PREFINAL –FINAL LESSON

THE CHID ADOLESCENT AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Chapter 3: Issues on Human Development

There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of developmental
psychology. The major questions include the following:

Is development due more to genetics or environment?

Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events equally
important? Developmental Psychology Issues and Debates
Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental psychology and what
many psychologists today believe about these issues.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as the
nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.

Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are in born. On the other
hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is
a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.

Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset
of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Early Experience vs. Later Experience

A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative

importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that
occur in early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?

Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud,
much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case, those
who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.

In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not
necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout life. Many people with less-than-perfect
childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur
smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?

Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:

1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages.

1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial
development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and,
unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.

2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning , operant conditioning , and social learning. In each case, behavior is
shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.

3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of
cognitive theories include Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of many parents is
whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the
ages at which certain skills and abilities typically emerge, but can create concern when a child
falls slightly behind the norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in
behavior, focus on individual differences in development is becoming more common.

5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental theories
in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the environment's
unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component of
these theories. Today, psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when describing
child
development.

Chapter 4: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

SIGMUND FREUD

•Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt with
children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities developed and
whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
•Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he
labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.

STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

The Role of Conflict

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved
before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage. The resolution of each of these conflicts
requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at a particular
stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as
he/she matures
Psychologically.
To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops
advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle
(resolving the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to remain
behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation. Frustration,
Overindulgence, and Fixation Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to
the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage
may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may
have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a
particular stage in which there is
Overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to the theoretical notion
that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his
development

Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime
during the anal stage. In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you.
They like giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new
source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex
(in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).

This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.

OEDIPUS COMPLEX
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's
most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright. The name of the Oedipus complex
derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon
discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term
for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.

In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops
sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his
father to enable him to do so.

Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away
what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.

The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-
type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to- five year old boy resolves his
Oedipus complex. Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviours of
another person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego
ideal and values that become the superego.
ELECTRA COMPLEX
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl
desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the
Development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy

PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Overview of
Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis emphasizes unconscious

Motivation- main cause of behavior lies buried in the unconscious mind. It is both an approach to therapy
and a theory of persona

Three Structures of Personality

1.) ID, Ego, Superego

PROFED03: The Child and

Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles
Overview of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysisemphasizes
unconscious
otivation- main cause of
behavior lies buried in the
unconscious mind. It is both an
approach to therapy and a
theory of persona
hree Structures of Personality
1.) ID
Ego
epared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae
Ledesma
- College of Teacher Education3
Tripartite Theory of Personality Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into three parts (i.e.,
tripartite), the id, ego, and superego (also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in
our lives. These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical.
The ID is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the Inherited (i.e.,
biological) components of personality, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido),
and aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the
idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
The EGO develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world (like a
referee). It is the decision-making component of personality. The ego operates according to the
reality principle, working our realistic ways of satisfying the id‘s demands, often compromising or
postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social
realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.
The SUPEREGO incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from One’s parents
and others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt.
Trait Approach to Personality This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable traits
which are the fundamental units of one‘s personality. Traits predispose one to act in a certain way,
regardless of the situation. This means that traits should remain consistent across situations and over
time, but may vary between individuals. It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due to
genetic differences. These theories are sometimes referred to psychometric theories, because of their
emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores are continuous (quantitative)
variables. A person is given numeric score to indicate how much of a trait they possess.

Id: Meeting Basic Needs

The id is the most basic part of the personality. It also represents our most animalistic urges, like the
desire for food and sex. The id seeks instant gratification for our wants and needs. If these needs or
wants are not met, a person can become tense, anxious, or angry.
  Sally was thirsty. Rather than waiting for the server to refill her glass of water, she reached across
the table and drank from Mr. Smith's water glass, much to his surprise.
 A hungry baby cried until he was fed.
 A toddler who wanted another helping of dessert whined incessantly until she was given another
serving.
 In line at the salad bar, Amy was so hungry that she shoved a handful of croutons in her mouth as
she waited for the line to move.
 Bart was stuck in traffic. He just wanted his vehicle to move! Enraged at the situation, Bart pulled
his car onto the shoulder and sped forward, not caring that he was clipping people's side mirrors
as he tried to get ahead of the cars in front of him.

