HISTORY P1 SCOPE
➔ After Germany was defeated in May 1945, there was no more need for the Grand Alliance.
1. The Cold War
Question focus: The origins of the Cold War
ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR
➔ The Cold War was the struggle that developed between the USA and the USSR,
which both countries are seen as superpower countries after WWII
➔ In this struggle the USA was supported by other Western Countries (the West) and
the USSR was supported by other communist governments (the Soviet Bloc)
➔ The created tension between the Capitalist courtiers and Communist Countries
➔ This created a divide in the world (west vs east = cold war)
THE END OF WWII: WHY DID A COLD WAR DEVELOP?
➔ The Cold War started because of the mistrust which had developed between the
West and the USSR after a communist government came to power in Russia in 1917
➔ This was temporarily set aside during WWII.
➔ In 1941, the USA, the USSR and Britain formed a Grand Alliance to defeat Germany
(Hitler)
➔ By the end of WWII there was mistrust between the West and the USSR * Suspicions
and tensions increased
THE YALTA CONFERENCES (FEBRUARY 1945)
➔ The Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin) agreed that:
➔ Towards the end of the war, in February 1945, the leaders of the Grand
Alliance – Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill – met at Yalta in the USSR.
➔ The main purpose of the meeting was to decide what to do about Germany,
and the countries controlled by the Germans, and the countries controlled by
the Germans in eastern Europe, once the Nazis had been defeated
➔ They agreed that Germany would be divided into four zones of occupation -
each to be administered by France, Britain, USA and USSR
➔ Countries in eastern Europe would hold free elections to determine their
government (capitalist / communist)
THEN THE SITUATION CHANGED
1. Roosevelt died and was replaced by Harry Truman.
2. Churchill was replaced by Clement Attlee.
3. Russia expanded westward and took control of Finland, Czechoslovakia, Poland
and Romania
THE ALLIES WERE NOW SUSPICIOUS OF EACH OTHER. STALIN WANTED TO
CONTROL EASTERN EUROPE – BRITAIN AND THE USA SUSPECTED THIS
THE POTSDAM CONFERENCE
➔ The distrust and suspicions which had been building up between the USSR and the West
became more evident at a second conference of Allied leaders held at Potsdam, in Germany.
➔ By this stage a number of changers had taken place which affected relationships between the
three leaders
➔ The Soviet Army was in control of much of eastern Europe
➔ Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland, ignoring the wishes of the majority of
the Polish people.
➔ Roosevelt had died and been replaced by Truman, who was much more anti- communist and
suspicious of Stalin than Roosevelt had been.
➔ The Americans had successfully developed and tested the first atomic bomb and planned to
use it to end the war against Japan.
➔ Shortly after the comference started, Churchill was defeated in a general election in Britain,
and was replaced by the new labour prime minister, Attlee. In the absence of Churchill,
suspicion between Stalin and Truman dominated the conference
➔ A key are of disagreement between the leaders was what to do about Germany.
➔ Stalin wanted Germany to pay reparations for the extensive damage that the Germany army
had caused in the USSR during the war.
➔ He wanted to cripple Germany completely so that it would not be strong enough in the future
to invade the USSR again.
➔ Truman, on the other hand, did not want to create a bitter and hostile Germany.
THE USSR AND THE USA: THE CREATION OF SPHERE OF INFLUENCE
The installation of Soviet- friendly governments in the satellite states
➔ An issue which caused tensions between the former Allies was Western concern
about the extension of Soviet control over much control ofmeastern Europe.
➔ The presence of the Soviet Army, which had liberated eastern Europe from the
➔ Nazis, ensured that Soviet-friendly governments came to power in Poland, Hungary,
Bulgaria, Romania and East Germany after the war.
➔ These countries became known as Soviet satellites.
➔ The free elections, which the USSR had agreed at Yalta to hold in these countries did
not take place.
➔ A communist coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948 seemed to confirm Western suspicions
that the USSR was trying to extend its control and influence.
THE USA’S POLICY OF CONTAINMENT:
➔ USA and BRITAIN worried that communist governments would take control in the rest
of Europe E.g. Greece, Italy and France
➔ This lead to a radical change in American Policy.
