STUDY MATERIAL: SEMESTER (4)

(Strictly According to the Latest B.Ed. Syllabus of Punjabi University, Patiala)

B.Ed. NOTES ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

SEMESTER – (4)

by

Dr. Lalit Sharma

MCA, M.Sc.(IT), M.Ed., M.Phil., Ph.D
Former Assistant Professor
Dev Samaj College of Education
CHANDIGARH

Wintech Educational Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.

SCO: 142-143 (Fourth Floor), Sector: 34-A, Chandigarh
Mb. 98158-89707, 98158-23707
Visit Us : www.wintechedu.com | E-mail : drlalit2012@gmail.com

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Wintech Educational Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.
SCO: 148-149 (First Floor), Sector: 34-A, Chandigarh
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Visit Us : www.wintechedu.com | E-mail : drlalit2012@gmail.com

COPYRIGHT NOTICE

All rights are reserved by the author. No part of these Notes can be reproduced in any form
without the prior permission of the author/copyright owner.

© Author, 2023

Laser Type Setting

Dr. Lalit Sharma

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 SYLLABUS: ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

SECTION-A

(i) Assessment and Evaluation: meaning of assessment and evaluation , purpose;

diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation

(ii) Tools of assessment : assignments, projects, tests: objective and essay type- their
merits and limitations, kinds of test items, oral testing

(iii) Continuous and comprehensive evaluation: concept, significance, merits and

limitations.

SECTION-B

(i) Statistical tools and techniques: percentage, percentile rank, graphical presentation of
performance, frequency distribution, central tendency measures- mean, median and
mode; normal distribution and standard scores.

(ii) Examination Reforms: flexibility, quality and range of questions, school based credit,
alternative modes of examination.

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 LECTURE: PART – (2)
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING: SECTION (B)
1. Q: WRITE NOTES ON THE FOLLOWING:

(A) MERITS AND DEMERITS OF MEDIAN

Answer:
Median is another measure of central tendency. It is a positional average because its value is
determined with reference to its position in the value column of a series. In the Collins
Dictionary of Statistics, it is defined as ―the middle value in a distribution, below and above
which lie values with equal total frequencies or probabilities.‖

D. Patri (1996) defines median ―as the value of the middle item of a series arranged in
ascending or descending order. As such it divides a series into two equal parts.‖

Median may be defined as a point on the distribution below which fifty percent cases and above
which fifty percent cases lies.

USES OF MEDIAN
1. Median is used when the exact midpoint of the distribution is needed or the 50% point is
wanted.
2. When extreme scores affect the mean at that time median is the best measure of central
tendency.
3. Median is used when it is required that certain scores should affect the central tendency, but
all that is known about them is that they are above or below the median.
4. Median is used when the classes are open ended or it is of un equal cell size.

MERITS OF MEDIAN
1. It is easy to compute and understand.
2. All the observations are not required for its computation.
3. Extreme scores do not affect the median.
4. It can be determined from open ended series.
5. It can be determined from un-equal class intervals.

DEMERITS OF MEDIAN
1. It is not rigidly defined like mean because its value cannot be computed but located.
2. It does not include all the observations.
3. It cannot be further treated algebraically like mean.
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4. It requires arrangement of the scores or class intervals in ascending or descending order.
5. Sometimes it produces a value which is not found in the series.

(b) TYPES OF STANDARD SCORES

Answer:
STANDARD SCORE
A standardized test score is usually represented as a number indicating how well a child
performed on an assessment. There are a number of different types of scores used in
educational testing. Test scores can either be norm-referenced (comparing kids to others the
same age) or criterion-referenced (assessing a child's performance on a specific task).

Learning disabilities are often diagnosed and assessed using norm-referenced scores. These
types of scores estimate whether a student's scores are above average, average, or below
average compared to his or her peers. Test results are also often used to gauge how well a child
is doing and to decide if a child needs extra help in specific areas.

WHY STANDARD SCORE?

Imagine a student scored 80% on their math test and 90% on their English test. Clearly,
their raw score in English was higher, but does that tell the full story about the student's
performance? Perhaps the math test was very difficult, and 80% was the highest score in the
class, while the English test was easy, and all of the students had high grades.

Comparing raw scores, or direct measurements of statistical variables, from different data sets
can be misleading because the underlying variables may be different. For this reason, it is
normal in statistics to convert measurements to standard scores that can be directly compared
across different data sets.

SO WHAT IS STANDARD SCORE/STANDARDIZED SCORE ?

