5 Sedimentation

The settling of dilute slurry by gravity into a clear liquid and a concentrated stream of solids is
called sedimentation. Thickening, settling, or clarification is also used as interchangeable terms
for sedimentation, depending on the aim of the unit operation. If the required product is a
concentrated slurry stream, the term thickening is used, whereas if a clear liquid stream is
required, the term clarification is used.

5.1 Hindered settling

For a dilute suspension, the particles will settle in the suspension with minimum interaction
between the particles. For a dilute suspension, the settling velocities can be calculated by the
methods given in Chapter 4. For more concentrated suspensions, the particles will settle with
a sharp interface, and all the particles fall at the same velocity. In a concentrated suspension,
the large particles are retarded, and the small ones accelerated. A modification to the Stokes
law was proposed by Robinson (1926) where he used the density (ρc) and viscosity (µc) of the
suspension in place of the properties of the fluid to give:
𝐾 𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜌 )𝑑
𝑢 =
𝜇
Einstein formulated that the apparent viscosity is a function of the slurry concentration:
𝜇 = 𝜇(1 + 2.5𝜙) (1)
where  is the volume fraction of solids.
The apparent density (or the suspension density) can be calculated from the percentage of
solids on a mass basis

= ∑ (2)

Combining these equations, the hindered settling velocity can be estimated by multiplying the
single-particle settling velocity with a correction factor which is a function of the solid
concentration, i.e.
uH = us f(ϵ) (3)

Khan and Richardson (1989) developed the relationship

uH = uSn (4)

and suggested that the value of n can be calculated with equation 5, which is valid for all
Reynolds numbers

4.8  n  d 
0.27

 0.043 Ar 1  2.4  
0.57
(5)
n  2.4   D  

where Ar =d3f(s-f)g/2 (the Archimedes number)

d = the particle diameter
D = the vessel diameter
From the above, it can be observed that the equations for predicting the settling velocity of a
slurry of concentrated particles, are very empirical, and the accuracy will not be suitable for
certain conditions. It is therefore always advisable to determine the settling velocity
experimentally.

5.1.1 The batch-settling test

The mechanism of sedimentation can best be described by observing a batch-settling test as
solids settle from the slurry in a glass cylinder.
Figure 1 shows a cylinder with uniformly distributed particles in the slurry at the beginning of
the test. As soon as the particles start to settle, it can be assumed that they reach terminal
settling velocity conditions very rapidly. A clear liquid zone, a uniform slurry zone, and a
compressed zone of settled particles can be distinguished in the glass cylinder as time
progresses. The interface between the clear liquid will decrease at a constant rate until it
approaches the compressed zone where the settling will decrease.

A A – Clear liquid
B – Uniform slurry
C – Settled particles
A
B
B

C C

Figure 1. Batch sedimentation.

Figure 2 presents the curve obtained if the interface level between the clear liquid and the
slurry is plotted against time (i.e. the interface between phases A and B shown in Figure 1).
Interface height

tim e

Figure 2. Settling curve for a batch test at concentration co

In a thickener design, solids pass through layers of all concentrations between that of the feed
and underflow as depicted in Figure 3. If the rate of solids entering the layer is not faster (or
at least equal) than the rate leaving the layer, the layer will increase in size until solids ultimately
appear in the overflow. For a specific slurry and thickener design, there is a critical
concentration where the rate of solids flux in and out is equal. Thickener design is based on
identifying the concentration of the layer having the lowest capacity for the passage of solids
under operating conditions.
Figure 3 shows a layer of concentration c, where the solids enter at a specific flux and are
removed from this layer by the settling flux (Gs =vsC). To determine the concentration of the
layer where the solids enter, will be equal to the outflow (i.e. no accumulation). It is, therefore,
necessary to determine the settling velocity of the slurry at different concentrations. This can
be done by preparing slurries with concentrations varying from the feed, to the underflow
concentrations of the thickener, and determining the settling velocities using batch-settling
tests. The settling velocity is calculated from the slope of the linear part of the curve in Figure
2.