➔ So, instead of returning to its traditional policy of isolation, the USA became actively
involved in world affairs.
➔ It adopted a policy of containment, to contain or check the spread ofcommunism
THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE
➔ It was events in Greece and Turkey which made the USA decide to take action in this
way.
➔ In Greece a civil war had broken out between communist-led guerrillas and the Greek
government.
➔ A similar situation in Turkey had developed.
➔ The USA believe that in both cases the USSR was supporting the communists.
➔ Truman announced introduce the Truman Doctrine policy – USA was prepared to
send money, military equipment and advice to any country that was threatened by
communist takeover.
➔ The Truman Doctrine became the basis of American policy during the Cold War.
THE MARSHALL PLAN
➔ Another part of the policy of containment was the Marshall Plan.
➔ Truman believed that more than just military aid was necessary to prevent the spread
of communism.
➔ He sent the US Secretary of State, George Marshall, to Europe to investigate the post
war economic situation there.
➔ Marshall reported that much of Europe had been destroyed by the war and that
people were suffering.
➔ The result of this visit was a plan for economic aid, called the MARSHALL PLAN
The aim was to rebuild the post – war European economies.
➔ Between 1948-1952 the USA gave $17billion of Marshall Aid to the countries of
western Europe to help them to rebuild their economies.
➔ This included former allies, such as France and Britain, as well as former enemies,
such as Germany.
➔ The Marshall Aid helped to bring about a remarkable economic recovery in western
Europe.
THE SOVIET RESPONSE TO THE MARSHALL PLAN
➔ Stalin was suspicious. He saw it as a from of “dollar diplomacy”.
➔ He did not allow any soviet countries to accept it. The Marshall Plan increased
the divisions between eastern and western Europe.
THE BERLIN CRISES (1948-1961)
➔ Differences over Germany caused the first crisis of the Cold War.
➔ Berlin was in the Soviet zone of Germany, however it was split up.
➔ They introduced different political and economic systems in their zones:
➔ In the Soviet zone, a communist dictatorship was established.
➔ It introduced a communist economic system by nationalizing industry and
setting up state collective farms.
➔ In the Western zones, different political parties were formed and local
democratic elections were held. Free enterprise economic practices were
encouraged, and a rapid economic recovery began.
➔ By 1948, the western zones had united to form a single economic unit and
they introduced a new currency.
HOW DID THE WESTERN POWERS REACT TO THE BERLIN BLOCKADE?
➔ The Western Allies decided to resist and embark on a massive airlift of
essential supplies (such as food, fuel, building materials, clothing and medical
supplies)
➔ West Berlin's approximately 2.1 million inhabitants had only enough food for
36 days and coal for 45 days. The Western powers had three options available
to them. Each of these options had advantages and disadvantages. These
three options can be summed up as follows:
Þ Ignore the airlift and drive through the blockade
Þ Pull out of Berlin
Þ Airlift supplies to West Berlin
➔ The Americans and British gambled on an airlift of supplies to overcome the
blockade.
➔ The real test was whether the USSR would shoot down their planes. The West
assumed that USSR would not risk this as the Cold War would then become a
’hot' war.
➔ This proved to be true because from April 1948 to May 1949, millions of tons
➔ of resources were airlifted to West Berliners.
➔ By May 1949, USSR admitted failure and called off the blockade.
WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE BERLIN BLOCKADE FOR THE COLD WAR?
➔ The Soviets suffered a major defeat in this crisis.
➔ The division of Berlin became a permanent feature of the Cold War.
➔ It showed the determination of the West to keep the doors of democracy open
in a 'sea of communism'.
➔ East-West relations were strained further, and the Cold War got worse.
➔ Germany split up. In May 1949, America, Britain and France united their zones
into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) with Bonn as its capital.
In response, in October 1949, Stalin set up the German Democratic Republic
(East Germany), with East Berlin as its capital.
 ➔ It led to the militarisation of West Berlin and paved the way for the first
Western regional defence system.
➔ After the Berlin Blockade, both the USA and the USSR began to build up their
armies and weapons, resulting in an arms race.