Definition
A score that is derived from an individual‘s raw score within a distribution of scores. The
standard score describes the difference of the raw score from a sample mean, expressed in
standard deviations. Standard scores preserve the absolute differences between scores. The
standard score (Z) is computed with the following formula:
Z=X−M/SD
Where X = the raw score, M = the mean, and SD = the standard deviation.

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The standard score (more commonly referred to as a z-score) is a very useful statistic because it
(a) allows us to calculate the probability of a score occurring within our normal distribution and
(b) enables us to compare two scores that are from different normal distributions. The standard
score does this by converting (in other words, standardizing) scores in a normal distribution to
z-scores in what becomes a standard normal distribution.

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZED SCORES?

Standardized exams can show student improvement over time by taking the same tests over
time. In addition, student test scores can also be easily compared to each other to show changes
in progress. Ensure that all educational stakeholders are held accountable.

TYPES OF STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES

There are many different types of test scores used in educational testing. Common ones you
may encounter on your child's school reports, particularly in special education and learning
disability assessments, include the following.

STANDARD SCORES
Test developers calculate the statistical average based on the performance of students tested in
the norming process of test development. That score is assigned a value. Different performance
levels are calculated based on the differences in student scores from the statistical average and
are expressed as standard deviations.

These standard deviations are used to determine what scores fall within the above average,
average, and below average ranges. Standard scores and standard deviations are different for
different tests. Many of the commonly used tests, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, have
an average score of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.

PERCENTILES
These scores show how a student's performance compares to others tested during test
development. A student who scores at the 50th percentile performed at least as well as 50
percent of students his age. A score at the 50th percentile is within the average range.

Z-Scores
These scores are scaled on a number line ranging from -4 to 4. On this scale, zero is average.
Positive scores are above average, and negative scores are below average.

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T-Scores
These scores range in intervals of 10 from 10 to 90 points. Fifty is average on this scale, and the
average range is usually between 40 and 60.

Stanine Score
The stanine scale is also called the standard nine scale. These scores range from 1 to 9, with 5
being average. Scores below 5 are below average. Scores above 5 are above average.

Scaled Scores
This type of test score involves presenting different scores on a number of subtests, each of
which assesses a specific skill or area. In many cases, these scaled scores are then combined in
order to arrive at an overall composite score.

FAQs

 What does it mean to use standard score?

Standard scores are all measured on a universal scale, which counts the number of standard
deviations between a raw score and the mean value. The relative size of values from different
data sets can be fairly compared by using standard scores instead.
 How do you find the percentile from the standard score?
If the raw scores are normally distributed, the standard scores will have the standard normal
distribution. Percentiles for this distribution are recorded in the standard normal table. Look up
the first and decimals of a standard score to determine the row and column that contains the
percentile.
 Is a z score a standardized score?
Yes. Since z is the conventional letter used to denote the standardized score, this value is often
called a z score.
 How do you calculate the standard score?
The standard score z is calculated from the raw score x by subtracting the mean m and dividing
by the standard deviation s. The standard score formula is z=(x-m)/s.

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 STANDARDISED TEST: MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS AND
USES | STATISTICS
MEANING OF STANDARDISED TEST
Standardised tests arc carefully constructed tests which have uniformity of procedure in
scoring, administering and interpreting the test results. A standardised test is generally made
by a professional tester or a group of testers.
Standardized tests are not restricted to use in a school or a few schools but to larger population,
so that many schools can use such types of tests to assess their own performance etc. in relation
to others and the general population for which the test has been standardised.

According to C.V. Good, ―A standardised test is a test for which content has been selected and
checked empirically, for which norms have been established, for which uniform methods of
administering and scoring have been developed and which may be scored with a high degree of
objectivity.‖

CHARACTERISTICS OF STANDARDISED TESTS

1. They consist of items of high quality. The items are pretested and selected on the basis of
difficulty value, discrimination power, and relationship to clearly defined objectives in
behavioural terms.
2. As the directions for administering, exact time limit, and scoring are precisely stated, any
person can administer and score the test.
3. Norms, based on representative groups of individuals, are provided as an aid for interpreting
the test scores. These norms are frequently based on age, grade, sex, etc.
4. Information needed for judging the value of the test is provided. Before the test becomes
available, the reliability and validity are established.
5. A manual is supplied that explains the purposes and uses of the test, describes briefly how it
was constructed, provides specific directions for administering, scoring, and interpreting
results, contains tables of norms and summarizes available research data on the test.

