

t o set u p a
in t h e sam e dire ion as a due t o t h e n ow -d e re asing urr en No e t h
.

1 El e v a t-
uo n

Fl ax o f C/ r c u/a r
, s

Ff b fl f fld / f flf .
O f for ce
,

‘
0 0 f7 e d I m e s

H Lon it
'

g
A De f in fi re ée c f / b na /
i n d o f a C ond uc f ar i nd i c a re s fl mf th e
D/ r e c f l afl of Cur f e w ‘ a uf o f M e Fa e r f orwar d t h e Re a d e r .

A Cra s s ind /c a f e s f b a f M e Cur r e n is Fl o ry/fi

tt ct c
g aw ay fr om fh e
Re a d er

— Ill us

c t wc ct ctc c t
FI G . 239 . ra in g t h e ph e nom e non of se l f- in du ion in a oil or

wh th c
the urr e n is al

h
ays, sin e

c t
it is a dir e ur r en , in t h e sam e

c h c t
e er it is in re asin g , s e ady or de r e asin g But t h e .

ct
self- in d u e d e . m f w
. . en the ur r en
n the

w ch
e . m f indu
. . ed w e ur r en is
be e xpe ed

u u
al ays in su a dire ct i

uu u g u u
467 Elim ination Of Se lf in d ction —Self ind ction, - -

u
. .

p ain e d in Ar t 4 65, is c a se d b y t h e cir c lar lin es of for c e

l

u v
.

ope d b y c r r ent in c on d ct or s, c ttin t h e c ond ct or

uu u
.

form ation of t h e se cir c l ar lines of for c e can b e pr e ent e d

can b e no self in d ct ion If t w o c ond ct ors lie parall el
-
.

ano th er and the c rr en t in ea ch

 PRA C TI C AL E LE C TRI CI T Y

c c ht c wt ctth w ct
3 06 [ ART . 46 9

NOTE — A spar k h w ill , w h en in se r ies four or fi v e dry e lls, de

c tt t w w c t
. oil w hi i
k am pl e for gas lig ing c an b e on s ru e d by in din g ab ou 2 lb

c ct c c t
v e l op a spar .

of No 1 6 doubl e o on c ov e r e d ir e on a or e 1 in

t c t t
.
- -
,
. in diam e e r , an d 9 in l ong,
.

om pose d O f a b un dl e O f sof ir on ir e . In d u ion oils ( Ar t . ar e n ow

usu all y applie d in s e ad of Spar k oil s for in e rn al om b u s ion e n gine igni ion .

II CJ a s Lig ht i ng Coil
'

ct c ht c c t Wat e r pr oot
c t
EIe C I r 'C GGS I-i hi ‘n
‘

C i HI
”

r c uit Coil t or 6 as Engine s

g g
‘ ’ *

FI G 241 — E le ri lig in g ir ui an d spar k oil s of t w o

u v Mg g
. .
g as-
ype s .

Ind u
469 .

c ed
An Ind cti
in Fie l d
u
e - disch ar

an d O th e r
e

a ne
Re sistor to Dissipate C urre nt s
t C oil s w h e n t h e
g sw i tc h con

n ect in g

st ant ially as sh ow n
the c oil t o it s so r e of e

in Fig
c
. 24 2
.

.
m f is ope n e d is
. .

Switc h e s arr an e d g
ar r an e d sub

to efi e c
’

ch tch
I Swit ch Close d
'

II Sm t c h O e n
'

p
— Fie l d dis

u
FI G . 24 2 .
-
ar g e swi .

resist or s se d u
ch c onne ctions ar e t erm e d fie ld discharge sw itches
in c om b in at ion w it h t h e m ar e fi eld
-

-
and

disch

h ct c t t t th t
r esistors .

t
NO TE — W e n t h e.

m agne (for exam ple , a

fi el d ir ui
lif ing m agne
of a gene ra or or

) is ope ned , the e .

a

m f
. .
of

of
 SELF-I ND UC TI ON

hh tc c c ch ch t
se c . 23 ] 30 7

b ecause t h e induc an e of such a oil is

c c h h th t
is ig , .
high . If su h a ir ui is
( Art 483 ) is v e ry ig

c ch h hc ct t tw
ope n e d suddenl y, t h e r ate of chan ge o f curr en t . and
— m any ousand v ol s in

c th w
t h e in du ed e . m f is
. . orre spondingly ig som e

wc wc tch t th h t cth c w ct c
Su ig e m fs m ay pun ure t h e insul a ion b e e en t h e w indin g
’

ases . . . .

and t h e fr am e or ore of t h e oil and us ground t h e indin g .

Ho e ver , if as t h e s i

ch c th t t th ct c
opens, a hi g resis an e is onn e ed a r oss t h e
fi eld oils as at II , t h e urren in em dies out r a er sl o ly Th e r at e Of

h h t c c
.

c t c wh t ct h t
ange of urr e n is en l ow Th e e m f of self-indu ion is orr espond . . . .

This ig r esis an e a r oss t h e fi el d

wt tch ch ct t c t c c thch t
in gly low so a it can do no d am age .

tt ct h
oil erm in als pe rfor m s som e a t h e sam e fun ion as d oes t h e s or -c ir
cuit in g b ar a ross t h e s i of Fig I Th e r esis an e of a dis ar ge .

r esis or s oul d b e de erm ined b y t h e ar a e ris i s of t h e oils a it

pro e s .

I Conduc t or Fo r ming Non Ind uct iv e C irc uit

II E
t t ct ct c c t
. M . F. I mpr e ss e d
— D iagr am s of appar a t m E. Dis cont inue d

c c t c c t
FI G . 2 43 . us for il l us ra ing e ff e of in d u an e in a ir c ui .

wtwtch h w tch w w whth ch t c t chw

NOTE — II1 . opening a fi eld ir ui w hi h h as no dis h arge resis or , the

c c c t tchw
th w h c
s i s oul d be opene d v e ry sl o ly, i perm i s the ar c t o d ra out
be ee n t he s i j a s and b l ades If . is is d one , t h e urre n w ill ange
—d e r e ase —in t h e fi eld ir ui ra er slo ly T e n t h e indu ed e m f w ill
. . . .

W
n ot be ne arly so hi gh as if t h e sw i ere open e d suddenl y .

47 0 Th e Dir e ction

z
.

O pe ne d C an B e Sh own
vfig u u g Of th e E m f Induce d
and it s
. . .

a r e e m en t
h en
w ith t h e
a Circuit Is
r lin s of

g(Ar t
’
L en s law . 4 35) can be w ith t h e appar at s dia
eri ed

c c t w
gr am m ed in Fig 244 , as . desc ribe d in t h e follow in e xam ple

A, a t w
EX AM PL E
th
cth c c h ct h c h
por ion
iv e
t flo t t
— Wh en t h e
h
htt th
in g
key is l ose d,
r ougt h e gal anom e e r and
fl
v
a ur e n r flo s as at

por ion
a
I . It div ide s at
h r oug t h e
Wi
t th w th c t c t tt ct ht
indu oil . This auses a de e ion of t h e n ee dl e , say, t o t h e rig .

one s
’
and t h e nee dl e s oul d n ow b e pus ed ba k t o t h e z e ro posi ion and
r es raine d e re i a sm al l bl o k t o pr e ve n it s urning t o t h e rig . If
th e key is now ope ned (I I ) , a m om en ary urren of se lf-in du ion w il l be
 P RAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y

c th h t ct
3 08 [ AR T . 47 0

for ed ar ound

d ev el ope d in t h e
v an om e t e r
h r oug
elix

ne e dle t o t h e l e f
. T his c
t h c t th t
t h e gal

.
t
v anom e

T is indi a es
by t h e e m f of self-in du ion
er . .

pr od u es a m om e n ary de fl e ion of t h e gal

.

a t h e Curr e n in du e d in t h e
ctt c
[ fi d uc f / V e

‘
fla ife / y
’

t t ct
1
'
Ke y Cl ose d
t II ke g O pe n

c
ttt t c t ct c t t t
FI G . 2 44 .
-
Appar a us for d e m ons ra in g dir e ions of in du ed e . m fs
. .

h elix

t t ctt t c t th
at

t h e original b a
re n dire ions
w
t h e ins

v t
.
an

ery
t h e ke y w as opened , w as in t h e sam e dire ion as h a o:
urr e n Th e arr o s in t h e diagr ams indi a e t h e c ur
.

A onsider a ion of ese w ill pro e t h e ru h of t h e for e t

going s a e m en .
 PRAC TI C AL E LE C TR I C I T Y

t c ct c t t t
3 10

th c ct h t v
or any o h er ondu ying urren
o
r -c arr propor ion al
urre n in A is doub l ed , t h e num b er of lin es in
— is

c c c c c t t ct th
If, en , the
If t h e urren is al ed , t h e num b e r of lines is h al ved .

in r e ase or de r e ase in t h e urren in A, ere

t t t c ctch
(spre ading out ) or de re ase ( on ra in g in) of

th tth th tt wh c th t
in its flux .

h a t h e pr opor ions of ondu ors A an

ch
Now assum e

c t c t
a e y ar e apar fr om on e an o e r ar e su (t h e ill us
u rr en in A is an ged

tth c c c t
b y any m e ans) a en t h e

ing from A if t h e in it is in c

B
lines of for e ( e m an a urr en

A if t h e

c t
in o urr e n in it is de
ese ir ul ar lines fr om A w ill cut is e xpl aine d in Art .