1953: UPRISING IN EAST BERLIN
➔ Protests by workers in East Berlin & East Germany
➔ Demanding greater political & economic freedom, union with West Germany,
end to communism & withdrawal of Soviet forces.
➔ Uprising was crushed by force by Soviet army (600 East Germans were
executed)
➔ 300 000 East Germans fled to West Germany.
➔ Also led to the introduction of reforms & USSR allowed Germany more
independence.
➔ The crisis established a tense balance between the superpowers.
➔ Berlin itself became a powerful symbol of Cold War tensions, and also a
potential flashpoint for future crises.
After this crisis, Germany was formally divided into two separate
states:
The three Western zones became the German Federal Republic (or West Germany)
The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (Or East Germany)
The allied aim of keeping Germany united had failed. Germany was to remain divided
for the next 40 years.
1961: THE BUILDING OF THE BERLIN WALL
➔ Berlin again became the focus of attention in 1961.
➔ Over three million East Germans had fled to the West, many of them young
and highly skilled.
➔ By July 1961 about 10 thousand people a week were leaving for the higher
standard of living and greater freedom which the West offered.
➔ The USSR viewed this as a challenge to Soviet control in Eastern Europe.
➔ It wanted to stop the loss of people, and the skills they took with them to the
West by leaving through Berlin.
➔ In August 1961, the East German authorities, with Soviet backing, built a wall
to divide East and West Berlin, cutting the city in half overnight.
➔ The West was powerless to prevent the building of the Wall, but the status of
West Berlin remained unchanged.
➔ Many East Germans died trying to escape across the Wall which became a
famous symbol of the Cold War period
➔ East German citizens only carry a few belongings as they flee to West Berlin.
OPPOSING MILITARY ALLIANCES
1949: The formation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation)
➔ US formed a military alliance with western European allies
➔ Committed to keeping the US forces in readiness in these countries in case of
a Soviet attack.
➔ USA provided forces and weapons & set up military bases in Britain, Spain,
Italy, Greece and Turkey.
➔ Formed other anti-communist alliances linked to NATO - SEATO & CENTO
1955: The formation of the Warsaw Pact
➔ USSR responded to NATO by forming the Warsaw Pact with East European
satellites
➔ Immediate reason - West Germany could join NATO
➔ Soviet troops remained in most Warsaw Pact countries
➔ Hungary threatened to withdraw in 1956 & Czechoslovakia revolted against
Soviet domination in 1968.
➔ Brezhnev Doctrine - USSR could intervene in satellite states
COMPETITION BETWEEN THE OPPOSING ALLIANCES:
ARMS RACE
➔ USA & USSR competing through science & technology - production of
weapons
➔ Deadly arms race developed, by the 1960s both sides had nuclear weapons
➔ Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
➔ By the late 1960s, two sides had talks about reducing arms race - SALT
(Strategic Arms Limitations Talks)
SPACE RACE
➔ USSR was in the lead
➔ 1957 USSR launches first satellite into space (sputnik)
➔ 1961 USSR - first person to orbit the earth
➔ USSR - first woman sent to space
➔ US President Kennedy ordered scientists to speed up US space programme
➔ USA 1969 - first person to land on the moon
COMPETITION BETWEEN USA & USSR
➔ Espionage (spying) - American Central Intelligence (CIA) and Soviet
Committee for State Security (KGB) built huge networks of spies to learn
secret information.
➔ Propaganda
➔ Popular Culture
➔ Sports

1. THE SOVIET VIEW
The Soviets blamed the USA for the Cold War.
➔ The West did not understand the Soviet need to ensure future security from
possible future invasion. Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe was therefore
more defensive.
➔ USSR had suffered terribly economically after WW2 & needed to make sure
this never happened again.
➔ USSR was protecting soviet land and not planning World domination
➔ The strong anti-communist attitude of Truman made post war tensions
worse.
2. THE WESTERN VIEW
In the traditional Western View, Stalin was to blame for the start of the Cold War.
➔ End of WW2 – Stalin was set out to conquer as much territory as possible.
➔ Stalin wanted to increase Soviet sphere of influence & prepared to use force, if
necessary
➔ Soviets did not hold free democratic elections in the Eastern Europe Satellite
states.
