Methods,

Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Methods, Research Designs, Ethical Questions
Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Karl Christoph Klauer
Designs

Dependent
Measures Universität Freiburg - Institut für Psychologie
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Science

Ethics

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 Outline

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
Characteristics of Scientific Research
K. C. Klauer
Research Designs
Science
Observational
Observational Designs
Designs
Correlational
Correlational Designs
Designs
Experimental
Experimental Designs
Designs

Dependent
Dependent Measures
Measures
Theory of Science
Theory of
Science Ethics
Ethics

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 Psychology as Science

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer Some characteristics of science:

Science Accuracy: Careful, precise gathering of information.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Objectivity: Unbiased evaluation of information.
Designs
Experimental
Designs
Skepticism: Testable theories, data can be replicated.
Dependent Open-
Measures

Theory of
mindedness: Ability to change views if views are disconfirmed or inaccurate.
Science

Ethics

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 Basic and Applied Research

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions Empirical research
K. C. Klauer A goal is to make the study of social behavior objective,
decisions about what is to be studied are made on the basis of the scientist’s
Science
Observational
personal interests.
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Basic research
Experimental
Designs
Some scientists conduct research primarily to advance our general understanding
Dependent
of social behavior.
Measures
Applied research
Theory of
Science Some scientists conduct research to gain practical knowledge about a particular
Ethics social issue or to develop solutions to existing social problems.

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 Basic Research

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
Basic research is designed to answer fundamental questions about behavior,
K. C. Klauer
without a particular concern for how that knowledge will be used.
Science Example: Conformity.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
The conditions under which people’s opinions and behaviors are influenced by
Designs
Experimental
the presence of others.
Designs
This research has interesting and important findings.
Dependent
Measures
This research was not trying to solve any particular problem.
It was not designed to help improve any particular social situations.
Theory of
Science It nevertheless provides a fundamental background of knowledge.
Ethics

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 Applied Research

Methods,
Research
Designs, Applied research is designed to investigate issues that have implications for
Ethical
Questions everyday life and to provide solutions to problems.
K. C. Klauer
Example: Can courtroom juries make good decisions?
Science Applied research has found that:
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Jury decisions can usually be predicted by knowing the opinions of the jury
Designs
members before the deliberation begins.
Experimental
Designs When they are unsure about guilt or innocence, juries are generally lenient on
Dependent the defendant.
Measures
Jury members may vote differently when the vote is secret than when it is public.
Theory of
Science
This research is applied research because it is designed specifically to understand
Ethics
the role of deliberation in juries and to learn how to make jury decision making
more fair and accurate.

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 Research Designs

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs Observational
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Correlational
Designs

Dependent
Experimental
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Observational Research

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Observational Method,start = 3 min 20, end = 5 min (from Worth Publishers: “Research Methods”) 8 / 54
 Observational Research Designs

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
Goal:
K. C. Klauer
To create a “snapshot” of the current state of affairs.
Science Advantages:
Observational
Designs
Provides a relatively complete picture of what is occurring at a given time,
Correlational
Designs often unobtrusive and ecologically valid,
Experimental
Designs it may be the only way to collect data about a topic.
Dependent
Measures Disadvantages:
Theory of Sometimes does not allow one to assess relationships among variables,
Science
limits: infrequent or private behaviors.
Ethics

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 Systematic Observation

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions Systematic Observation - behavior is systematically observed and recorded.
K. C. Klauer
Naturalistic observation - systematically observe behavior in natural settings.
Science Drivers honk more on hot days.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Archival analysis.
Designs
Experimental
Selection issues.
Designs

Dependent
Surveys - large sample of people answers questions about their
Measures attitudes/behavior.
Theory of Are you in favor of the death penalty?
Science
Sampling and wording issues.
Ethics

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Ecological Validity
Science
Observational
Designs
Because it is often conducted in the real world, observational research is said
Correlational
Designs
to have ecological validity.
Experimental
Designs Studies with high ecological validity are those that capture group behavior as
Dependent
Measures
it actually occurs, in everyday life.
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Science

Ethics

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Observational research is normally conducted on people who are living their
Science
Observational normal, everyday lives, however it is also possible to create scenarios in which
Designs
Correlational
Designs
the research participants can be observed in special situations.
Experimental
Designs
Example: The Prison Study (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973),
Dependent www.zimbardo.com
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 When Prophecy Fails

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
In the book “When Prophecy Fails” (Festinger,
Riecken, & Schachter, 1956) an observational study
Science
Observational
of the members of a doomsday cult is reported.
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Cult members believed that they had received
Experimental
Designs
information from another planet that the Earth would
Dependent be destroyed by a flood on December 21 1954.
Measures

Theory of
Festinger thought that it would be interesting to
Science study how individuals in groups communicate with
Ethics each other to reinforce their beliefs.