v +dv + v L

c - dc
vL
c, v +v L

Figure 3. Movement of solids through a layer

It is also possible to determine the settling velocity at different concentrations from a single
settling test. If a line is drawn tangentially at any point on the interface height vs time curve
as shown in Figure 4, the slope at this point will give the velocity of the interface at this
concentration
Velocity of interface = dh/dt = (h1 – h)/t

ho

h1
Interface height

t time

Figure 4. Determination of settling rate for different concentrations

The solids are settling at velocity v with respect to the wall of the vessel, and v + vL with
respect to the layer. Solids will settle into the layer with concentration c – dc, and velocity v +
dv +vL with respect to the layer. If assumed that the layer is the rate-limiting layer, i.e. no
accumulation in the layer, then a material balance gives

(c-dc) S t (v +dv+vL) = c S t (v + vL) (6)

where S is the area normal to solids flow, and t = time.

Solving equation 6 for vL, assuming that dv is small, gives

 dv
vL  c v (7)
dt

As mentioned earlier, the settling velocity is a function of the solid concentration, therefore
v = f(c), and dv/dt = f(c). Since the concentration of the layer is constant, both f(c) and f(c)
will be constant. This can be used to determine the concentration of solids.
If the initial concentration is Co, and the initial height of the slurry in the glass cylinder is ho,
then the total weight of the solids in the slurry is CohoS, where S is the cross-sectional area of
the cylinder. If the concentration of the limiting layer is cL, and the time to reach the interface
is tL, then the number of solids passing through the layer in time t, can be calculated. This
must, however, also be equal to the total solid concentration present since the layer having the
limiting concentration started forming at the bottom and moved upwards to the interface. The
equation from above, states

CL S tL(v + vL) = Co ho S (8)

If the height of the interface at tL is hL, then following equation 7
vL = hL/tL, and substituting into equation 8, gives

C o ho
CL  after simplification (9)
hl  vt L
The tangent of the height of the interface-time curve at tL will intercept the ordinate at hi. The
slope of this line is v = (hi – hL)/ tL, therefore hi = hL+tLv. Combination with equation 9, gives

CLhi = Coho (10)

5.2 Continuous Thickening

A schematic of a continuous thickener is shown in Figure 5. The feed is normally fed to the
centre of the thickener, with the overflow flowing over the walls of the thickener into a launder.
The underflow is collected at the bottom of the thickener and removed either by pumping or
gravity flow.
A solids mass balance for the thickener gives

Qfcf = Qucu + Qoco (11)

If equation 11 is divided by the cross-sectional area of the thickener, the following equation
is obtained

ufcf = uucu + uoco (12)

where ui is the superficial fluid velocity = Qi/A

Usually, the purpose of a thickener is to produce a slurry of underflow with a concentration

higher than that of the feed, and no solids in the overflow, i.e. co = 0
 Feed Overflow

Qf Qf
cf co
A

Underflow

Qu
cu

Figure 5 Schematic drawing of a thickener

A total mass balance for the thickener gives:

Q f = Qu + Q o
or in terms of the superficial velocity
ufcf = uucu + uoco (13)

5.2.1 The thickening zone

There are different zones in a thickener with concentrations starting from the feed
concentration up to the concentration of the underflow. Entering into each zone is a flux of
material (GApp). The material flux exiting each layer is equal to the sum of the settling flux (Gs)
and the underflow flux (Gu). A typical layer with concentration c is shown in Figure 6.

Feed Overflow

Gf = ufcf
c
Gu = uu c Gs = us c

Underflow

Figure 6 Typical layer in a continuous thickener

For a critically loaded thickener, there exists a layer with a concentration c where the flux into
the layer, is just equal to the flux exiting the layer. In an overloaded thickener, the entering
flux into this zone will be more than the outlet flux; hence this layer will increase in size until
solids report to the overflow. During the design of a thickener, it is essential to determine the
concentration of this critical layer and select the cross-sectional area of the thickener, such that
the flux into the layer is not more than the outlet flux.
 c f uf
Gs = us c

Flux (G)

Concentration (c)
Cu

Figure 7 Settling flux vs concentration curve

If the flux of material entering a layer is bigger than the removal rate, solids will accumulate
and eventually report to the overflow, which can be expressed as :
GApp  Gs + Gu or GApp - Gu  Gs (14)