➔ This forced the West to adopt a policy of containment to stop the spread of
communism. (The true reason for the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, Berlin
Airlift & NATO)
3. THE REVISIONIST WESTERN VIEW
By 1960s, Historians questioned the Western view of blaming Stalin only for the
start of the Cold War
➔ The USA was also to blame for start of Cold War because it wanted to ensure
USA economic domination in Europe.
➔ End of WW2 – USA was in a strong economic position.
4. THE POST-REVISIONIST VIEW
More recent interpretations do not place the blame on either side.
➔ The Cold War happened because of misunderstanding
➔ USSR had genuine security concerns, West failed to understand
➔ Soviet actions after war caused suspicion and fear
➔ Truman had little experience in foreign affairs
➔ Roosevelt believed it was possible to cooperate with Russia
2. Civil Society Protests From The 1950s To The 1970s
Question focus: The US Civil Rights Movement.
ORIGINS OF CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN THE USA
➔ African Americans had been freed from slavery during the American Civil War
(1861-65).
➔ For a short while AA got political rights such as the right to vote.
➔ However, Conservative whites regained political control in the southern states
and introduced the Jim Crow laws.
➔ Black people couldn’t use the same public facilities as white people, live in
many of the same towns or go to the same schools.
➔ Interracial marriage was illegal
➔ Most Black people couldn’t vote because they were unable to pass voter
literacy tests.
➔ The Klu Klux Klan (KKK), an extremist white supremacist group used violence
and terror to make sure segregation laws were followed
CIVIL RIGHTS ORGANISATIONS
➔ One of the earliest civil rights organisations was the National Association for
the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) - founded in 1909.
➔ Founded “to fight segregation and discrimination”
➔ Another organisation was “The Congress of Racial Equality” (CORE), founded
in 1942.
➔ Played a leading role in sit-ins, picket lines, the Montgomery Bus Boycott,
Freedom Rides and the 1963 March on Washington
➔ Both organisation grew steadily
➔ During WWII many African Americans found skilled work in wartime industries
and over a million fought in the US army.
➔ Many of them returned after the war determined to work for change and an
end to segregation.
➔ An important moment in the campaign for Civil Rights came in the 1950s,
when the NAACP challenged segregation in the public education system
called Brown versus the Board of Education
ROLE OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JR
➔ King was a pastor in the city of Montgomery, which became the centre of the
rights movement.
➔ His position as pastor allowed him to take on the leadership role within the
struggle as he was able to see the struggles of his congregation first hand
and his position ave him a platform from which to speak of the injustices he
saw.
 ➔ His leadership role was affirmed when he was elected to lead the FORMS OF PROTEST THROUGH CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE:
Montgomery Bus Boycott.
➔ From there, his role increased and he became the spotlight of the non-violent
Montgomery bus boycott (1955)
resistance. ➔ In 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for
➔ In 1957, after the success of the Bus Boycott, he and other activists founded refusing to give up her bus seat for a
the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). white man in Montgomery, Alabama.
➔ The SCLC and King planned to achieve full equality for African-Americans ➔ Open defiance of segregation laws in the
through non-violence. southern states
➔ Montgomery Improvement Association
➔ King remained the leader of the organisation until his death and travelled the
(MIA) organised a bus boycott of the
World and country giving lectures on non-violent protests and civil rights. city’s bus system
➔ Immediate results: Bus companies lost
THE IMPACT AND INFLUENCE OF MARTIN LUTHER KING JUNIOR 65% of its profits, African Americans
➔ King became a unifying force in the various struggles for civil rights through were harassed and arrested, churches
his charismatic personality and strong leadership skills. burnt
➔ He drew the various movements together, which became co-ordinated and ➔ Long-term results: the Supreme Court
ruled that segregation on buses was
focused.
illegal, inspired people to fight for their
➔ It attracted the attention of the whole of the USA and rest of the world. civil rights
➔ King’s non-violent approach and profound wisdom won him support.
