THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM

THREE
Max Planck Commentaries on
World Trade Law

VOLUME 3
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM

THREE

Edited by
Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe,
John Nawas, and Everett Rowson

With

Roger ALLEN, Edith AMBROS, Thomas BAUER, Johann BÜSSOW,

Ruth DAVIS, Maribel FIERRO, Najam HAIDER, Konrad HIRSCHLER,
Nico KAPTEIN, Hani KHAFIPOUR, Alexander KNYSH, Corinne LEFÈVRE,
Scott LEVI, Roman LOIMEIER, Daniela MENEGHINI, M’hamed OUALDI,
D. Fairchild RUGGLES, Emilie SAVAGE-SMITH, Ayman SHIHADEH, and
Susan SPECTORSKY

LEIDEN • BOSTON
2019
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 list of abbreviations

a . Pe riod ical s
AI = Annales Islamologiques
AIUON = Annali dell’ Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli
AKM = Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes
AMEL = Arabic and Middle Eastern Literatures
AO = Acta Orientalia
AO Hung. = Acta Orientalia (Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae)
ArO = Archiv Orientální
AS = Asiatische Studien
ASJ = Arab Studies Journal
ASP = Arabic Sciences and Philosophy
ASQ = Arab Studies Quarterly
BASOR = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BEA = Bulletin des Études Arabes
BEFEO = Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient
BEO = Bulletin d’Études Orientales de l’Institut Français de Damas
BIE = Bulletin de l’Institut d’Égypte
BIFAO = Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire
BKI = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
BMGS = Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies
BO = Bibliotheca Orientalis
BrisMES = British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
BZ = Byzantinische Zeitschrift
CAJ = Central Asiatic Journal
DOP = Dumbarton Oaks Papers
EW = East and West
IBLA = Revue de l’Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes, Tunis
IC = Islamic Culture
IHQ = Indian Historical Quarterly
IJAHS = International Journal of African Historical Studies
IJMES = International Journal of Middle East Studies
vi list of abbreviations

ILS = Islamic Law and Society

IOS = Israel Oriental Studies
IQ = The Islamic Quarterly
JA = Journal Asiatique
JAIS = Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies
JAL = Journal of Arabic Literature
JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society
JARCE = Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
JAS = Journal of Asian Studies
JESHO = Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
JIS = Journal of Islamic Studies
JMBRAS = Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
JNES = Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JOS = Journal of Ottoman Studies
JQR = Jewish Quarterly Review
JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
JSAI = Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
JSEAH = Journal of Southeast Asian History
JSS = Journal of Semitic Studies
MEA = Middle Eastern Affairs
MEJ = Middle East Journal
MEL = Middle Eastern Literatures
MES = Middle East Studies
MFOB = Mélanges de la Faculté Orientale de l’Université St. Joseph de Beyrouth
MIDEO = Mélanges de l’Institut Dominicain d’Études Orientales du Caire
MME = Manuscripts of the Middle East
MMIA = Majallat al-Majma al-Ilmi al-Arabi, Damascus
MO = Le Monde Oriental
MOG = Mitteilungen zur Osmanischen Geschichte
MSR = Mamluk Studies Review
MW = The Muslim World
OC = Oriens Christianus
OLZ = Orientalistische Literaturzeitung
OM = Oriente Moderno
QSA = Quaderni di Studi Arabi
REI = Revue des Études Islamiques
REJ = Revue des Études Juives
REMMM = Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée
RHR = Revue de l’Histoire des Religions
RIMA = Revue de l’Institut des Manuscrits Arabes
RMM = Revue du Monde Musulman
RO = Rocznik Orientalistyczny
ROC = Revue de l’Orient Chrétien
RSO = Rivista degli Studi Orientali
SI = Studia Islamica (France)
SIk = Studia Islamika (Indonesia)
SIr = Studia Iranica
list of abbreviations vii