For exam pl e , if n o urren is

c t
ch c tc
w ise if t h e urr e n

fr om 1 2 am p . to 1

t th c ch t
an ge (de re ase , in
in urr en Again ,
— Ill us
.

h t
FI G 2 45 ing t h e sig ni fi mg

t
ra c an e fl ont r m t in o

th t t ct
of t h e e nr y .
Any an ge in cr e as
N or —
m It s ou l d
b e u n d e rs ood
A W111

ct t h t
1 am p m urr en in
t h e a u al flux d oes n ot e nd c
.

th c c t
ab r u p l y as di a gr a m m e d ab o e v .
11 11 9 8 t o 0 11 13 B
v

h
A u all y t h e flux e x e n ds t o a ery If b y usin g a r e ost a or by
dis yan e fr om C d w A e r d e vi e ,

ffi i ifi fi t £232 th t t
the in
f fi gfi fi
o urr e n

t tc W
te t i
Wadufl uy
se

ch
ar ml y C
o

“ ang
a c uc or o
q ui r es

w h c wh
at a v e ry gr e a dis an e .
a it re Jus 1 se c . to
in A

c ct t v t
a an ge of 1 am p .
,

c ct t vt
lin es pe r se c . ill cut B . T e r e for e (b e ause en lines
ond u or at t h e r a e of pe r sec . an e . m f of 1. . ol will
d uce d in t h e ondu or , Ar s . 22 6 and an e . m f . . of 1 ol w ill

H fi y
d uced in B .

u
en e ,

t h at t h e
c
uug u u
it follow s fr om t h e de nit ion of t h e h e nr (Ar t

u
m t al in d ct anc e of c ond ct ors A an d B is 1
.

v
b e c a se a c h an e of 1 am p per se c in A in d c es an e
1 ol t in B
u
. .

u u
.

47 4 In d ctance Is Proportional to th e Num b e r of C

u u
.

Line s pe r Am mr e — If t h e sit at ion o t line d in Art 4 18 .

sider e d f r t h er it w ill b e not e d t h at t h e in d ct an c e of a

 2 41 I ND U C TANCE 311

u u u vu u u
SE C .

pe r am per e of c ond ctor or cir c it in

c rr en t w hi c h c t th e

u u gu u H u u
,

w hi c h t h e e m f is in d c ed It is ob io s t h at all of t h e lin es
. . . .

p r od c e d b y t h e in d c in c r r e n t m a y n o t c t t h e c on d ct or ,

in w hic h t h e e m f is in d ce d e n c e inductance is numeri ca lly

. . . .

c t c c t c tt
r
p p o o r ti ona l to th e nu m b er of ef e cti ve o r cu tti ng lines p er a m pere .

c tt
EXAMPLE
lin es, t h e indu ct c h
ct c h wh ch t
.

c
— If a
t
an e
urre n

is 1
of 1 am p
e nry .
. in
If a
a ir
urr e n
ui d e v el ops 1 00 ,
of 1 am p . d e v el ops
u in g

wh ch wh w h th t
u ing lin es t h e indu , an e is 1 m ill i e nry .

NOTE . OT HE B D E FI NI TI O NS
-
OF I ND UCT AN C E i ar e som e im es giv e n ,
v

c t
but i e n an al yz ed ill b e foun d t o a e t he sam e m e aning as a

ct t c ct t c h c t t t tcc c t t
su ggest e d ab o e are :

1 . Ind uct ance is e qual in t h e num b er of link ag es pe r

t o t h e in re as e u ni

W en t h e perm e abili y of t h e m agne i ir ui is

c t
in r e ase in urr e n . c on

ons an and is e qu al t o t h e lin k ages per

t t t c th c c t t
s an ,
t h e in du an e is al so uni

AME R I C AN HAND B O O K

c t wh ch w c c tc c t t c th t
’
u rre n ( Pen de r s FO R E L E CTR I C AL E N GI NE E RS ) .

c
2 . I nduct ance is t h e o al m agne i flux r e ad in g the ir ui pe r uni
flo

t t tt twc ttht t h ct th h c t
u r re n in t h e ir ui an d pr od u es flux
i s .

3 I nducta nce of a ir ui is pr opor ional t o

. a v al ue O f e . m f pr od u
. . ed

in it b y a uni r a e O f v aria ion of urr e n

c t c
r ou g it .

4 I nd uct ance is t h e r a io b e
. ee n t h e o al in du ion r ou g a C i r ui

t ct c h c t
an d the u rre n pr od u in g it .

NOT E — T HE SE LF

th t th t th c ch t
.
-
I ND UCT AN C E OF A C I R C UI T AN D ITS PE R M E AN C E AR E
of in
— But t h e

c t t t
SI MI L A R . uni du an e , the e nr y , is a m u h l ar g er uni

c c t c
an pe r m e an e , t h e pe rm ( Art 23 8 ) u s
a of . as t h e mi l e is a l ar g e r
uni of m e asur e an t h e in Assu min g ons an
pe rm e ab ili y , t h e pe r .

v q

ct c c c t c
m e an e of a gi e n ircui , in pe rm s, is n um e ri all y e u al t o the n umber of
lines of flux developed by that ci r cu it whe n ther e is a curr ent of 1 am p in it . .

c c cct
B i rt h e rm ore , t h e self- indu an e of a ir ui is n um e ri all y e ual t o the
n um ber of lines of
flux developed by that circuit w hen ther e is
am p in it ( Ar t Hen e : henrys ms
t c t t ct c c c t w th th
a cu rr ent o f 1 . .
per

cct c t c c c tw ch c
and per ms
henr ys X Th e pe rm ean e of a ir ui b ears n o

c ct c
par i ular re la ion t o t h e m u ual in du an e of t h e ir ui i som e o er

t ct c th th
ir ui u nl ess t h e pe rm ean e O f t h e im agin ary m agn e i ir ui hi arries

h t
on l y that flux w hic h cuts the second ci r cu it b e on sid e red Se lf in du an e (n ot .
-

m u ual indu an e ) can e n b e e xpr essed in e i e r pe rm s or h enrys— b ut t h e

u y u
e nr y is t h e usual an d
pr efe r ab l e uni .

Ind u gfi
47 5 Ind .

ct anc e is not a c onc r e te t hin

g g
ctan c e
It is m erel a n am e or y
Is a Pr opert

u
of Cir c uits an d C ond t
c or s .

g u u g v u
.

t er m w hic h si ni es a c ert ain arr an em ent of an el ec t ric c ond ctor

uv g u
and a m a n e t ic c ir c it

u y
Th e in d ct an c e of a i e n c ir c it
c on d ct or c oil or of any appar at s is a pr ope rt of t h at t hin
.

g ,

u u
,

j st as it s appe ar an c e is one of it s pr ope r t ies Th e im pr e sse d

uu uu fl u
.

olt a e does n ot aff e ct t h e ind ct anc e of an obj e ct A c on d ct or .

h as ind ct an c e w h e t h er c rr e nt ow s in it or not .

Th e ind ct anc e of a c ir c it or c ond ct or not assoc iat e d w it h

 3l 2 PRAC TI C AL ELE C TRI C I T Y

u v
uu v
iron or st eel, ne er c h an es
c ir c it , t h e ind ct an c e m ay
g vWy fl .

u ar
h ere t h er e is iron in t he m a ne tic
a t ri e as t h e c rr ent c h an e s
gg
.

t ic e t h e yu u u y u
(Art 252) but
s all
s

can b e an d ar e disr e ar de d Th
ch aria

gu
tions are so in onsider able c t h at in pr aon

g u u
.

of a c ir c it or c ond ct or de pe nds on t h e n m b er of lin e s

tin flux (Art 4 74) t h at a c rrent of 1 am p in it w ill pr od c e

v ct c h
. . .

ct
EX AM PL E .
— T able 480 gi es t h e indu an es in e nrys of som e fam ili

H
Ob e j s .

A i gv g
476 A C e rt ain C onductor
.

en le n th of a c ond ufi M ay
ct or of a
av e Difi e
c ert ain
and

u v
m at e rial h as c ert ain
c in O h m s
a

c ond ct or m ay h a e as m an different ind ct an c es as t h er e ar e

differ en t sh apes and form s int o whic h t h e c ond ct or can b e b e nt
y u u
de nit e r esis an e t .

or t w ist e d .

47 7 Factor s Th at D e te rm ine th e Inductance of a C irc it or u

u g u u
.

C onductor — Any e xpe dient t h at w ill in c rease t h e cutting lines per

g
.

amper e (Art 4 74) of a c ir c it or c ond ct or w ill in c r e ase it s in d c

v u v u g
.

t anc e In e neral any arr an em ent t h at will in c r ease t h e flux

uu
.
,

de elope d by a c ond ct or w it h a gi en c rr e nt fl ow in w ill in

u g
, ,

c rease its ind ct anc e It follow s t h en t h at if ir on b e assoc iat e d

u ug u v
.
, ,

w it h a c ond ct or it s ind ct an c e w ill in en er al b e in c r e ase d , ,

.

Th e re ason for t his is t h at ir on b e c a se of it s r e at per m e an c e

uy u gg u
,

( A r t 2 3
. 9 ) in c r e ase s t h e flux due t o a c e r t ain c r r e n t m c h a b o e ,

t h e fl x t h at w o l d e xist if t h e m a ne tic c ir c it w er e c om prise d

t wh th tcc c t
w h oll of air or any ot h er non m a net ic m at e rial -
.

N O TE .
— Wh y t h e flux is gr e a er en ere is ir on in t h e m agne i ir ui

u u u
is e xpl ain e d in Art 2 1 7 . .

F th erm or e if a c ond ct or is w o nd int o a c oil it s flux is

r

v u y g
,

incr ease d as desc rib e d in Art 2 14 If iron is so plac ed as t o

u g g
. .

p r o id e a pa t h for t h e flux of t h e c oil t h e r e b in c r e asin t h e flux

uy v v y u
, ,

t h e ind ct an c e of t h e c ond ct or w ill b e st ill r eat er Str ai h t

vg v v yg u
.

c ond ct ors (Ar t 495) h a e r el ati el little ind ct anc e w hile c oils
.
,

e spe c iall t h ose h a in ir on c ores m ay h a e er r e at ind c ,

t anc es as sh own in Table 480

t vc c
.

EX AM PL E S — ( l ) S

cc
.

t
pl e, 40 t urns w ound on an iron ore h as a m u
sam e oil of 40 urns w i ou an iron ore tht c tt c c c t t w
udy t h e
ig e r ind u an e an t h e

A oil of 1 5 urns ound on an

ch h
alues of
h ct c th
T able 480

.
.
(2 ) A oil of, for e xam

iron ore h as less induc an e h an a sim il ar oil of 30 urns w ound on an iron

c ore .
 SE C TI ON 2 5

SELF INDUC TANC E

y u u
-

p r odu g
47 9
c e a
.

n e m
uf w itu
Se lf- ind
hin it se u
(Art 47 1 ) is t h e abilit O f a cir c it t o
lf b y in d ct i
c an ce t
on w h e n t h e c rr e n t
.

u u g u
. . .

in it c h an es Th e e m f is in d c e d b y t h e pr oc e ss in dic at e d in
. . . .