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
The researchers recorded conversations and interviewed the group members.
Science
Observational
Designs
They also recorded the reactions of the cult members when the world did not
Correlational
Designs end as they had predicted.
Experimental
Designs
This observational research provided a wealth of information about the
Dependent
Measures indoctrination patterns of cult members and their reactions to disconfirmed
Theory of predictions.
Science

Ethics

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 Accuracy/Reliability

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Interjudge reliability: The level of agreement between two or more coders.
Correlational
Designs Quantified by Cohen’s Kappa.
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Correlational Research

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Correlational Methods 133 s 16 / 54

 Correlational Research Designs

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions Goal:
K. C. Klauer
To assess the relationships among two or more variables.
Science Advantages:
Observational
Designs Allows testing expected relationships among variables and making predictions,
Correlational
Designs studies are often ecologically valid.
Experimental
Designs

Dependent Disadvantages:
Measures
Cannot be used to draw inferences about the causal relationships among the
Theory of
Science variables.
Ethics

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 Correlation

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
Correlation - searching for a relationship between two variables.
K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

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 Correlation

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Correlation - searching for a relationship between two variables.

Science
Observational Positive: Two variables move in same direction.
Designs
Correlational
Designs
As studying increases, grades get higher.
Experimental
Designs Negative: Two variables move in opposite directions.
Dependent As studying increases, errors on exams decrease.
Measures

Theory of
Science
Note: correlation does not equal causation.
Ethics

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 Reverse Causation

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
If a positive correlation is found, there are several possibilities about why these
K. C. Klauer
two variables are correlated:
Science The increase of A caused the increase in B.
Observational
Designs Increases in group cohesion caused better performance,
Correlational
Designs the causal direction is exactly opposite to what has been hypothesized - B may
Experimental
Designs have caused A.
Dependent Perhaps increased task performance caused the group to become more cohesive.
Measures

Theory of
There is no way to rule out the possibility of reverse causation on the basis of
Science an observed correlation.
Ethics

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 Third Variables

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions Another possible explanation for correlation is that it has been produced by the
K. C. Klauer presence of another variable that was not measured in the research (sometimes
Science
known as a third variable).
Observational
Designs It has been observed that students who sit in the front of a class get better
Correlational
Designs grades.
Experimental
Designs Discuss possible explanations.
Dependent
Measures Spurious relation: a relation between two variables that is caused by a third,
Theory of but usually unmeasured, variable.
Science

Ethics
Correlation does not imply causation.

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 Correlation does not imply causation

Methods,
Research
Designs, 1 Recently, a politician extolled the virtues of the Boy and Girl Scouts organizations. In his salute to the Scouts, the politician mentioned
Ethical that few teenagers convicted of street crimes had been members of the Scouts. In other words, he was positing a negative correlation
Questions between activity in Scouting and frequency of criminal behavior. Why might this be?

K. C. Klauer
2 A research study found that having a pet in childhood is correlated with a reduced likelihood of becoming a juvenile delinquent in
adolescence. Why is this?

Science 3 A recent study of soldiers stationed on army bases found that the number of tatoos a soldier had is correlated positively with becoming
Observational
involved in a motorcycle accident. Why?
Designs
Correlational
4 Officials in the Reagan administration took credit for a reduction in the crime rate, because the crime rate went down after Reagan
Designs took office. That is, there was a negative correlation between the onset of the Reagan administration and the crime rate. What are
Experimental some alternative explanations for this correlation?
Designs
5 Recently, it was reported that a correlation exists between people’s tendency to eat breakfast in the morning and how long they live,
Dependent such that people who skip breakfast die younger. Does eating Wheaties lead to a long life?
Measures
6 A few years ago, newspaper headlines announced, "Coffee suspected as a cause of heart attacks. " Medical studies had found a
Theory of correlation between the amount of coffee people drank and their likelihood of having a heart attack. Are there any alternative
Science explanations?

Ethics 7 A positive correlation exists between the viscosity of asphalt in city playgrounds and the crime rate. How can this be? When asphalt
becomes viscous (softer), is some chemical released that drives potential criminals wild? When the crime rate goes up, do people flock
to the playgrounds, such that the pounding of feet increases the viscosity of the asphalt? What explains this correlation?