Ego: Dealing With Reality

The ego deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially acceptable in
the world. This may mean delaying gratification and helping to get rid of the tension the id feels if a
desire is not met right away. The ego recognizes that other people have needs and wants too, and
being selfish isn't good in the long run.
 Sally was thirsty. However, she knew that her server would be back soon to refill her water glass,
so she waited until then to get a drink, even though she really just wanted to drink from Mr.
Smith's glass.
 In line at the salad bar, Amy really wanted to shove a handful of croutons into her mouth.
However, since her boss was there, she decided to wait another minute or two until she sat down
to eat.
 Mary really wanted to borrow her mom's necklace, but knew her mom would be angry if she took
it without asking, so she asked her mom if she could wear it.
 Hillary was so sweaty after her workout that she wanted to change her clothes right there by the
car. However, she knew the other people around her would not approve, so she waited until she
was in the restroom to change.
 Tim really wanted to slug Mark for what he had just said. However, Tim knew if he hit Mark, he
would be kicked off the baseball team, and since he loved baseball, he unclenched his fists and
walked away.

Superego: Adding Morals

The superego develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong. Even though
the superego and the ego may reach the same decision about something, the superego's reason for that
decision is based more on moral values, while the ego's decision is based more on what others will think
or what the consequences of an action could be on the individual.
  Sarah knew she could steal the supplies from work and no one would know about it. However,
she knew that stealing was wrong, so she decided not to take anything even though she would
probably never get caught.
 Maggie couldn't remember the answer to test question #12, even though she had studied. Nate
was the smartest kid in the class, and from where Maggie sat, she could see his answers if she
turned her head slightly. When Mrs. Archer turned her back, Maggie almost cheated, but her
conscience stopped her because she knew it was wrong. Instead, Maggie took a guess at the
answer and then turned in her paper.
 The cashier only charged the couple for one meal even though they had eaten two. They could
have gotten away with only paying for one, but they pointed out the cashier's mistake and offered
to pay for both meals. They wanted to be honest and they knew that the restaurant owner and
employees needed to make a living.
 On the playground, two kids were making fun of Joseph because he wore glasses. John was
tempted to join in so that he could make himself look good, but when he thought about how bad
Joseph must already feel, he knew that he couldn't.
 Will had worked hard all season to break the school record in cross-country. During his last race,
he had the opportunity to cut a corner and therefore lower his time, because no officials were
watching that part of the course. As much as he wanted to break the school record, Will knew he
wouldn't feel good about himself if he cheated, so he stuck to the course and ran as fast as he
could.
Id, Ego, and Superego
The id, ego and superego work together to create human behavior. The id creates the demands, the ego
adds the needs of reality, and the superego adds morality to the action which is taken.
Even though each of these elements make up human behavior, they also constitute some of our favorite
characters in the books we read. Take a look at this list of character trait examples to see what you'd like
to incorporate in your next short story or novel.

Chapter 5: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Schema- Piaget used the term ― schema to refer to the‖ cognitive structure by which individuals
intellectually adapt too and organize environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create
meaning about a thing experience.

Types of Schemas
While Piaget focused on childhood development, schemas are something that all people possess and
continue to form and change throughout life. Object schemas are just one type of schema that focuses on
what an inanimate object is and how it works. People have all types of schemas for all kinds of
information, including schemas about people, objects, places, events, and relationships.
For example, most people in industrialized nations have a schema for what a car is. Your overall schema
for a car might include subcategories for different types of automobiles such as a compact car, sedan, or
sports car.
The four main types of schemas are:
  Person schemas are focused on specific individuals. For example, your schema for your friend
might include information about her appearance, her behaviors, her personality, and her
preferences.
 Social schemas include general knowledge about how people behave in certain social situations.
 Self-schemas are focused on your knowledge about yourself. This can include both what you
know about your current self as well as ideas about your idealized or future self.
 Event schemas are focused on patterns of behavior that should be followed for certain events.
This acts much like a script informing you of what you should do, how you should act, and what
you should say in a particular situation.

Schema theory is a branch of cognitive science concerned with how the brain structures knowledge. A
schema is an organized unit of knowledge for a subject or event. It is based on past experience and is
accessed to guide current understanding or action.

Assimilation- cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and organize
their environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create meaning about a thing experience.