Ar t 4 7 1 As t h e c ir c l ar lin es of for c e e nsh r o din t h e c on du c

yu u u y u u
. .

t or e xpan d out fr om or c ont r act int o t h e c e n t e r of t h e c on d ct or

t h e c t t h e c ond ct or Th e n an e m f is in d c e d in t h e con

g u fu g
. . . .

d ct or Thi s e m f is al w a s in s c h a dir e ct ion t h at it O pposes

z
. . . .

t h e c h an e of c r r ent pr od c in it an d t h e r e for e is O ft e n c alle d

u u y See L en s l aw Ar t 4 25
’
t h e coun te r e m f of sel indu ction . . .
-
.
, . .

ct c c ct
Self ind ct an c e is m e as r e d in h e nr s (Ar t
-

thch t c t c c ct wh c t
.

EX AM PL E —
It is due t o t h e se lf in du an e O f t h e on du or O f Fig 2 43
.
-
.

tt
a a ou n e r e . m f is in du
. . ed in t h e on du or en the u rr e n in it

ct c c tv c h c t ct cct
an ges .

NO TE — C O E F FI C IE N T
. OF SE L F -I ND UC TI O N is a n am e , n ow li le use d,
“
oe ffi ie n
” ”
m e aning “
indu an e . Th e e rm Of self -
indu ion w as

u
for m erly applie d t o a num e ri al alue , in e n rys, for in du an e .

480 . Se lf ind -
t
c anc e s of Som e Fam iliar O b j e ct s .
*

O b j ec t

C oi ls f
o

cc h c t
electr c, vi br ating, call- bell

Ar mat ur e of a magneto (t e lep

i

c
one ) ge ne r a or
Plane Of oil
in pl an e of ol
p e pie es

th h
Pl ane of oil pe rpe ndi ul ar t o pl an e of pol e

th t h
pieces
B ell tel ephone r ecei ver, wi diap r ag m .

Wi ou diap r agm

Astatic m irr or galvanom eter

th t c th c c c
.

C oil of Aryton and Perr y spring voltm e ter ,

t
wi out ir on Le n g Of oil ,
ore:
in . ex e rnal diam et e r, 3 in air ore O f . oil ,

tt t
in . in diam e e r
C om mon M or se te legr aph r ela y

t w t t
Arm a ure ag ains the
Ar m a ure in fr om t h e poles
.

Ar m a ure in orkin g adj us m e n

M Ac m NE ar . V ol II, pp 48
. . and 49 .
SE C . 2 5] SE L F - I ND U C TANC E 3 15

O b j ec t

Telegr aph sounder s, ar m a t ures in fr o

. m
Bobbin, B i in b y 1 in .

h c t
Bobbin 1 36 in b y l % in,
. .

Single coil of a M or se telegr aph sou nder:

av in g an iron ore in in diam e
. er

w th c
an d 3 in l ong ; b obb in,
. in in diam e
.

th t t
C om ple te telegr aph
a ab o e v b ut w th
sou nder

i a b obb in
i a ore l ik e
in in.

c cc c
diam e er

B a re Copper i re, No 1 2, W . or Am e r
i an W
ire gage , e r e t e d on a pol e lin e 2 3 ft .

w
from t h e gr oun d is al ul at e d b y K e nn ell y
t o m e as ure , pe r m ile
NO 6 .
pe r m il e
ir e sam e as ab o e , v
Secondar y w inding of an ind uction coil, c ap

ab le O i giv ing a 2- in . spar k .

c w
I nd uction coil, 1 9 in l ong , 8 in diam et e r . .

ctc t twt ct c h t
Se ond ary inding .

Arm atu r es d ir e , u r re n ,
be ee n t h e b r us es

ch
Field coils Of a -
kw .
,
1 1 0- ol ,
dire - urr e n

Ar mat ur e of ab ov e m a in e

de pe n din g on
for wh ch thi
th t t t
Tr ansfor mer pri m a ry and secondary windings,
e ir ou pu and t h e v ol age

e y are design ed t o 50 .

481 Se lf- inductance in

u uyv uu u a C ircuit Pr e en s t th e C urr e nt from

u y
.

Attaining It s M axim um V al e Instantl — As t h e c r re n t in

u
.

c r eases a fl x e m anates fr om t h e c on d ct or s of t h e cir c it c ts

g
, ,

t h e m an d t h er eb in d c e s in t h e m a c ount er e m f as desc rib e d

yu u gy W u ufi
. . .

in Ar t 4 65 R efer t o Art 7 91 and Fi s 4 74 and 4 7 5 w hic h

. . . .

e xplain a h dr a li c an al o h at occ r s and h ow it occ rs .

can b e st b e n der st ood fr om t h e c onside rat ion of a spe c i c

c ct w t c
e xam ple :

tE XAM PL E

h tch c
ab ou 3 oh m s (T able
.
—A pie e of No 18
t
w h ct c t ctct c c t c
.

If h is
oppe r w ire 5 00
ire b e form ed in
ft long h as
.

o a l oop 2 50
a resis an e of

ft l on g
. as

c t R
s own in Fig . 2 43 , I, it ill av e pr a i all y no in du an e ( Ar t . If
DOW
‘

t he sw i be l ose d im pressing 1 1 0 v ol s (dire urre n ) a r oss t h e

te rm inals of t h e w ire, a urre n of : I E 1 10 3 am p .

w ch c c t c t w h
3 16 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T . 48 2

t v
ill im m ediat el y flow in t h e ir ui

c tt c t t v c c t ct cw ct t c v t ht v t tch Th e il l pr ob ab l y v
”

urr en
-

. a e

r ea e d it s m axim um s e ad y al ue of am p . se c af er t h e sw i
. is

cht c c t wth wt t c
l ose d , b e ause his l oop ir ui h as pr a i ally n o in du an e . Af er a in g
a ai ned it s s e ady al ue of am p . it ill r em ain at his al ue un il t h e
ope n e d or t h e ir ui e rw ise

c t t t w h c w ct c ct th ht h th
swi t is o di s urb e d .

If his sam e 500 ft of NO 1 8 . . ir e is n ow ound in o a oil ( Fig . of

v an e of

ct c v t ctc t
e r ain propor ions it ill a e an in du enry . Th e arr ange

dim ensions of t h e oil er e so sel e e d a it w oul d av e

th c t c t t c t th h tt
m en and is
ind u an e Now , if a pre ssu re Of 1 1 0 ol s (dire
. u r r e n ) b e im pr esse d on

h
is oil , t h e s e ad y- urr en v alue of am p w ill n ot b e a ain e d im m e

th ttth c h c t v
.

c t t t w tch
diat ely Ob v iousl y , t h e s e ady urr en th e w ll b e t h e sam e as
'

. r ou g
—

c c t tt th t v
a r ou
g t h e l oope d w ir e of I ,
b e ause b o h h a e t h e sam e 3 o m s

an val

t h w c t t t
re sis a n e . But appr e iab le im e in er w ill e lapse af e r the s i is

c whtchw th c t t tt tth t
lose d b efore t h e urr e n a ains is s e ady al ue of am p . If r e adings

of t h e am m e er s o n in I I oul d be a ke n at -
se c . in er v als af er t he

t t w tch c t t t c
losing of t h e s i ey w oul d b e ab ou as ab ul a e d in C ol um n C Of Tab le
values

c c t th ch cc t c c ct t c c ctc c t
48 2 . Fig 24 6 . s o s a gr aph i s a em e n of e se .

Im m e dia e ly af e r the s i is lose d , t h e 1 00—

vol e . m f . . s ar s t o for e a

t t th t t c
ur r e n r ou g the oil b ut his urr e n ,
be ause of the se lf-indu a n e of

t wh ch c t c
the oil , at on e indu es in t h e ond u ors of t h e oil a m om e n t ar y ou n er

in Art

th t t t wh ch t t ct
as e xpl aine d . 4 65 . Th e in e ns i y of is ins an a ne ous ou n

c c t th hc twc c t whc cht w c h ct

t er m f is pr opor ional t o t h e r ate at
e . . . i t h e urr e n in t h e oil is chang
i n g at a ins an ( Ar t Th e e m f i at a ny ins an a ually . . . .

h
for e s urr e n r oug h
t e ir ui i ill b e alle d e r e t h e im pe lling
m f — is t h e diffe r e n

c tt th t t c ct th t
e . . . e be ee n the ou n e r e . m f . . of self-indu ion and the
im pr e sse d e . m f . . Th e im pr e sse d e m f pus
. . . es one w ay, as it w e r e ; t h e

c c t wct tc c c c t c t
ou n er e . m f the . o er . Curr e n is h e n for ed in t h e dire ion O f a of

the s r onge r e . m f . .

th tc c t hh t c t th t t
For e xam pl e , onside r t h e ondi ions affe ing t h e ir ui of Fig .

( Tab le 482 and Fig . se c . aft e r the s i h is l ose d Th e urr e n is .

val ue v ing

th h t t R
e n ( col um n C ) 2 8 am p .
,
his a b ee n O b aine d by e xpe r im e n .

Now , if 2 8 am p flowin . a ir ui of 3 O ms re sis a n e , the e . m f . . a is for c

t c c t c c t
ing it r oug ,
ha is t h e im pelling is : E I X 28 X 3

ct t t t t c t t
84 volts .

vol He n

c c t h t wc w tch th c t v t c
B ut 1 1 0 s is im pr essed on t h e ir ui . e the ou n e r e . m f . . of self

ind u ion at h a ins an is : 1 1 0 84 2 6 volts . Th e ou n e r e . m f in his

. .

cth t t c tth c t c c t t
ir ui se c . af e r t he l osing of t h e s i is en 26 ol s ( colum n F ) .

val ue s v e b ee n k e d out

chh th
Sim il ar a or in T ab le 48 2 ind i a ing num e ri all y t he
val ue No

c ch t t hv h w th t c t c w
ondi ions in is ircui as the urr e n rise s t o it s m axim um . e

a the ou n e r e . m f be
. . om es l ess and l e ss at t h e e nd of e a u nd re d -O f
a- se ond in er v al . T is s o s a the urre n in r e ase s m ore slo ly as it

g uv
approa es it s s eady al ue of am p .