➔ His stature enabled the movement to achieve many of their aims such as the Freedom Riders (1961)
Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. ➔ Members of CORE and SNCC became
➔ He also became influential in other issues such as the Vietnam War and “freedom riders”
poverty. ➔ 400 volunteers traveled throughout the
➔ Unfortunately, a rift grew between King and the more radical youth, who South on regularly scheduled buses for
seven months in 1961
rejected his non-violent methods as these were seen to be ineffectual. ➔ Testing the 1960 Supreme Court decision
➔ They formed the Black Panther Party, a militant group that aimed to overthrow that declared segregated facilities for
the whites’ status quo with force. interstate passengers illegal
➔ Many were arrested, attacked and beaten,
buses were fire bombed
INFLUENCE OF PASSIVE RESISTANCE (GANDHI) ON ML KING JUNIOR ➔ May 29, 1961: Attorney General Robert F.
➔ King was influenced by the writing of Mohandas Gandhi. Kennedy
➔ In India, Gandhi used non-violence as a political instrument against British ➔ petitioned the Interstate Commerce
colonial rule. Commission to ban segregation in interstate
bus travel
➔ King saw in Gandhi’s philosophy the Christian ethic of love being used as a ➔ Led to the removal of Jim Crow signs from
strategy for change. stations, waiting rooms, water fountains and
➔ He came to believe that non-violence was the only way African-Americans restrooms in bus terminals
would be able to win the struggle for freedom in the USA.
➔ Non-violence therefore informed all his speeches and actions during the Civil
Rights Movement.
Greensboro sit-in
➔ Restaurants and other facilities were
segregated in the southern states
➔ Black and white students formed Student
Nonviolent Coordinating
➔ Committee (SNCC)
➔ January 1960, Greensboro, North
Carolina - SNCC organise a sit-in at a
➔ “whites only” restaurant counter
➔ Although activists were abused, it
inspired over 70 000 students in other
➔ states to hold similar protests in
segregated facilities
Why Birmingham?
➔ Birmingham was one of the most racially
divided cities in the US. Black citizens faced
legal and economic disparities (inequality)
and violent attacks from the KKK. Police
chief, Bull Connor, was a known
segregationist & white supremacist.
The Birmingham Campaign
➔ April 1963 - King and the SCLC (Southern
Christian Leadership Conference) organized
peaceful marches to draw attention to
segregation and police brutality
➔ At first, violence was avoided by Connor -
1000 protestors were arrested, including King
➔ Campaign leaders the called on children to
sustain the protest - “Children’s Crusade”
➔ Later, police reacted violently to protesters -
used electric cattle prods, dogs, and
firehoses
➔ Brutal police actions spread across the USA -
led to President Kennedy intervening. He
ordered the governor of Alabama to release
protestors and end segregation in the state.
➔ Compelled President John F. Kennedy to
publicly support federal civil rights legislation

March on Washington (1963) Freedom Summer 1964 (Mississippi)
➔ 28 August 1963: 250 000 demonstrators What were the causes of Freedom Summer?
took part in the March on Washington for
Jobs and Freedom in the nation’s capital
(Washington DC)
➔ Took place 100 years after President
Abraham Lincoln issued the the
Emancipation Proclamation abolishing
slavery What was Freedom Summer?
➔ During this event, Martin Luther King
delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.
➔ After the march, King and other civil
rights leaders met with President
Kennedy and Vice President Johnson at
the White House, where
➔ they discussed the need for support of
civil rights laws
➔ Though they were passed after
Kennedy’s death, the Civil Rights Act of
1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965
reflect the demands of the march
Goals of the March on Washington
➔ Pressure Congress to pass the Civil
Rights Act
➔ The protection of the right to vote
➔ Desegregation of all public schools
➔ A federal works program to train and
place unemployed workers
➔ An end to discrimination in all
employment
The Selma-Montgomery marches
➔ The Selma to Montgomery march was part
of a series of civil rights protests that
occurred in 1965 in Alabama
➔ In March 1965, in an effort to register Black
voters in the South, protesters marching the
54-mile (86 km) route from Selma to the
state capital of Montgomery were
confronted with deadly violence from local
authorities and white supremacist groups.