TBG = Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (of the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen)
VKI = Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land en Volkenkunde
WI = Die Welt des Islams
WO = Welt des Orients
WZKM = Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes
ZAL = Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik
ZDMG = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft
ZGAIW = Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften
ZS = Zeitschrift für Semitistik

b . O the r
ANRW = Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt
BGA = Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum
BNF = Bibliothèque nationale de France
CERMOC = Centre d’Études et de Recherches sur le Moyen-Orient Contemporain
CHAL = Cambridge History of Arabic Literature
CHE = Cambridge History of Egypt
CHIn = Cambridge History of India
CHIr = Cambridge History of Iran
Dozy = R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes, Leiden 1881 (repr. Leiden and Paris 1927)
EAL = Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature
EI1 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., Leiden 1913–38
EI2 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Leiden 1954–2004
EI3 = Encyclopaedia of Islam Three, Leiden 2007–
EIr = Encyclopaedia Iranica
EJ1= Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1st ed., Jerusalem [New York 1971–92]
EQ = Encyclopaedia of the Qurn
ERE = Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
GAL = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., Leiden 1943–49
GALS = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Supplementbände I–III, Leiden 1937–42
GAP = Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie, Wiesbaden 1982–
GAS = F. Sezgin, Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums, Leiden 1967–
GMS = Gibb Memorial Series
GOW = F. Babinger, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen und ihre Werke, Leipzig 1927
HO = Handbuch der Orientalistik
IA = Islâm Ansiklopedisi
IFAO = Institut Français d’Archeologie Orientale
JE = Jewish Encyclopaedia
Lane = E. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon
RCEA = Répertoire Chronologique d’Épigraphie Arabe
TAVO = Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients
TDVIA = Türkiye Diyanet Vakfi Islâm Ansiklopedisi
UEAI = Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants
van Ess, TG = J. van Ess, Theologie und Gesellschaft
WKAS = Wörterbuch der Klassischen Arabischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1957–
liyn
drawings in the Royal Library at Wind-
sor shows the continuing evolution of
his style; in these he includes figures of
clearly European inspiration clothed in
fabric designed to evoke its texture and
movement in space, and forms are mod-
elled with an interest in light and shade,
in response to the general direction of
Mughal painting at this time. His fin-
est work may be “Sultan Bahadur and
Rumi Khan jumping into the sea,” from
the portion of the Akbar-nma (c. 1005–
9/1597–1601) in the British Library (MS
Or. 12988, fol. 66a; see Flores and Silva,
176 and cat. no. 13), in which Lal has
animated his figures with gestures and
expressions seemingly based on actual
observation rather than simply repeating
familiar models. This is fine evidence of
his continuing ability to adapt successfully
to Akbar’s evolving interests, even though
he himself was not an innovator.
Bibliography
Sources
Ab l-Fal Allam, n-i Akbar, vol. 1, ed. and
trans. Henry Blochmann, The Ain i Akbari by
Abul Fazl Allami, Calcutta 1873; Jorge Flores
and Nuno Vassallo e Silva, Goa and the Great
Mughal, Lisbon and London 2004; Geeti Sen,
Paintings from the Akbar Nama. A visual chronicle
of Mughal India, Varanasi 1984; John Seyller,
Pearls of the Parrot of India. The Walters
Art Museum Khamsa of Amr Khusraw of
Delhi, Journal of the Walters Art Museum 58
(2000), 5–176; John Seyller, Scribal notes on
Mughal manuscript illustrations, Artibus Asiae
XLVIII 3/4 (1987), 247–77.
Studies
Linda York Leach, Mughal and other Indian paint-
ings from the Chester Beatty Library (London
1995), 2:1108–9; Som Prakash Verma, The
Mughal painters and their work (Delhi 1994),
221–31.
Milo Beach
131
Liyn
Liyn is the name of an Arabian