482 . Tab l e Sh ow in How th e C urr e nt in an In d cti e Cir cuit

h v t c c t
Inc r e ase s t
af e r an E m f Is Applie d t o th e Cir cuit
. . . .

hv t t c h w thh v ct c c
O
T
ms
ol s .
e se

Fig 2 46
al ue s re la e

r esis a n e ,

. s o s
t o the
e nry

ese
ir
ind u
al ue s
ui diagram m e d in Fig
a n e a nd t h e im pr essed

graphi ally .
.

e . m f .
It h as 3
. is 1 1 0
 w tch c t
3 18 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ ART . 483

tw
v ol
E X AM

w tch
PL E

c
—
c t
Assum e

th c c th
t t t.

c t th e s i Of 1 to be l ose d so th a t h e e . m f . . of 1 1 0

tw ct tc ct w tchc t cth c t c
s is im pr e sse d on t h e ir ui ,
an d a the s e ad y urr en of am p . is
flo in g . If t h e s i in is ir ui is open e d sud de n l y an ar c wi l l be
q ui kl y

t v t
form e d b e e en th e on a s of the sw i . T is ar c w il l be ex

wh ch t t t
t inguish e d as t h e dis an e bet een the on a s be om e s gr e a e r . Th e

h h ct c c t ch
siz e O f t h e ar c , in ge n e r al , w ill de pe n d u pon t h e m agni u de of t h e ol age

ch ct h ch t w tw c w tcht wc t ct
i is b e in g in e r r up e d .

If t h e sam e e xpe rim e n is pe rform e d on a ig l y in du iv e ir

-
ui , su as

v t w tch
in Fig . a mu l on ger ar e c an b e dr a n be e en t h e s i n a s

hw tc t w c c ttht tth t th v t
as t h e e . m f . . of sel f- in du ion , w i en ds t o pr ol on g t h e ur r e n , ill n ow
be add e d on t o t h e lin e ol ag e . W h en t h e s i h as b e e n O pe n e d far

w th c t c c tw c
e noug ,
the r e sis an e of t h e ar c ill b e so gr e a
s r e am a t h e o al ol age

av ail abl e il l no l on ge r b e sufli c ie n t t o for e a urr e n r oug it . Th e

ar e ill en d isappe ar an d the urr e n in t h e ir ui ill e ase .

h hthw h c wht c ctc t c c t c T i me in Se c ond s .a F+e r C irc uit is Shor t C irc uit e d
-
,

FI G . 247 .
— G r ap s o in g h ow urr e n in a l ose d in du i e ir ui v de r e ases

e m f is dis on inu e d

t tc c
gr adu all y oug r apidl y en the . . . .

be cTh e fas
ct tch er

ch c w t t
t he sw i h is opened, t h e gr eate r will b e t h e in du ed e . mf . .

c c c tc t th tcht t h t t c
ause t h e indu ed e m f depe n ds on r ate of
. . . ange of u r r e n (Art .

Ob v iously, t h e fas er t h e sw i is Opene d, t h e m ore r apid il l b e t h e ra e of

d e r e ase of urr en

ch c th w tch c t c t t c tt t
. It is appar ent en ha , w e re the e . m f is dis
. . on
t inue d fr om a ir ui by ope nin g a sw i , t h e in ensi y of t h e e . m f . .

t th t c t
indu ed ereb y, d e pen ds t o a onside r ab le e x en ,
on t h e r apidi y wi h
w i h the

c
s i is O pe ne d . Th e ra e of de r e ase of t h e u rre n also de

th t c t h t c c t
pends on h is .

Now assum e fl owing

w tch th tc c c ctt v tc tch

at the s e ady urren of am p . is in t h e oil
of Fig . and a t he e m f is dis on inue d fr om it b y s or - ir ui
. . .

ing

t t t t t cth t c c t c c c tc c h ch w tch
the s i w i h a ond u ing b ar l aid a r oss t h e swi b l ades as sh own .

( This w oul d also s or - ir ui t h e 1 10- ol suppl y m ain b ut it is assum e d

tha his m ain is pr o e e d at it s sour e b y ir ui b re ak e rs w i

v c h ct c h t
open

ct tc c t c ht t
im m e dia el y af e r t h e s or - ir ui ing b ar is pl a e d a r oss t h e s i
b l ad es ) T h is l e a es t h e oil O f
. e nry ind u an e and 3 O m s r e sis

an e in an inde pe nde n ir ui ,
in lud ing t h e s or -
circui ing b ar and t h e
am m e e r .
 cw
t th h t c c t t t vt c t t
SE C . 2 5] SELF-I ND UC TANCE 3 19

t c cc t t t t c c t
Th e in his in dependen
urrent ir uit w ould, under h ese ondi ions
die d o n graduall y— oug in a v e ry sh or im e in e r al

c th w t c
”
If am m e e r .

ak en at su essiv e ins an s af er t h e sh or - ir ui in g

h tw h h c
readings oul d b e

oul d b e ab ou as giv en in olum n I of Tab l e 484 an d

c t w
b ar w as pl a e d, ey
—
of Fig 247 f Now t h e origin al sour e of e m f ( 1 1 0

wh c
s o n in t h e gr ap . . . .

v ol s) h as b e en elim in at ed T erefore , t h e urr e n n ow flo in g m ust b e

c t h t c c h
.

th c R
due olly t o t h e indu e d e m f For e xam pl e : At t h e e n d of
. . . sec , t h e .

h h w t ch
urre n (colum n I ) is 8 am p Th e resis an e of t h e oil is 3 oh m
. T ere .

c th cc v t v
fore , b y O m s law ( Art
’
is in du ed e m f w ill b e : E
. X 1 . . .

3 X 8 24 v olts T is is s o n in colum n L of t h e able in w hi

. are giv e n

t h e indu ed e m fs at t h e e nds of t h e o er su essi e in e r als

g u
. . .
.

484
W. Table Sh ow in
u How th e C ur r e nt in an Ind c tiv e C ircuit

h t c c t
D e cr ease s h e n It s E m f Is Discontin
. . . e d.

oh t cv t h h ctw c h c t t tht t th
T
ms
on it w as
ese v al ues
r esis an e ,

1 10
r el a e

ol s .
t o the ir ui d i agr am m e d in Fig
e n r y in d u an e an d t h e e m f

Fig 2 47 s o s a gr ap i s a e m e n
.
. . .
.

of
w as
ese
It h as 3
im pr essed
v al ues .

u u
485 Th e Rate of Incr e ase of C urr e nt in Any C ircuit C an Be
.

Com p te d if t h e applie d
ku
t h e in d ct anc e , and t h e resist an c e u
Hu v ug uqu
vk v g
of t h e c ir c it ar e nown ow e er , alt h o h t h e for m l a in
.

is not diffi c l t of sol tion, it s m anipul at ion r e ires a

ol e d

now l e d e of a b r an c h of m at h em at ic s w it h w h ich m ost pract ic al

u
m e n ar e not fam iliar , h en c e it is not in cl de d h ere
fo nd in alm os t any el e ct ric al
It can b e
eng u k
ine ering t ext b oo
.

.
3 20 PRAC TI C AL E L E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T . 4 86

y u vM
“
486 In ductance Is Som e tim es Call e d El e ctric Inertia and
.
”

th e Te nde nc of C urr e nt s t o Fl ow in an Ind cti e Cir cuit Aft er

u u gu v u
It Has B e en O pe ne d Is Som e tim e s C all e d El e ctric
“
om e n tum ”
.

— Ind ct an c e does prod c e effe ct s analo o s t o t h ose prod c e d

c h ang u
by m e c h anic al inert ia
e t he fly k g
spee d of a
. For exam pl e,

w h eel , t h e
if an
c h an e
en dea

is O ppose d
or is m ade t o
by t h e

gg
w h ee l be c a
yv u u u u u
se of it s inertia
c h an e t h e in t e n sit of t h e c rr ent in a c ir c it t his effort to
t is m ade t o
. Li e w ise , if an e ffor

fly y
,

c h an e is r esist e d by irt e of t h e ind ct an c e of t h e cir c it (Art

u u
.

As soon as t h e spee d of t h e w h eel b e c om es st e ad the

y u v v
,

inert ia effe ct disappe ars W h en t h e c rr ent in a c ir c it be c om es

Hug v ug fl y v
.

st e ad t h e ind ct i e e ffe ct s anish

,
.

ow e er it sh o l d b e r em em b e re d t h at el e ct ric it
,
m ay b e
—
t h o h t of as a w ei h tless uid (Art 90 ) h en c e it can not h a e

u v ug u y flu yv
.

iner a t i . T h ese s o— c alle d inert ia effe ct s ar e due t o pr ope r ties of

t h e c ir c it t h r o h w hi c h t h e ele ct r ic it ow s Ele ct ric it t h en

u u g
.

doe s not h a e in d ct an c e It is t h e c ond ct ors w h ic h h a e t h e

u g
.

in d ct an c e and as t h e c on d ct ors ar e re arr an e d and b ent int o

u W G W
diff er e nt form s t h eir ind ct an c es w ill b e c h an e d

W
487 T h e In d ce d E m f I s r e at er
u h e n a C ircuit Is Ope ne d
.

g ug v y gu W u uu y
. . . .

Th an h en It Is Close d h e n a c ir c it is ope ne d t h e r at e of
.
-

— —
c h an e dec rease of c rrent is er hi h h en a c ir c it is

y g ju qu
.

— —
c losed t h e rate of c h an e in c r ease of c rr e nt is not s all , ,

ne arl so h i h Th e fact s st r e c it e d in c onne ction wit h t h e

G u g
.

expl anat ion of Art 438 offe r an ade at e expl anat ion

y u
. .

488 Th e r e at e r th e Self - ind ctance of a C ir cuit th e Lar e r

v u y u u g u
.

th e Tim e Tak e n for th e C ur r ent In It t o Attain It s Ste ad Val e

g u u
.