A plot of cu on the x-axis and the feed flux (also called applied flux) on the y-axis, is presented
in Figure 7. The slope of the line is cfuf/cu from geometry, and from equation 12, it is also equal
to uu. The equation describing this line is given by
f(c) = cfuf - uucu or f(c) = GApp - Gu (15)

From equation 11, it can be seen that the line joining the underflow concentration on the x-
axis, and the feed flux on the y-axis, should always be below the settling flux curve. To get the
minimum cross-sectional area of a thickener, and operate critically loaded, the line should touch
the settling flux line, as shown in figure 8. The intersection with the y-axis gives the maximum
feed flux for the thickener. Any flux above this value will cause the thickener to operate in the
overloaded mode.
From the maximum flux, the minimum cross-sectional area for the thickener can be calculated
by

Amin = Qfcf/Gf|maks (16)

The minimum cross-sectional area calculated using the above procedure is multiplied by a
safety factor ranging between 20 – 50 % (i.e. multiplying with a factor of 1.2 – 1.5). This will
ensure that the thickener will always operate in a safe mode, far from overloading conditions.
 GApp|Max

Gs = us c

Flux (G)

Concentration (c)
Cu

Figure 8 Graphical method to determine minimum area required for a thickener

5.3 Thickener analysis

Once the thickener area is determined using the above procedure, a straight line can join the
feed flux and underflow concentrations, as shown in Figure 9. If a vertical line is drawn at feed
concentration (cf), it will intersect at a point called the state point (SP). A straight line through
the origin and the SP will have a slope equal to the superficial overflow velocity. This can be
proven using a combination of geometry and the mass balance equations around the thickener.
This graph can also be used to answer questions regarding this design of the thickener, i.e.
what will happen if the feed concentration is increased? The graphical procedure is then
repeated, and if the line joining the feed flux and the underflow concentration is still less than
the settling flux (as stated by equation 11), the thickener will still operate in safe mode.

c f uf

SP
Flux (G)

uo uu

Concentration (c) Cf Cu

Figure 9 The State Point on the settling flux curve

5.3.1 Over-flow velocity

The slope of the straight line through the origin and the SP will be equal to the velocity of the
water reporting to the overflow. There is also a vertical and horizontal component for the
velocity of this water in a thickener that is quite complex to analyse mathematically.

We can err on the conservative side and ignore the horizontal components of this upward
velocity, assuming that the slope, as depicted in Figure 9, is representative. If this velocity is
higher than the settling velocity of the solids, the solids will be carried to the overflow. For this
scenario, the settling of solids is not limiting, and the design of the cross-sectional thickener
area should be done using the minimum up-flow velocity, so as not to carry any solids to the
overflow.

5.4 Tutorial problems

1. A suspension in water of uniformly sized spheres of diameter 100 m and SG = 1.2, has a
solids volume fraction of 0.2. The suspension settles to a bed of solid volume fraction 0.7.
Water SG = 1 and viscosity = 0.001Pa.s.
The single-particle settling velocity in water can be taken as 1.1 mm/s (verify this). For a
feed flow rate of 100 m3/hr, determine the minimum thickener area required. Khan and
Richardson’s model for hindered settling can be used.
. .
.
= 0.043𝐴𝑟 1 − 2.4
.

Answer: Amin = 86.47m2

2. A height vs time curve for the sedimentation of a suspension in a vertical cylindrical vessel
is shown below. The initial solids concentration of the suspension is 200 kg/m3.
For a feed rate of 1000 m3/min, and a scale factor of 1.4, determine the area required for
settling if an underflow concentration of 600 kg/m3 is required.

45

40

35
Height (cm)

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (min)

Answer: AAct = 259 259.3 m2 (diameter = 574.5 m)

3. A suspension in water of uniformly sized spheres of diameter 90 m and SG = 1.1, has

a solids volume fraction of 0.2. The suspension settles to a bed of solids volume fraction
of 0.7. SG of water = 1 and viscosity = 0.001 Pa.s.
If a thickener with an area of 100 m2 a is available, determine the maximum thickener
feed rate, if a safety factor of 20 % is required.
Answer: Qf = 35.45 m3/h