tribe known from Dadanitic inscriptions
at the oasis of Dadan (biblical Dedn,
modern al-Ul), from Aramaic inscrip-
tions at Taym, and from Sabaic inscrip-
tions in Yemen, dated to the mid-first
millennium B.C.E. The tribe is also men-
tioned in some Safaitic graffiti of the early
centuries C.E. and by historians from the
early Islamic period. Some members of
the Ban Liyn are said to live near
Mecca today. It is, however, only an
assumption that these sources all refer to
the same people.
1. Epigraphic evidence
Liyn is first mentioned in a Sabaic
inscription dating probably to the first
half of the sixth century B.C.E. (Bron and
Lemaire, 19–29), although the tribe’s loca-
tion at that time is uncertain. The oasis of
Dadan is mentioned in the same inscrip-
tion but is not connected with Liyn. In
553 B.C.E. a king of Dadan was encoun-
tered by the last king of Babylon, Naboni-
dus (r. 556–39 B.C.E.), during the latter’s
conquest of six oases in northwestern Ara-
bia, leading up to his ten-year residence
(552–43) at Taym (Beaulieu, 165–9).
Liyn is not, however, mentioned in this
fragmentary text.
The oasis of Dadan lay at a strategically
important point on one of the trade routes
connecting ancient South Arabia, Egypt,
and the Mediterranean. It appears sev-
eral times in the Old Testament (as Hebr.
Ddn, in Genesis 10:7, 25:3; 1 Chroni-
cles 1:9, 32; Jeremiah 25:23, 49:8; Ezekiel
25:13, 27:15, 20, 38:13), where it is linked
with Sheba (the ancient South Arabian
kingdom of Saba), which was thought to
produce frankincense and other aromatics
132
(Macdonald, Literacy and identity, art. IX,
341–3).
From the mid-first millennium B.C.E.
onwards, the people of Dadan produced
both monumental inscriptions, of which
we have approximately five hundred, and
graffiti, of which we have approximately
1500 (OCIANA), in an Ancient North Ara-
bian script known as Dadanitic. In these
inscriptions we have only two references
to a “king of Dadan” (mlk ddn, OCIANA,
JSLih 138; Al-Sad, Epigraphic evidence;
the copy of a possible third, OCIANA, Ph
439f, is unreliable). On the other hand,
there are at least seventeen secure refer-
ences to a “king of Liyn” (mlk lyn) in
these inscriptions, and at least another
eight in Aramaic from the rival oasis of
Taym, which seems to have been ruled
by Liyn for a time.
Until recently, it was assumed that
the seat of the kingdom of Liyn was
at Dadan, but the mention of a gover-
nor (ft < Aramaic ph < Babylonian bl
pti) of Dadan in a Dadanitic inscription
(OCIANA, JSLih 349) has led to the sug-
gestion that the Liyn were nomadic and
employed governors to rule the two oases
they dominated, Dadan and Taym,
where an Aramaic inscription (TA 964, in
Macdonald et al.) dated to the reign of
a certain king of Liyn was set up by
a pt tym (governor of Taym) (Rohmer;
Rohmer and Charloux, 299). During an
unknown period, there was a colony of
Minaeans (from South Arabia) at Dadan.
The names of non-Minaean women mar-
ried to Minaean men were carved in a
long list at Man, in northern Yemen
(Bron, 102–21), a list thought to date to
between the fifth and the mid-fourth cen-
turies B.C.E. Of these, nine women are
from Dadan but only one from Liyn
(Bron, 119–20). The significance of this
liyn
is uncertain, and, of the ten names,
only one (lrs²) is found in the Dadanitic
inscriptions, of which almost eighty are by
women or refer to them (OCIANA).
It is difficult to determine when Taym
was ruled by Liyn, because all the
inscriptions dated to the reigns of the
kings of Liyn were found reused in sec-
ondary contexts there. Interestingly, all of
them are in Aramaic and none in Dada-
nitic. This is probably because Aramaic
was both a prestige language and the lin-
gua franca in the Neo-Babylonian (626–
539 B.C.E.) and Achaemenid (c. 550–330
B.C.E.) empires and was widely used
throughout the Middle East even under
the Seleucids. The Aramaic inscrip-
tions at Taym are dated to the reigns
of at least five kings of Liyn: Talmay,
Shahr, Gashm, Lawdhan, and Masd
(Macdonald and Al-Najem, TM.TA.004).
In addition, there are, on the rocks round
Taym, four graffiti by a king Mswdw
and one by a king Shahr, using a local
development of the Aramaic script.
2. Chronology
Numerous attempts to date the king-
doms of Dadan and Liyn have been