—This is ob io sl t r e b e c a se t h e r eat er t h e ind ct anc e t h e

, ,

c t c c t
r e at er will b e t h e c o n t er e m f of self in d ct an c e . . .
-
.

cct t vct t c
EXAM PL E S — Fig. .

t c
248
t c
c
sh ow s

c t t t gr aphi ally t h e ra es Of in r e ase of urr en s

t th t t c c t th h h ct c t c t ttt t
in ir ui s Of differ en ind u an es In e ac h of t h e h r ee ases ill us r a e d,
.

t h e im pressed e m f is 1 0 ol s an d t h e r esis an e of t h e ir ui is 1 oh m
. . . .

No e i of 1 enry in du an e t h e urr en a ains its s e ady

th th v
a , in t h e ir u

Wi h 2 0 h enry in
c c tt ct c c t t
v al ue in ab ou 8 se c ; w i 1 0 en ry, in ab ou 7 0 se c
. .

duct an ce , it r e quires som e ing m ore an 1 80 se c , or o er 3 min If t h e . .

ir ui h ad an indu an e of onl y h enry, t h e urren w oul d b e s e ady

u u
in a rifl e ov er 1 se c .

489 .

g uu u
How Pe rm eance Afi ect s Ind ctan ce Th e n m b er of

u v
lines of for c e t h at a c rr ent of 1 am p in a c ond ctor w ill de elop
.
-

y g
.

in t h e m a net ic c ir c it assoc iat e d w it h t h e c ond ctor w ill be

dire ctl proportional t o t h e pe rm eanc e ( Art 238) of t h e m a net ic .
3 22 P R AC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T

u uu y
. 490

of appara t s m ay b e and s all is c onside re d c onst ant w h et h er

or n ot

490
iron is
C om p uuasso ciat e d

u
tation of th e C ounte r E m f of Se lf in d ction
u u
w it h it .

u u u u
. . . . .

If t h e self in d ct an c e of a c ir c i t in h enr ys b e m ltiplie d b y t h e

-

r ate of

fiu y
c h ang e o f c rr e n t in t h e c
uir c
t er e m f in d c e d b y t his c h an e of c rr ent
it t h e r

yy u g u
es l t w ill b e t h e c o n

Thi s follow s from

,

y g
. . . .

t h e de nition of t h e h e nr in Art 4 7 2 an d explaine d in Art 473

u u g
. . .

Ob v io sl t h e m or e r apidl t h e c rr e nt int ensit c h an es t h e

u
, ,

fast e r t h e flux will c t t h e c on d ct or and t h e r eat er w ill b e t h e

ch c t
e m f in d c e d in it (Art
. . . .

h c
NO TE — Rat e
tch
of

c
an ge

t ch
of
t ch
urr e n c an be e xpr ess e d by am p . sec .

t ch
T us, if a urr e n an ges fr om 0 am p . to 4 am p . in 2 se c .
, the r a e of ange

is : 4 2 2 am p .
per sec . If a urr e n an ges fr om 2 0 am p t o . 8 am p .

u v u
in 4 se c .
, the ra e of an ge is : (2 0 8) s
-
4 12 4 3 am p .
per sec.

Expr e sse d as a for m la t h e ab o e- s a e d r t t le b e c om e s :

IC
EI = L X
T

( h e n r y )

( 1 1 0) ( se c )

Wu u uvg g vg
.

h e r ein E; t h e in d ced a era e e m f in ol s t 16 c h an e

u y
. . . .

in c rr e n t in, am pe r es, d r in the t im e t, in se on d sc . L in

c w c c c ct c
duct an ce of t h e c ir c it in h enr
,
s .

c
Ofh wh t
EXAM PLE
t
h an ge from 3 2
w .

enrys,
— If a

am p
a
oil of

.
v
a e r age
ir e w oun d

t o 6 am p in 4
v ol
.
age
on an

se c
oul d

. ?
ir on
b e indu
SO L UT I O N
ore

tt t
h as
ed

.
— Sub s i
a se lf-indu

in t h e
u e
oil by
in t h e
an e

form ul a
X 26

c t ct cwh t
E1 L X X volt s .

20 v ol
is t h e indu
t w ct c c ct ch
EXA M PL E
s
.
— If
h en t h e
an e of
the
urr e n

the
av e r age

in it
oil ?
oun e r

an ge s
e . m f of
fr om 2 4 t o 3 2
SO L UT IO N — Sub s i .
. .

tt t
se lf

u e
-
in du
am p

in for m ul a
. in
ion of a

sec .

( 1 08)
,
oil is
a

As
49 1
o u g
. u
tline d in Art u
Si nifi canc e of th e Form l as for C om p tin In d
. 4 7 3, t h e ind ct anc e of a c ir c it
u ug u u or
t
c ance .

c ond ct or
 SELF-I ND UC TANC E 3 23

y qu
SE C . 2 5]

in h e nr s is e al t o : the num ber of cutting lines developed by it

pe

u u g u
r

m l a for t h e u v y
am per e in it
c om p t ation
It follow s, t h en, t h at any for
of ind ctanc e is m erel an expr ession

u u v gv
'

for t h e c ttin flux dev el opedp e r am pe r e di ide d by

Exam ples of form las for ind ct an c e deri ed in th is w ay ar e i en

in o
u
t h er

u g y v y uu
.
ar

v g
t icles
492 Self ind ctance of Any C oil
-
.

— Th e flux de elope d by a
c oil c t s pr actic all e er t rn of t h e c oil in expandi n out of or
.

u ug g
c ont ractin int o t h e c ond ct or fr om w hi c h it em anat es w h en a
c rr ent t h ro h t h e c oil st art s or c eases It follow s t h er efore

u y y u
.
, ,

fr om t h is and pr e c e din inform at ion t h at for any c oil t h e follow

ing form la is (not exact l b ut nearl so) t r e :

( 1 1 1)
( Pa X N
( h e nr y )

Wu h e r ein L in d u ct an c e of the
u
c oil in h e nr y s N n uv
m ber of

ug u
.
,

t rns in t h e c oil ¢ .
a flux or n m b e r of line s of for c e de el ope d

ct t c t c t ct c
t h r o h t h e c oil by a c r r en t of 1 am p . in it .

cc w ch
oil
EXAM PL E

oil ?
hi
.

h as 480
—If

SO L UTI O N — Sub s i .
a

tt t
urr e n
ur ns, a
Of

flux of
u e
1

in
am p

e
.

qua ion t
pr odu es in
lines, w h a is t h e indu
a

L = oa X N
e r ain ir on-c ore
an e of t h e
fiel d

X 480
he nrys .

lines
493 .

of
C om putation
for c e de v of
c oil is from form la
elope d
Se lf-inductance of a C oil
by Art any
.

u —
Th e flux of

ug u g
.

2 54 : 1 X N X p X A I Th at is t h e flux per am pere ct

u u
a .
, , “

N X pa X A 1 S b stit t in t hi s e xpression for d> for d)

u
. “

in ( 1 1 1 ) in t h e pre c e din Art 492 anot h e r form la for t h e ind ct .

an c e of a c oil is ob t aine d t h s

N X 2
“a XA
( 1 12 ) (h m y

W u uy yg
xl
h e r ein L
ab sol

u te
in pe rm s per in
pe r m e abili
t h e ind ct an ce
t of t h e tic c ir c it
t h e le n t h of : ( 1) t h e c oil if t h e
c be l
of t h e
m at erial of t h e m a
c oil in h enr

g
s .

ne
no th e
u
g u
. .

c oil h as an air c or e and is not assoc iate d w ith iron ; (2) t h e c ore or
m a ne tic c ir c it if it is of iron

u u
A
t h e inside of t h e c oil or of t h e c ore in s
c ross-se ctional area of
are in c h es N the
.

qu .

ct t tt h
n m b e r of t rns in t h e c oil .

cc h ch
Nor m— Th e
c ylin dri al
ab o e

oil Of one
v form ul a gives result s q uit e ac u r a e for any s
l aye r w i is lon g in pr opor ion t oit s di am e
r aig

er b ut
t
 P RAC TI C AL E L E C TR I C I T Y

ct c w w th t c
3 24

ct c t c
t t htht c ct c c t w h
it m ay b e used in pr a i al
t
t h e indu an e of al m os an y oil c h
or k
t .
i
S or
ou e x essi

oils a e
ve
v
e rr or

gr e a
fo
er

c wh ch wh ch t t t ct
r op or ion a e l y an l on g oil s
p ,
.

X
E AM P L E — W a is t h e in du an e of a oil of 400 urns ound

ir on or e i is 2 4 in l on g an d
. i h as a se ion al ar e a of sq . in .

x x x x
Assum e U
SO L TI O N — Sub s i u e in for m ul a ( 1 1 2 )
as .

N 2
u. xA 400 400 x

u uu
1 00 xt 24

494
Air C or e
y
. C om p
— Fr om

u ytation
Art
of th e
24 2 , t h e
Se lf -
in d
ab sol
t
c ance

te
of a

pe rm e ab ili
C oil w ith
t Of

u g vu u u
. .

t h at is h is al w a s a, pe r m s pe r in . c be . Th e n
t tin t his al e in form la t h e ind ct an c e of an air

c oil i s
N 2
X X A
( 1 1 3) Xl

W
sam e
h e r e in
g u gv
m e anin
thev le tt e rs h a
s as w it h form
e

t h is
u qu
e
Th e
a u
tion
cc
ab o t t h e sam e e xt e n t
r es

ar e
l ts
a
i
ra e
en

u
of ( 1 12 ) as in dic at e d

not e t h e r e nde r

t
.

FI G 2 49 — T r ansm ission lin e se lf- in

tt
EXAM PL E
c h — Wh a is t h e in
avin g an i

t
of an air -c or e oil
-
. .

d u ct an ce pr ob l e m

tt t
diam e e r of l in (ar e a
.