➔ The south states remained segregated
➔ African Americans faced violence and
intimidation when they attempted to
exercise their right to vote and literacy
tests were designed to silence Black
voters
➔ A 1964 voter registration drive aimed at
increasing the number of registered
Black voters in Mississippi
➔ Over 700 mostly white volunteers joined
African Americans in Mississippi to fight
against voter intimidation &
discrimination at the polls.
➔ Freedom Schools taught basic literacy
and black history
➔ Freedom Summer volunteers were met
with violent resistance from the KKK and
law enforcement
➔ News coverage of beatings, false arrests
and murder drew international attention
to the civil rights movement.
➔ The increased awareness it brought to
voter discrimination helped lead to the
Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Selma continued
➔ As the world watched, the protesters—under
the protection of federalized National Guard
troops—finally achieved their goal, walking
for three days to reach Montgomery,
Alabama.
➔ The historic march, and Martin Luther King
Jr.’s participation in it, raised awareness of
the difficulties faced by Black voters, and the
need for a national Voting Rights Act.
SCHOOL DESEGREGATION: CASE STUDY LITTLE ROCK ARKANSAS
Background to school desegregation in the South
➔ School integration became a major focus of
the civil rights struggle in the 1950s.
➔ Laws developed systems of segregation
between African American and white
Americans who could not sit, drink or eat
together in public places in the states that
introduced these laws.
Education system response to the Supreme Court
order
➔ In Little Rock, Arkansas, the Superintendent of
Education proposed a plan of gradual
integration that would start at the beginning of
the school year in 1957 at Central High, one of
the three high schools in the city.
➔ The plan was to admit only a few African
American students to the all-white Central
High.
➔ By the summer of 1957, the school officials
had selected 17 African American students to
be
➔ enrolled at Central High.
The US Supreme Court orders desegregation of
schools in the South
➔ Brown versus the Board of Education.
➔ In a landmark decision in May 1954, the
Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation
in
➔ schools was unconstitutional.
➔ There were no timelines for desegregation of
schools and it was only in 1955 that the
Supreme
➔ Court ordered desegregation ‘with all
deliberate speed’.
Community and state government response
➔ As the plans to desegregate schools
advanced, the opposition to integration grew.
➔ A member of the anti-integration Mothers’
League of Little Rock Central High School
went to court to try to prevent integration
from going ahead that year.
➔ The Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus,
backed the move and the local judge ruled
that integration should be delayed.
➔ A federal judge overruled it and ordered the
school board to continue with integration.
➔ Some members of the African American
community also opposed the integration,
fearing a backlash on the African American
community.
➔ Some parents of the 17 students withdrew
their children, fearing for their safety.
➔ At the beginning of the new school year, nine
African American students had enrolled for
Central High. They became known as the
Little Rock Nine.
The Little Rock Nine
➔ Early on Wednesday 4 September, Daisy Bates of the NAACP called to tell them that they were
to meet at her house and walk in to school together.
➔ One of the students, Elizabeth Eckford, did not get the message.
➔ Unaware of the crowd gathering outside the school and the meeting, she went to school on
her own.
➔ She was immediately surrounded by an angry crowd, taunting and threatening her.
➔ She tried to enter the school several times, but soldiers from the Arkansas National Guard
prevented her from crossing their linThe Little Rock Nine prepared to enter Central High on 3
September 1957.
➔ The day before the nine students were to enter Central High, Governor Faubus called in the
National Guard to surround the school.
➔ The reason: White supremacists were planning to gather at Central High, and if the African
American students attempted to enter the school, ‘blood would run in the streets’.
➔ On the first day of school, the Little Rock Nine did not attend school.
➔ Early on Wednesday 4 September, Daisy Bates of the NAACP called to tell them that they were
to meet at her house and walk in to school together.
➔ One of the students, Elizabeth Eckford, did not get the message.
➔ Unaware of the crowd gathering outside the school and the meeting, she went to school on
her own.
➔ She was immediately surrounded by an angry crowd, taunting and threatening her.
➔ She tried to enter the school several times, but soldiers from the Arkansas National Guard
prevented her from crossing their line and entering the building.
➔ She was forced to continue through the crowds.
➔ Two whites came to Elizabeth’s rescue. They helped Elizabeth to a bus bench and got onto
the bus with her.