Equilibration- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and

accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) cognitive
structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium this means there is a discrepancy between what is
perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to
establish equilibrium.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT STAGE

1. Sensory-motor Stage - The first stage corresponds for infancy. This is the stage when a child
who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and
activity. The term sensory-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
through which the infant comes to learn, about him and the world.
Object permanence- This is the ability of the child to know that and object still exists even when out of
sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE

The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old roughly corresponding to
the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make
mental representations and is able to pretend the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage
is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent object and events. Symbolic function gradually develops the period
between 2 to 7 years. Reil, a two-year old may pretend that she is deinking from a glass which is really
empty. Though she already pretend the presence of water, the glass remain to be a glass at around for
years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or
a telephone

This refer to the ability to order or arrange thins in a series based on one ,dimension such as
weigh, volume or size.
4. Formal Operational
Stage In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking
becomes more logical. They can now solve in general ideas or specific problems and can educated guess.
This stage is characterized by the following
Hypothetical Reasoning.
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final division or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects,
the individuals can now deal with ―What if‖ questions.
Analogical reasoning
Ability to perceive the relationship one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down
possible answer in another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operation stage can
make an analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to Asia. The individual will reason
that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found what continent? Then
Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete object the individual
can now understand relationship and do analogical reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
This is the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a particular instance or
situation.For example, all countries near the North Pole have cold temperatures Greenland is near henorth
pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature

CHAPTER 7: KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

•Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that moral development is a continual process
that occurs throughout the lifespan
•Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.
•He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
•A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to
determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario.
•One of the best known stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958) concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe

Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality

At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don’t have
a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is
based on the physical consequences of actions.

•Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to

avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

•Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality at the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we
begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not
questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs

•Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships.

The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore,
answers relate to the approval of others.

•Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of
society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral
reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is
as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5
or 6(post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around
them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

•Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while
rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against
the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz‘s
dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

•Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines
which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and
equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the
rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.
Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage

Chapter 9: Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

•The Mozart of Psychology

•Lev Semon Vovich Vygotsky was born in Western Russia on November 5, 1986.His
father, SemiL‘vovich, founded the ―Society of Education in Gomel, and held a wide
range of active interest ‖including foreign language, history, literature, theater and arts. His mother
was educated as teacher
•His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve his own teaching.
•He wrote on language, thought, and psychology of art, learning and development and educating students
with special

Sociocultural theory of development:

•Crucial influence that social interactions and language, embedded within a cultural context, have
on cognitive development.
•Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities.
•Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner‘s environment all contribute to the process. They
explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback.
•Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience

Language
•Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture.
•Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle.
•It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
•It is use to know and understand the world and solve problems.
•It serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner to regulate
and reflect on his own thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development

Zone of Actual Development

Which the child may perform certain level of competency she/ he may not immediately be at it.
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what the child accomplish alone and what he/she can accomplish with guidance
of another.

Scaffolding

Refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she cannot accomplish
independently.
It is not about doing the task for the child while he/she watches. It is not about doing short cuts for the
child
It should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the
zone of actual to the zone of proximal development.
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how
the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow
and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in
multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.

According to Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves

enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school
system, and then to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these
ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children‘s lives.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate
environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.

Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members,
classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children
will affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the
children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will
understandably foster they children‘s improved development.

One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological
systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience
very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the
development of them to progress in different manners. Each child‘s particular personality traits, such as
temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how
he/she is treated by others.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem

 The ecosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children
find themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between
home and school, between peer group and family, and between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner‘s theory, if a child‘s parents are actively involved in the friendships
of their child, for example they invite their child‘s friends over to their house from time to time and spend
time with them, then the child‘s development is affected positively through harmony and like-
mindedness.
However, if the child‘s parents dislike their child‘s peers and openly criticize them, then the child
experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological: Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings one of which may
not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact with
may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents ‘workplaces,
extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in

For example:
A father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may
take it out on his children and mistreat them at home

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macro system

The macro system is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that
still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the
children‘s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political
and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children in
peaceful environments. The

Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children‘s environments. The
chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents ‘employment status, as well as
immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.
By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological Systems
Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children‘s
development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize us to variations in
the way children may act in different settings.

For example:
A child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified victim
at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child should pay
close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections
that exist between these settings.