. sq

1 00 ur ns an d a l en g h of 20 in
SO L UT I O N — Sub s i . u ein t h e for m ul a ( 1 1 3 )
N X 2
X A 1 0 0 X 1 00 X X
he

u g u gy
O r, h en ry m i lli he nry .

v v y u
495 Se lf in d -
t
c anc e of a Str ai h t C ond ctor — St rai h t

u vy qu
. .

du ct ors h a e r el at i el little self -

in d —
ct an c e practic all
nl ess th e ar e it e l on

uc is e ident fr om t h e
an e

c ond ct or or wire is bent

u u gu g y
h elix it s ind ct an c e is
ind ct an c e of st rai h t
re a

con duc
tl

c ert ain form l as w hic h ar e t oo

 3 26 PR AC TI C AL EL E C TR I C I T Y [ ART

k
. 492

( D ) l

H
in

ue s is t h
B ( h an d r le , Ar t
e sam e ( fr om fr on t t o b ac

u
for e xam pl e ) in A as in

vv u uy
.

c e t h e e m fs in A and in B due t o t h e se D line s ann l

en

uu u g
. . .
,
“
Th e e ffe cti e C lines c t onl leg A an d t h e r e by
”
one anot h er

uu ug u
.

ind c e t h e rein an e ffe cti e e m f as t h e c rr e n t c h an es and

u k u
. . .

t h s pr od c e self ind ction L eg B alt h o h t h e ill str ation

-
.
,

doe s not sh ow it pr od c e s a flux of c ir c l ar lines li e t h at aro nd

v u
,

A exc e pt t h at it is in t h e O pposit e dir e ction It follow s t h e n

u u
.
, , ,

t h at t h e effe cti e line s of b oth A and B c ontrib t e t ow ar d t h e

c ct t c t ctth c
se lf ind ct ion of t h e l oope d c ond ct or
-
.

t c tw th
NO TE — If t h e l e gs Of t h e ondu or ar e qui e l ose oge er as at 11 , t h e
di s an e H b e
.

cc ctt th t t t ch
iv e lines is orr e

th t
e en e m is sm all an d t h e n um b er O f e ff e
-

Wh en
c c ct c ct
spondingl y sm all . t h e l e gs ar e l ose oge er (al m os ou ) only
t h e lines or flux a lie inside of t h e ondu ors and b e w een t h e l e gs is
e ffe ti ve in pr odu ing self- indu ion . If t h e l egs of t h e l ooped ondu ors

Dl recf/on of
'

II Le gs Toget he r
,
.

fi ecfi ve Fl ux

III . Coil .

FI G . ctht c c t cth wh
2 50 .
—S h
I:
cct
Legs Sepa rat e d
ow in g w h y self- in d u an e is d e r e a se d en l e g s of a ir ui ar

cth t th ct th t
b r ou g l ose og e er .

v ery

c ch c
l ose
c ct ct w t t the e fle c t iv e flux is so sm all for all pr act i
'

ar e oge e r, a ,

Wh en
t t c t ch ct t ct ctht
u
p poses,
r er e is n o self-indu ion . a on d u or is b en in o a
as at 1 1 1, t h e u rr e n t in ea l oop of t h e ondu or flo s in t h e sam e d
'

t c h ct
ion (ins e ad of in opposi e dir e ions as in 1 an d I I) an d en

all of t h e flux pr odu ed by ea l oop or ur n is e ff e iv e an d u s

u W
urn as des rib ed iii Art 466 . . T us, t h e self-indu ion of a coil is l ar ge .

pu 498 Th e Ind
r pose s,
.

the sam e as
t
c an ce

th at
of Str and e d
of solid w ires of t h e sam e cir cul
ir e s is, for all pr act i

m il s
499
u
are a

k
.

y v g
A C h oke C oil (Fig 25 1) is m erel a c oil h a in 0

u gu u
. .

b le self-
in d ct an c e C h o e c oils ar e som e t i
.

w h en se d in alt e rnatin c rr e nt c ir c it s for -

c all ed r eactance coi ls

 SE C . SELF -I ND UC TANC E 3 27

u g g
25 ]

v g g
be se d in c om binat ion wit h a li h t nin arr este r as sh ow n in t h e

gu u y v u
ill ustrations, to tend to pre ent t h e li h t nin disc har e c rr e nts g -
u
Cho ku
from e nte rin t h e apparat s w hi h t h e c oil is inst alle d t o pr ot e ct
c
c oils s all h a e air cdres
e

u vy y u so t h at t h e flux pr od uu
c e d by
.

g u
a c rre nt in t h e m will b ild up e r r apidl and th s p od c e a
r

ch c htc t
hi h c o nt er e m f . . .

Ex
t w AM PL E .

ct
— In t h e diagr am

h w t t t t hh w Fi g 2 5 1 , I I , a
of . o e k oil and a lig ning

ht ht t t ch c tt c tht t
for t h e pr ot e ion O f th e ge ne r a or ar e For sim pli i y,
*
ar res e r s o n .

onl y one ire is s o n e n e rin g t h e s a ion . Th e re s oul d , in ge n e r al , b e a

lig nin g ar res e r an d a o e k oil on e ve ry ae rial lin e en e rin g a s a ion .

If no lig nin g arr es e r is pr ovided an d t h e line w ir e is s ru k b y lig nin g,

. Ch oke CO 17

tt h I “

t
C h o k e C oi l
— Il l us
II - l n C i r c u it

t t h ch c t
FI G . 2 51 . ra in g t h e c o k e c oil an d it s applic a ion .

the
ch t w ch t t th h t th h
ex r e m el y high -v ol age lig tnin g dis-
ar ge urr e n ,
in it s e n de a v or to

t
rea gr ound , m ay pas s in o a ge n e r a or or o . e r appar a us an d r ou g it

t ct t h w h c t t ch
t o it s m e al fr am e hi is u u ally gr ounde d
s . T us a w indin g m ay b e

c ch w c c c ht ch c c t t th h w tht
”
L punct ur ed or possibly b urn out an d ruine d “
.

If pr o e ion b e ins all ed as s o n , a sud de n rus of u rr en in o t h e ok e

t t th h t h
oil ill in du e in t h e oil an imm e ns e oun e r e m f This ill e nd t o . . .

k —

c t h tc ct c tt t c tt w th htwh ch ch c t th
“ ”
o e or for e t h e lig nin g dis ar ge u rr e n r ou g t h e l ig nin g
arres e r air gap
— ins e ad Of r oug t h e ge ne r a or— t o groun d . T us t h e

thth t thh h htch c t ch t th

oil en ds t o pr o e the s a ion appar a us i i it is asso ia ed . For
t h e hi g -
fre q uen y os ill a ory urr en of a lig nin g dis ar ge , t h e pa
r ou g t h e lig nin g arr es e r t o ground offe rs m u l ess opposi ion an

a r oug th e o e k oil .

‘
Se e t h e au t h or S C E N TB A L ST A T I O N S for m or e in for m at ion
'
r e la t ing t o l ig h t nin g arr es te rs
an d l i g h t ni ng pr ot e c t i on
.

.
 SE C T ION 2 6

M UTUAL INDUC TANCE

500
u y u u
M utual In d ctan c e (Ar t 4 7 1 ) is t h e abilit of one c ir c it yu u
uu fi u u g Hfi v u
. .

t o prod c e an e m f in a n e ar b c ir c it by in d ction w h e n t h e
. . .

c rr ent in t h e rst c ir c it c h an e s ow e e r t h e se c on d cir

u g
.
,

c it can also ind c e an e m f in t h e rst w h e n t h e c rr e nt in

uu u ug u u yg
. . .

t h e se c ond c ir c it c h an es Th e pr oc ess b y w hi c h t h e e m f
. . . .

is in d c e d is o tlin ed in Art 4 57 Th e ind c e d e m f is alw a s

z u u u
. . . . .

in s c h a di r e ct ion as t o oppose t h e c h an e O f c rr e n t in d c in

y
it (L e n s l aw Art M t al ind ct an c e is m e asur e d in
’ '

.
,

c t c ch
h e nr s, Art 4 72. .

c c
EX AM PLE —
cc t
.

c h t w ct c
AS t h e urr en in t h e prim ary oil of Fig 228

c
anges, th e .

c t w ct c c c c t
e m f in du ed in t h e se ond ary
. . . oil is d ue t o t h e m u u al in du an e of t h e

t w o oils Also, if t h e urr en w e r e v aried in t h e e avy ire (se on d ary)

.
-

oil , b y vir ue

t t
oil , an e m f ould b e in d u e d in t h e fi ne- Wi re (prim ary )
. . .

h t c c t ct c
O f t h e m u u al ind u an e of t h e oils .

NO TE — “
C oefiici ent of m utual i nductance is a e r m , n ow l i tl e use d,

Mu qu
avin g ab ou t h e sam e signifi an e as
“ ”
m u u al in du an e .

50 1 .

vg y u u utual
e xc e pt in a fe w r e l at i e l
-

fi g v
inductan ce C al cul ation s

y
c om plic at e d
sim pl e c ase s one of w hi c h is i en
ar e it e

u u
,

be low In de te r mi nin m t al ind ct an c e it is r st ne c essar

uu u u u fl fi
.

t o asc e rt ain t h e n m b er of line s of for c e of on e c ir c it w hi c h will

v u g uy g
c t t h e oth er c ir c it w h e n a c rr e nt of 1 am p ow s in t h e rst
c ir c it Th en t his n m b e r re pr e se nt in t h e c ttin flux is
.

uW Mu u
.
, ,

di ide d b y t o get t h e res l t int o h e n r s (Art .

502 C om p tation for th e tual In d ctan c e of Tw o C on

gu u u v uv y figu
.

c e ntric C oil s — h e re t h e t w o c oils ar e c on c e nt ric an d lie c lose

u u v y
.

t o e th er t h eir m t al ind ct an c e can b e r eadil re d It is

uu y g
.

ass m e d t h at t h e flux e ol e d b y e ac h t r n of on e c oil c t s e e r

u gv u u
t rn of t h e oth er c oil Th e simil arit b et w ee n t h e follow in
.

form l a and t h at for c al c l at in t h e self in d ct an c e of a c oil -

( A r

y
t 4
. 9 3 ) is app ar e nt T h e d
u g u
e ri a t ion of t.hi s f or m l
t ic all t h e sam e as t h at of t h e one for c om p tin self ind ct an c e
a is pr ae

y
- .

N 1 X N2 X P X A v
a

xz
(h e nr )
32 8
 ENER GY ST O RED IN MG A NETIC FIELD

50 3
E ne r — gy u —
foot po n ds is (Art 169) c apacit
-
y u g k
Kin e tic Ene rgy Is Stor e d in Any M agne tic Fiel d
.

for d oin w or
.

uu ug gy
. .