➔ For the next 17 days, the Arkansas National Guard prevented the Little Rock Nine from
entering Central High.
➔ President Eisenhower met with Governor Faubus in an attempt to resolve the situation.
➔ NAACP were in court to force Governor Faubus to integrate the schools and they ruled in
favour of the NAACP and ordered Faubus to stop blocking integration.
➔ Faubus responded by withdrawing the National Guard, leaving the Little Rock Nine
defenceless.
➔ On Monday 23 September, local police officers placed wooden barricades around Central High
as more than a thousand angry white men and women gathered in front of the school
building.
➔ The students entered through a side door.
➔ When they heard that the students had entered the school, the mob went on a rampage.
➔ Screaming “the niggers are in”, they attacked journalists, broke windows and smashed doors.
➔ Fearing escalating mob violence, however, the students were rushed home soon afterward.
➔ Early next morning the Mayor of Little Rock sent a telegraph to President Eisenhower asking
for federal help in keeping the peace.
US army is called in to protect the Little Rock Nine
➔ By this time the events at Little Rock were becoming an international embarrassment.
➔ That evening President Eisenhower addressed the nation on television and radio, telling Americans
that mob rule could not be allowed to override the decisions of federal courts.
➔ He ordered troops from the Army’s 101st Airborne Division to protect the students, who were
shielded by federal troops and the Arkansas National Guard for the remainder of the school year.
➔ They patrolled outside the school and a personal guard assigned to each of the Little Rock Nine
followed them around the school.
➔ Throughout that school year they continued to be subjected to racist hatred.
➔ White students yelled insults at them in the halls and during class.
➔ They beat up the Nine, particularly the boys; walked on their heals until they bled;
➔ Destroyed their lockers and threw flaming paper wads at them in bathrooms.
➔ They threw lighted sticks of dynamite at Melba Patillo, stabbed her, and sprayed acid in her eyes.
Her eyesight was saved by the quick action of her army guard who immediately splashed water on
her face.
➔ The Nine did their best not to retaliate, but Minnijean Brown struck back during lunchtime in the
school cafeteria.
➔ She was suspended for six days, and reinstated on probation, with the agreement that she would not
retaliate verbally or physically, to any harassment.
➔ She was expelled a few weeks later after calling a girl who provoked her ‘white trash’.
➔ The white students were jubilant, making placards that stated, ‘One down … eight to go!’
➔ The other eight all finished the school year and Ernest Green became the first African
➔ American graduate of Central High in 1958.
Backlash in Little Rock
➔ Governor Faubus, with the majority support of the white community, closed all four of Little Rock’s
public high schools, rather than proceed with desegregation.
➔ Several thousand students and their families were left trying to find alternative schooling.
➔ Many white students enrolled in private church schools.
Eventual victory for desegregation
➔ In June 1959, the Supreme Court ruled that the school board must reopen the schools and
➔ resume the process of desegregating the city’s schools.
➔ Two of the original Little Rock Nine, Jefferson Thomas and Carlotta Walls, returned to Central High
School for their senior year. Both graduated the next year.
➔ Three African American students enrolled at Hall High School in West Little Rock.
➔ About 250 protestors marched to Central High on the day it reopened, but this time the police
reacted quickly.
➔ Twenty-one were arrested and fire hoses were turned on the remaining crowd.
➔ Only in 1972 were all grades in the Little Rock Public Schools integrated
Short -term: Long-term:
➔ Congress passed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 - ➔ The CRM showed that mass based peaceful
barred segregation and discrimination in protest movement could bring meaningful
employment and change
➔ public facilities ➔ Inspired protest action in other political areas in
➔ Within 18 months after the passing of the Civil the US, like the anti-Vietnam War protests
Rights Act, nearly half a million African ➔ It also inspired movements in other parts of the
Americans registered to vote world where racial discrimination existed - like
➔ The Voting Rights Act outlawed obstacles to South Africa
voting (ie literacy tests) - black mayors were
elected in Atlanta
➔ and Detroit
➔ Although discrimination in the southern states
somewhat improved, poor living conditions and
policy
➔ brutality in the continued in the northern states