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 The Pearson Correlation Coefficient

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
The correlation coefficient is frequently used to summarize and communicate
Science
Observational
the strength and direction of the association between two variables.
Designs
Correlational
Designs
The correlation coefficient is a number that indicates both the direction and
Experimental
Designs the magnitude of the observed association.
Dependent
Measures
Values of the correlation coefficient range from r = −1.00 to r = +1.00.
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Konrad Lorenz on Experiments

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Experimental Method, 1 min, 44 sec 24 / 54

 Experimental Research

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Experimental Methods 3 min 25 / 54

 Experimental Research Designs

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Goal:
To assess the impact of one or more experimental manipulations on a dependent
Science variable.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Advantages:
Designs
Experimental Allows conclusions to be drawn about the causal relationships among variables.
Designs

Dependent Disadvantages:
Measures
Many important variables of interest cannot be experimentally manipulated.
Theory of
Science
Low ecological validity (although “field experiments” can improve this).
Ethics

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 Experimental Research Methods in Psychology

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Experimental Research Method, 15 min, 39 sec 27 / 54

 Experimental Research Methods in Psychology

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Experimental Method, start = 5 min (from Worth Publishers: “Research Methods”)

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 The Experimental Method

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
Searching for cause-effect relationship by manipulating one or more variables to
K. C. Klauer
determine its effect on another variable while holding all other variables constant.
Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs Independent Variable: Factor systematically varied by experimenter e.g.,
Experimental
Designs temperature (20, 30, or 40 degrees).
Dependent
Measures Dependent variable: Variable that is measured e.g., amount of aggression
Theory of (shock intensity).
Science

Ethics

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Criteria for a Good Experiment

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Random assignment: All participants have equal chance of being assigned to
Science each condition.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Hold constant confounding variables: Extraneous variables such as time of day
Designs
Experimental or subject personality.
Designs

Dependent
Avoid experimenter effects: Researcher unintentionally influences participants.
Measures
Double-blind procedure: Researchers unaware of hypothesis, conditions
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Confounding Variables

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Interpreting Results

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer Inferential Statistics: Determine whether findings are real or due to chance.
Science Results considered significant if they occurred by chance fewer than 5 chances
Observational
Designs in 100.
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Results are viewed as tentative until replicated.
Designs

Dependent To assess the direction and magnitude of the effects across studies,
Measures
meta-analysis is used.
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Measuring Subjective Experiences and Social Processes

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Lisa Feldmann-Barrett, 5 min, 20 sec 35 / 54

 Measuring Social Processes

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Research questions are phrased in terms of constructs (e.g., group performance,
Observational
Designs
aggressivity).
Correlational
Designs A decision must be made about how to measure the variables of interest.
Experimental
Designs
This raises the issue of construct validity.
Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Operational Definition

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
The method that we use to measure a variable of interest is called an
Science operational definition.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
For any variable that we might wish to measure there are many different
Designs
Experimental
operational definitions.
Designs

Dependent Which one we use is dependent upon such things as the goal of the research
Measures
and the type of process we are studying.
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Self-Report Measures

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Self-report measures are measures in which individuals are asked to respond to
Science questions posed by an interviewer or on a questionnaire.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
The operational definition would be the average of the responses across the
Designs
Experimental
three questions.
Designs

Dependent However, people may not wish to, or be able to, tell the truth about their
Measures
thoughts or feelings.
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Example of a Self-Report Questionnaire

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
1 I enjoy the people in my work group
Science Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly agree
Observational
Designs
Correlational
2 The people in my work group get along well together
Designs
Experimental
Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly agree
Designs

Dependent
3 The people in my work group help each other on the job
Measures Strongly disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly agree
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Behavioral Measures

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
There are a wide variety of behavioral measures that can be used in research.
Science Behavioral measures may be more accurate than self-report measures,
Observational
Designs particularly if
Correlational
Designs the participants are not aware that their behaviors are being measured (for
Experimental
Designs example if the participants are observed through a one-way mirror),
Dependent participants do not know how to change their actions so as to alter their
Measures
measurement (for example, so-called implicit measures).
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Examples of Behavorial Measures

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Frequency
Questions
Frequency of stuttering as a measure of anxiety in groups.
K. C. Klauer
Duration
Science The number of minutes working at a task as a measure of task interest.
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Intensity
Designs
Experimental How hard a person claps their hands as a measure of effort.
Designs

Dependent
Latency
Measures
The number of days before beginning to work on a project as a measure of
Theory of
Science
procrastination.
Ethics Speed
How long it takes a group to complete a task as a measure of efficiency.