T h e pow er (Art 1 59) expe nde d by a curr e nt in a c ir c it is t h e sam e

u v
.

w h et h e r t h e c ir c it h as or h as
ct anc e B ut t h e ener not ind

u gy u v gu
.

spe n t in starting a c rr e n t in a cir c ui t is r e at er in an ind ct i e

'

cir c it t h an in a non in d ct i e c ir c it as will be sh ow n

exc e

u
s s of e ne r

u z
-

u
Th e
is st or e d in t h e m a ne t ic fi el d and is all r e t r ne d
.

ct v c c t c t c
t o t h e cir c it w h en t h e c rr e nt de c r e ases t o er o :

h c t t ct ct
EXAMP LE .
—C onsider
ct tc th v c t
t h e indu i ir ui , w h i h h as
e a r esis an e of 3

w
O ms an d an in du an e of h enry, for w hi h e r ain al ues of in cr e as

At

tt w t cth c t t t c t
ing urr e n s ar e ab ul a ed in 482 . t h e ins an w en the urr e n is 1 8
am p . t h e po er l oss is : I 2 X R 18 X 18 X 3 w atts . But t h e
k

tw t t w t c c t th t
o al po er a en by t h e ir ui at his ins an is : E X 1 1 10 X 1 8

ct wt t ct c c c t tt t t
w atts . Ob v iousl y, ere is a differ e n e Of : 90 8
w atts b e ee n t h e ins an an e ous po er k
a en by th e ir ui and a

t wh ch w tt t t vt w t c
a u all y l os or use d This di ffe r e n e , 90 8 w a
. s, r e pr ese n s t h e ins an
t ane ous po er s or ed in t h e m agn e i ir ui .

If his v al u e— 90 8— in w a

w tt c t t h t t v
m ul iplie d b y t h e
sb e ery sm all im e in se ond s

h h cc th t c t t h c t c t th
durin g i t h e po er is b e in g s ore d, t h e r esul ill b e t h e en e r gy (Art .

in J oul es or a -se on ds, s ore d during his s or in er al . By appl y

c t ct t t c t t th t c t t c
ing t h e ig er ma em a i s, it is possibl e t o su m up t h e e ne rgy s or e d du r
ing all of the su essiv e ins an s w il e t h e u rr en is in r e asin g an d e r eb y

in t h e m agn e i fi el d

t th t
as e r ain the o al am oun of en e r gy us s ore d .

Wh en t h e fi el d b e

t t c
urr e n be om es s e ad y, t h e om es s e ady an d n o addi

t c c t th t t c ct h
t ion al is im par ed t o it
en e r gy Fur er m ore , n o ad di ion al e n e rgy is
.

r e quir ed t o m ain ain it E n e r gy is n ot re quir e d for t h e m ain e n an e of

c t th ct t v tt t c t h t c c t
.

any m agn e i fi el d—e x e p a l os in t h e on du ors w e r eb y t h e fi el d

A pe rm ane n m agn e (Ar s 4 1 an d 80) furn is es a s rikin g ex

c t c t ctc th ct c
is e x i ed . .

c t
am pl e Of is fa If t h e ol age of 1 1 0 is dis on inue d fr om t h e ir ui
“

d es rib e d ab ov e , t h e urr en de r e ases t o z e r o an d

cct c th t t
en (pr a i ally) all
of t h e en e r gy s or e d in t h e m agn e i fi el d , as des rib e d, is re urn e d t o t h e
ir ui Th e pr o ess is t h e r ev e rse of
. a ou lin e d in t h e fore goin g e xam pl e .

F or fu
‘
h er infor m at ion r e l at in g t o t h is sit uat ion see K ar ape t ofi M AG N E TIC C IR
g
'
s T HE
c uxr , p l
.
 SE C TION 28

Y EDD C URRENTS

ug fi
504 y uEdd u or Fo
v
th ose c rrents w hic h are
caul t u
C
v
rr e n s ar e t

fi v ug
.

ind c e d in m asses of m et al w h e ne e r t h e m e t al is m o e d in a

u u g y zu
m a ne tic eld or w h e n a el d or flux m o es t h r o h t h e m e t al
,

Th ese c rr e nt s are al w a s in s c h a dir e ction as t o Oppose t h e

y u
.

uy u yy v v v y
m otion pr od c in t h e m (L e n s l aw Art
y u
’
E dd c rr e nt s ,
.

are s all of r elat i el sm all int e nsit b ut m ay b e e norm o s

g
.

Th e al w a s in ol e an I X R loss (Art 1 67 ) w hic h in t h e aggr e

2
.

t t t t c v t
at e m ay b e c onside r able .

t
E XAM PLE — If

t
.

c t c a

t t
pe rm an e n
ct th t
l ose t o and ab o e a m e al
m agne b e r o

c
a ed

wh ch th c t t
pl a e, as in Fig 2 52A, 1 , e ddy ur ren s w ill b e indu e d in t h e pl a e
. Som e .

c cw t t t th t w
of t h e flux of t h e m agne u s t h e m e al of t h e pl a e an d e r eb y indu es

c c t t t t t
an e m f. . i im pels
. ese urr e n s ar oun d in t h e pl a e C onside r abl y .

m ore for e ill b e re qui re d t o r o a e t h e m agne

t
an if t h e pl a e e r e n ot

t t t t
n e ar it , b e ause t h e in du e d e ddy urre n s end t o re ar d t h e r o a ion of t h e

tt w t t c w t t t
m agne .

Now , if t h e m agne b e h eld v ved

ct c t
s a ion ary an d t h e pl a e re ol , e ddy cu r

t t t t h t t
ren s ill also b e in du edin t h e pl a e . If t h e m agne is n ot r es r aine d, it

c t w t th cth c thth t
w ill e nd t o ro a e, foll o ing t h e pl at e . Th e dir e ion of t h e e ddy u rr e n s,

t h e pl a e ro a in g t o t h e l ef ,
is s ow n in t h e illust r a ion . On e por ion of

tt hth c ch tth t th c t c t h ct
the u rr e n foll o s it s ow n appr oxim at el y se m i ir ul ar pa in t h e pl a e at

one side of t h e m agne . Th e o er , sim il ar ,

is at t h e o e r side of t h e pa

tt t tt t h t t
m agne .T e se t w o urr en s pr odu e t w o m agne i pole s as s ow n Th e .

pol ari ies of ese ar e su a ey re pel t h e n e ar es (in t h e dire ion of

t t c t th t
r o a ion ) pol e of t h e pe rm an e n m agne T us, ro a ion is oppose d an d .

t h e r e quir e m e n O f Le n z s l aw sa isfie d

t t t t w ct v tt t t t
’
.

If t h e m agne is n ot r es r ain e d, it w ill t ry t o assum e su h a posi ion a ,

ill lie dire ly ove r t h e S pol e of t h e pl a e

hw w h t c ch ht tt w tt
as t h e pl a e r o a es, it s N pol e

an d it s S pol e ov e r t h e pl a e s N pol e
’
It can ne e r a ain his posi ion , .

o e v e r , b e ause if t h e m agn e m oves, t h e posi ions of t h e pol es of t h e pl a e

t ht t
ill s if al so
tEa
w
of t h e

pol ariz e d, t h e m agne , as it

.

t
al v es of t h e pl a e w ill al

tt t tch t ht t tays b e opposi el y

e r e, dividing t h e pl a e in o h al v es

m agn e is pre v e n e d fr om ur nin g, an d t h e pl a e is r o a e d an d a lig

If t h e .

t w c t c th h t ct c ct c ct ct c c t h
m e al
w ipe r or b rus is arr an ged t o b e ar on t h e pl a e u n de r e a m agn e pole , c ur

c t h t
ren ill b e for e d r ou g an e x ern al ir ui onne e d t o t h e b rus es, as

tw v ct t t c c w
will b e indi a e d b y a l ow -r e ading am m e e r onn e e d in t h e ir ui .

EXAM PLE S — ( l ) If a sl ab of opper b e ab rup l y pus e d in o t h e fi el d

.

be ee n t h e pol es of a st r ong el e rom agn e , t h e oppe r a ts as if it e re

b eing m o ed in a h e av y fluid Th e e ddy curren s induced in it t end t o pre

.

33 1
 ELE C TRI CI T Y

v twt v t c t t th
33 2 PRAC TI CAL [ ART . 50 4

ct t c
en its m o e m en .
(2) If a opper penny
t th t t tb e suspen de d on a w is e d
( Fig 252 A,
r e ad

h t c
be ee n t h e pol es of a pow e rful m agne . or in an y s r ong
field

c tt c c t tt t v t
el e r om agne i , t h e penn y will spin as t h e r e ad un wis s if t h e m a
g
not energiz ed

ct t tht t t
n et is . But w en it is en e rgiz e d m o ion w ill e ase . (3 ) Th e

v t t
e ddy ur re n s ir ul a ing in t h e m e al b ob bins of t h e
m o in g el e m e n s

t t c wh th v c t v
of per m anen
-m agne -
yp e dir e - u rr n
c e m e asur in g inst r um e n s an d of
D Arsonv al gal anom e

c t t tt t t t
’
ers end t o s op eir m o ion T h e b ob bins are sus
.

pe nde d in s r ong m agn e i fi el ds and en ey mo e e ddy urr en s de el op.

“ ”
It is b e ause of his h a h ese ins rum en s are de ad b e a-
.

-
Il Penny Be t w ee n Magne t Poles
l -
Damping Magne ts

Mag/re f

Fla/e
’
fiofafi on of

tt c tIII Eddy Cur re nt s in Plate

c w c t ch c
2 52 A — Ill us ing
'

FI G . . ra e dd y - ur r e n e fi e ct s .

c t
EX AM PL E
t
c tttc th.
— Th e
c
in a me ct
n e dl e of a
e om pass ill om e t o r es mu
ndu c
m or e qui kly
—

t t t t
if it b e m oun ed al as e an if it is in a n on -
o ing ase be

ht v t h c t t c t w ctt h t
ause oi e ddy urr en s .