made in the past but none is convinc-
ing (for a recent discussion of many of
them, see Rohmer forthcoming; Rohmer
and Charloux). Caskel, followed by Farès-
Drappeau, tried unsuccessfully to con-
struct a relative chronology based on
palaeography (Macdonald, Re-assessment)
and, with many others, tried to construct
an absolute chronology by linking refer-
ences in the inscriptions to dated events
elsewhere. Tarn theorised, by associating
the Liynite royal name Tlmy with Ptol-
emy, that Liyn was a Ptolemaic domin-
ion. Tlmy is, however, a well attested
Semitic name and need not have anything
liyn
to do with Ptolemy. Others identified the
Liynite royal name Gshm (OCIANA,
JS Lih 349) with Geshem the Arab, who
opposed Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jeru-
salem (Nehemiah 2:19, 6:1–2), and with
the father of a king of Qdr, in north-
ern Arabia, who dedicated a silver bowl to
the goddess Hn-lt at a sanctuary at Tall
al-Maskha, in Sinai (Cross, Geshem;
Cross, Aramaic stele, 394; Graf, 139–40).
Gashm is, however, a common name in
ancient North Arabia—it occurs more
than one hundred times in OCIANA—so
there is no reason to identify Gashm, son
of Shahr (at Dadan), with Geshem the
Arab in Jerusalem, more than six hun-
dred kilometres distant as the crow flies.
Finally, it has been claimed that the king-
dom of Liyn was part of the Achaeme-
nid empire, based on the use of the term
ft (governor), but Graf (140) has shown
that this term had already been in use in
Aramaic in the Neo-Babylonian admin-
istration and earlier, and Rohmer (forth-
coming) and Rohmer and Charloux have
shown convincingly that there is no solid
evidence for any Achaemenid presence
in northwestern Arabia. They also argue
cogently that the Liynite dynasty lasted
from the late sixth to the mid-third cen-
turies B.C.E.
It is not known what happened between
the mid-third and the first centuries
B.C.E., when the Nabataeans spread
into northwestern Arabia. The nomadic
authors of some Safaitic graffiti, carved
in southern Syria and northeastern Jor-
dan between the first century B.C.E. and
the fourth century C.E., pray for protec-
tion from Liyn (OCIANA, 641.1), and
mention a struggle between a certain
Bdrbl and Liyn (OCIANA, KRS 2327,
2342), and attacks on settlements by the
Lyn (OCIANA, BRenv.A 5, BRenv.B 1,
BRenv.A 2; Macdonald, Al Muazzin,
133
and Nehmé, 458–64). It is not known
whether these were raids from northwest-
ern Arabia or were part of a movement
into Syria by the whole tribe or parts of
it. A Sabaic inscription of the third cen-
tury C.E. describing a Sabaean traveller’s
journey to the north places the land of
Liyn between that of Tankh (probably
in lower Mesopotamia) and that of Tad-
mur (Palmyra), which suggests that Liyn
(or part of it) was at that time somewhere
in southern Syria rather than in al-ijz
(Schiettecatte and Arbach, 177, 182–5).
3. Tribal connections
The early Islamic sources describe
Liyn as a branch of Hudhayl and place
it northeast of Mecca (Levi della Vida,
763), suggesting that the original tribe
may have split, one section moving north
from Dadan in the early centuries C.E.,
the other moving south during a period
unknown. There is, however, no proof of
this. In the sixth and early seventh cen-
turies C.E. the Ban Liyn were said
to guard Suw, the idol of Hudhayl, at
Ruht (near Yanbu or, more likely, closer
to Mecca). During the Prophet’s struggle
with the Quraysh, the Ban Liyn led the
majority of the Hudhayl in support of the
Quraysh, who were their kinsmen (Levi
della Vida, 763). In 1814 J. L. Burkhardt
encountered members of the “Lahyan
tribe…a branch of the Hodheyl Arabs,”
who kept a few miserable “coffee-huts” at
wells called El Feráyne some seven hours
from Jidda on the way to al-if (Bur-
khardt 53–4; Rentz 540–1; Schiettecatte
and Arbache, 184). Some members of the
tribe are said to live southeast of Mecca
today (Ab l-Hasan, 272).
Bibliography
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ancient North Arabia (http://krc.orient.ox.ac
134
.uk/ociana/index.php) explains the various
types of inscription in ancient North Arabia.
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Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia, London
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