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 Theory of Science: Introduction

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Popper, 6 min, 01 sec 42 / 54

 Theory of Science

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Dominant view for a long time: Inductivism.
Science
Observational
Designs
Popper: Falsifiability,
Correlational
Designs
on logical grounds,
Experimental
Designs
as demarcation criterion.
Dependent Lakatos, Musgrave: Refined critical realism.
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
An Example of Falsifiability
Science
Observational
The hypothesis that “larger groups will perform tasks more efficiently” is falsifiable
Designs
Correlational because research could show that either
Designs
Experimental
Designs there was no relationship between group size and group efficiency, or
Dependent
Measures
that larger groups were less efficient than smaller groups.
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 Problems with Falsification:

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer Result must be reproducible.

Science Result involves a bundle of hypotheses, e.g.,
Observational
Designs about measurement instruments,
Correlational
Designs operationalizations,
Experimental
Designs side conditions.
Dependent
Measures ⇒ We cannot falsify with certainty, but rebuttal of falsification should involve the
Theory of generation and testing of new hypotheses.
Science

Ethics

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 Ethics: Introduction

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

Ethics, 2 min, 22 sec 46 / 54

 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

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 Ethics Quiz

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions For each of the following studies, please indicate whether you consider it to be ethical or unethical.

K. C. Klauer Study 1. A psychologist hired by XYZ corporation requires that all job applicants take a personality test to determine whether they are
likely to steal from the organization. The results of the test determine whether the applicants are hired.
Study 2. A researcher wants to administer a new drug hypothesized to affect aggressive behavior. He chooses prison inmates to be his
Science
subjects, reasoning that aggression is more common in prisons. In order to persuade prisoners to participate as subjects, they are
Observational
Designs
promised favorable letters to their parole boards which may facilitate earlier release.
Correlational Study 3. A team of researchers is interested in studying helping behavior. They stage a scene in a subway in which a confederate falls
Designs
off his seat and bleeds from the mouth. The dependent variable is how quickly bystanders help the “victim”. The bystanders are never
Experimental
Designs
told they have been in an experiment.
Study 4. A psychologist is interested in studying discrimination against homosexuals as a result of AIDS. She carefully trains a
Dependent confederate to portray stereotypical “macho” and “gay” behavior. In the laboratory, naive subjects interview the confederate for a
Measures hypothetical job. Without their knowledge, the psychologist observes their nonverbal gestures, eye contact with the confederate, etc.
In order to assure that the subjects do not talk to their friends about the study, the psychologist never reveals to them that the true
Theory of
purpose was to study discrimination.
Science

Ethics

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 Deception: Different Research Traditions

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer
In the beginning of empirical psychology:
Science Participants and experimenters were often one and the same person,
Observational
Designs making deception impossible (self-deception).
Correlational
Designs
Experimental
Economists: Deception is forbidden.
Designs
Suspicion and second guessing.
Dependent
Measures May swamp the impact of experimental scenario on behaviour.
Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 What is Deception?

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions
A consensus has emerged that
K. C. Klauer
deception is the intentional and explicit provision of erroneous information,
Science
Observational
whereas
Designs
Correlational
Designs
deception is not withholding information about
Experimental
Designs
research hypotheses,
Dependent range of experimental manipulations,
Measures etc.
Theory of
Science ⇒ Telling the wrong things is deception, not telling is not.
Ethics

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 Deception as a Last Resort?

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical APA:
Questions

K. C. Klauer
Default: No deception.
If used, conditions should be met:
Science
Observational No harm,
Designs
Correlational prospective value,
Designs
Experimental no effective alternative.
Designs

Dependent But of 117 studies in JESP in 2002, 63 used deception.

Measures

Theory of
JPSP 1996: 42% of the articles used deception.
Science
Marketing research: 56% in 1996-1997.
Ethics
Hertwig & Ortmann, 2008.

51 / 54
 The Costs of Deception

Methods,
Research
Designs, Destroy participants’ trust.
Ethical
Questions Trigger suspicion regarding future studies.
K. C. Klauer
Distress.
Science
Observational
Second-guessing.
Designs
Correlational Endangers experimental control.
Designs
Experimental
Designs Unfortunately, little is known about this, excepting the study of conformity in social
Dependent psychology, in which participants’ suspicion has been studied and led to less
Measures
conformity.
Theory of
Science

Ethics
However, the cost-benefit APA rule needs research into actual costs and benefits to
become effective.

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 Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science Klausurfrage
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Designs
Was versteht man in einem Experiment unter der unabhängigen und der
Experimental
Designs
abhängigen Variable? (2 Punkte)
Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

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 The End

Methods,
Research
Designs,
Ethical
Questions

K. C. Klauer

Science
Observational
Designs
Correlational
Danke für Ihre Aufmerksamkeit!
Designs
Experimental
Designs

Dependent
Measures

Theory of
Science

Ethics

54 / 54