EX AM PL E — An im por h a illus r a ed in Fig 252 A, 1 ,

an exam pl e is .

th t t t t ctt t th
w e re is diagram m e d t h e appli a ion of d am pin g m agne s t o a a - ou r

m e e r m o e m en T ese d am pin g m agne s, b e ause of t h e e ddy urren s

.

fun ions : ( 1 ) Th ey prev en an e x

thh tch t t t ct w c w t
due t o e m , pe rfor m t w o im por an

cessiv e ly r apid r o a ion of t h e m ov i g e l e m e n of t h e m e e r

tv tt c
( 2 ) T e y insur e
n .

ht t t
a t h e r o a ion al spee d of t h e dis ill al ays b e pr opor ion al t o t h e l oad
w i is b eing m e ere d Th e m e al dis — usuall y of al um inum so h a t h e
.

w e ig of t h e r ot a in g el e m e nt w ill be a m inim um — is m oun e d on a er i al

3 34

tc v t t cttt t ttw c t t h
PRAC TI C AL ELE C TR I C I T Y [ AR T . 50 5

is, as ab o e s a ed, dire l y pr opor ion al t o t h e spee d so h at w e n

c t wt w th t c t t t t
m agne s

t h e dis h as spee ded up so as t o a ain a speed j us i e as gre a as it s origi

n al spee d, it s oun e r or que

t tht ct t t tct t wt w
ill en b e w i e as gr e a as b efor e , or 2 oz .

at 1 in r adius, an d it ill b e e q u al t o t h e n ow -e xis in g m o or- or qu e

. Th us, .

ill al ays—d ue t o t h e

t
it is appare n a t h e speed of t h e m e e r m o or

oun e r or q ue— b e dire l y pr opor ion al t o t h e l oad b e in g

c h
d am ping m ag ne -

c cc ht whtch tw
me e r ed .
— Th e m edical ind uction coi ls or shocki ng coi ls av e

t c
EXAM P LE . so- all e d

c an b e m ov e d in an d out b e

th t h c w c
ylindri al b r ass ub es i ee n t h e Win din gs

c t t c w th t w th tw t h th
the ub e is all in an d e n ir el y surr oun din g
'

of t h e ore . en t he ore ,
“
th e sec on d ary a is t h e s o k po e r,
”
of t h e oil is sm all . Th e

c t c t c
se ond ar y e . m f in . . r e ases as the ub e is i dr a n an d is a m axim um w en

t tt w c c
t he ub e is en irel y i dr awn . Th e e xpl an a ion is his : en t he ub e

C onse q ue n ly t h e ore
”

c t ct c
“
is all in t he e ddy urr e n s in it are onside r ab l e .

m agne iz es and de m agne iz es sl o ly an d t h e e m f in du e d in t h e se ond ary . . .

is low . B ut w h e n t h e ub e is al l out , t h e e ddy- urr en l osses ar e pra i all y

of

l
hw tt t
EddyCurrents in Rot at ing Cylinder

t ct II Laminate d Ar mat ur e
'
“

FI G . 252 B .
—
S o in g h ow l am i n a in g an ar m a ur e e nds t o m i ni m i z e ed d y

th h c t c t
c urr e n s an d e dd y urr en l osse s in it .

e lim in a e d, t h e or e m agn e iz es an d de m agne iz e s r apidl y an d t he se on d ary

yg gg
e . m f is
. . ig .

yu
M e th ods of M inim iz in Edd curre nt
50 5 -
Loss — Sinc e an

y
. .

e dd c rre nt te nds t o flow at ri h t an les t o t h e dir e ction of t h e

flux t h e re sist an c e of it s pat h an d t h e int e nsit of it s e m f can
m
u
. . .
,

be de c r e ase d by la inating (Fig 2 S2 E I I ) t h e m e t als in w hi c h

g g
.
,

it te nds t o flow Th e lami nat ions sh o l d b e paralle l t o t h e direc

u k y u v g y quu
.

tion of t h e flux and at ri h t an le s t o t h e axis of r ot at ion Sinc e .

( fo r m l a 1 1 6 Ar t 50 8 ) t h e e dd,c r r e nt l oss ar i
,e s as t h e s
. ar e -

of t h e t hic ne ss of t h e l ami nations it is possible t o r e at l r e d c e

u g v u
,

t h e l oss b y thi s c onst rict ion

uy u y u uu y
.

In c om m e r c ial ele ct ric al appar at s all lar e ol m e s of m e t al ,

th at are s b j e ct t o conside rable e dd c r rent loss ar e lam inate d - .

Th at is th e ar e b ilt up of thin sh eet s of m e t al s all from

,
 E DD Y C U RRE N TS 3 35

k u
sE c . 2 8]

to
de ney yv u u for
in . thic k
e dd c g -
.

rr e nuu y
Thic
t
e r sh ee s

loss is
t
not
m ay b e
l ar e Th e
se d w h e r e t h e te n
sh ee s ar e t s all

ufi u
.

painte d t o pro ide ins l at ion b e t w ee n t h em , but in som e c ases

t t t t
the oxide on t h e m et al pr ovi des s f c ie nt ins l at ion .

t t tc
EXAM PLE S .

ct c c ttFig 252 3 .

c
,
I I, ill us
k
r a es t h e l amin a ion of an arm a ur e

c t t c ctt w t c c
or r o or .
( 2 ) Th e or es of spar and indu ion oils (Ar s . 468 an d 4 63 )
are b uil up of l e ng h s of iron wi re t o m inimi z e e ddy- urr e n l oss . An el e

t h c c
t r om agne t om pose d of an insul a ed on du or oun d on a solid ir on or e
quire

w w th w t wthth c wh t cht
m ay re 1 0 or 1 2 l on g t o m agne iz e as a m agne of e xa t ly t h e
im es as

sam e p r opor io n s b u t a vi n g a
“
l am in at e d
”
ore o m prisin g a b un dle of

c ct t t t c t
iron ir es T h e m agne
. i t h e solid ore ill also d e m agn e iz e m u
m or e sl o l y an ill t h e o e r (3 ) Fig 2 9 1 s ow s h ow t h e fi el d m agne
. .

or e of a e r ain ype of ge ner a or is l amin a ed t o minim iz e ed dy- urr e n

y W v u
l osses .

u yu
506 Edd curr ent Loss
.
— h ene er th ere is a c
c ond ctor th ere will be a loss : P
-

y
1 X R (Ar t
2

u H . rr e n t in
c
en e
a

v v
.

w h en e dd c r re n s t flow , t h er e is an e dd -
c rr e n t loss w hi c h

y
m inim iz
appears as use l ess

g
ed in so farg h e at
as
. E en w h en
is pr actic able by lam inat in (Art 505)
t h ese losses h a e be e n

u
.

th e c onsiderable
are in enerators, m ot ors, t ransform ers an d

y
sim il ar appar at s

v v fi
50 7 Edd C urr ents in El e ctrical M achine s
.

W —
y h en t h e r otor

y gu y
.

of an el e ct ric al m ac hi ne r e ol es in it s el d t h er e is a te nde nc to
set up e dd

y u g y
c rrents Fig 2528 I Th ere is also a t ende nc

ug u g y
tow ar d se ttin up of e dd c rrent s in t h e st ationar parts as
u
,
.
,
.

y u
.

flux sw ee ps th r o h or c h an es in t h em Appl in t h e h an d r le

y y
.
,

of Art 42 7 it will b e fo nd t h at t h e e dd c rr e nts te nd t o flow in

-

uy g g fi
.
,

t h e c li nde r of t h e ill ust r at ion in t h e dir e ct ions indic ate d Ed d

z g
.

c rrents flow in a dire ction at ri h t an le s t o th at of t h e el d

M g y y
.

E dd c urre n ts ar e m inim i e d by l am inatin (Art

u u v u yv u u u
.

50 8 e th od of C om putin E dd curr e nt L oss

- — Th e e dd

g g fi
. .

c rr ent loss in any ol m e of m e tal th at c ts or is c t by a

v uy uu gy
, ,

flux m st ob io sl depe n d am on oth e r t hin s on t h e spe c i c , ,

re sist an c e or r esisti it (Art 12 6C ) of t h e m et al an d t h e fr eq en c

g
.

w ith w hi c h t h e flux c t s t h e m e t al — th at is on t h e r ate of c tt in

y u u
.

L am in at in ( Art 50 5) in c r e ases t h e re sist an c e ; h en c e t h e thinn er

v g v u g y
.
,

t h e l am in ations t h e l ess t h e e dd c rr en t l oss A form l a t h e— -

u
.

r —
de i at ion of w hic h can not b e i en h er e for c om p t in e dd .

c rrent loss is

yu
X j X V (X X f X B) 2
( w att s)
e dd - c rren t loss in w atts .
j a c oe ffi c ient
336 PRAC TI C AL EL E C TRI C I T Y [ AR T 508

vu y g qu y k y
.

c
ar

uin
t
rr e n s ar e g vH u g v
with t h e
ind c ed ;
ali t and

t h e foll ow in
ind of

al
m et al in w hic h t h e
es ar e i en in Pe n der
e dd
’
s

v
AM E RI C AN E LE C TRI C AL EN GIN E E R S
v g
’
AN DB O O K : for silic on sh eet
s eel
t j
y aries
— for
v g v from
or dinar el e
t o 0 000 09 8 w ith
ct ric al sh ee t s e el
t j
an a e r a e

aries fr om
of

vu kol
to
u qu uy w it h
m e of t h e m e t al in w hic h t h e l oss occ
an a e ra e of

rs in
V
c bic in c h es
yu
the

u u y
.

X thi c ness of t h e sh ee ts in in c h es f fr e en c in c c l es
per se c on d
qu
B t h e m axim m fl x
. de nsit in kilolines (t h o

ht t ct cc t t h w ct
san ds of lines) pe r s ar e in c h .

—W

ctc c c
EXA M PLE . a e ddy- urr e n po l oss m ay b e e xpe e d in a m ass of
er

a vin g a v ol um e of 6 1 cu in if t h e ir on is

t t c
or di n ary l amina e d el e ri al s e el . .

lines pe r sq in at a fre quen y of

th
a ed upon by a flux (m axim um ) of . .

60 y l e s per se c ? Th e l amin a ion s are

. in hi k
. SO L UTI O N — SUb
. .

s tit ut e in e form ul a Pg X j X V (X Xf X B) ”
X
X X 60 X X X
w atts .

[For I ndex: See E nd of Next Volume ]