USES OF STANDARDISED TESTS

1. Standardised test assesses the rate of development of a student‘s ability. It provides a basis
for ascertaining the level of intellectual ability-strength and weakness of the pupils.
2. It checks and ascertains the validity of a teacher-made test.
3. These tests are useful in diagnosing the learning difficulties of the students.
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4. It helps the teacher to know the casual factors of learning difficulties of the students.
5. Provides information‘s for curriculum planning and to provide remedial coaching for
educationally backward children.
6. It also helps the teacher to assess the effectiveness of his teaching and school instructional
programmes.
7. Provides data for tracing an individual‘s growth pattern over a period of years.
8. It helps for organising better guidance programmes.
9. Evaluates the influences of courses of study, teacher‘s activities, teaching methods and other
factors considered to be significant for educational practices.

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2. Q: DEFINE GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA. DISCUSS ANY ONE METHOD
OF GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF GROUPED DATA.
Answer:
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Graphical representation of data is an attractive method of showcasing numerical data that
help in analyzing and representing quantitative data visually. A graph is a kind of a chart
where data are plotted as variables across the coordinate. It became easy to analyze the extent of
change of one variable based on the change of other variables. Graphical representation of data
is done through different mediums such as lines, plots, diagrams, etc

A graphical representation is a visual representation of data statistics-based results using

graphs, plots, and charts. This kind of representation is more effective in understanding and
comparing data than seen in a tabular form. Graphical representation helps to qualify, sort, and
present data in a method that is simple to understand for a larger audience. Graphs enable in
studying the cause and effect relationship between two variables through both time series and
frequency distribution. The data that is obtained from different surveying is infused into a
graphical representation by the use of some symbols, such as lines on a line graph, bars on a bar
chart, or slices of a pie chart. This visual representation helps in clarity, comparison, and
understanding of numerical data.

USES OF GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

The main use of a graphical representation of data is understanding and identifying the trends
and patterns of the data. It helps in analyzing large quantities, comparing two or more data,
making predictions, and building a firm decision. The visual display of data also helps in
avoiding confusion and overlapping of any information. Graphs like line graphs and bar
graphs, display two or more data clearly for easy comparison. This is important in
communicating our findings to others and our understanding and analysis of the data.

ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Listed below are some advantages and disadvantages of using a graphical representation of
data:
 It improves the way of analyzing and learning as the graphical representation makes the
data easy to understand.
 It can be used in almost all fields from mathematics to physics to psychology and so on.

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  It is easy to understand for its visual impacts.
 It shows the whole and huge data in an instance.
 It is mainly used in statistics to determine the mean, median, and mode for different data
The main disadvantage of graphical representation of data is that it takes a lot of effort as well
as resources to find the most appropriate data and then represent it graphically.

TYPES/METHODS OF GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

BAR DIAGRAM OR BAR GRAPH:

Also known as a column graph, a bar graph or a bar diagram is a pictorial representation of data.
In bar graphs or diagrams the data is represented by bars. Generally these diagrams or pictures are
draws on graph paper. Therefore these bar diagrams are also referred to as bar graphs.
It is shown in the form of rectangles spaced out with equal spaces between them and
having equal width. The equal width and equal space criteria are important characteristics of a
bar graph.

For Example: The below table depicts the number of students of a class engaged in any one of the
three sports given.

Sports No. of Students

Basketball 15
Volleyball 25
Football 10
Total 50

Note that the number of students is actually the frequency. So, if we take frequency to be
represented on the y-axis and the sports on the x-axis, taking each unit on the y-axis to be equal
to 5 students, we would get a graph that resembles the one below.

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HISTOGRAM OR COLUMN DIAGRAM:

A two dimensional graphical representation of a continuous frequency distribution is called a

histogram. In histogram, the bars are placed continuously side by side with no gap between
adjacent bars. That is, in histogram rectangles are erected on the class intervals of the
distribution. The areas of rectangle are proportional to the frequencies.

Unlike a bar graph that depicts discrete data, histograms depict continuous data. A histogram or
column diagram is essentially a bar graph of a frequency distribution. The continuous data takes
the form of class intervals. Thus, a histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency
distribution with class intervals or attributes as the base and frequency as the height.

The key difference is that histograms have bars without any spaces between them and the
rectangles need not be of equal width.

Steps of Creating Histogram: To prepare a histogram we may proceed as follows:

Step 1: Represent the data in the continuous form if it is in the discontinuous form.
Step 2: Mark the class intervals along the X-axis on a uniform scale.
Step 3: Mark the frequencies along the Y-axis on a uniform scale.
Step 4: Construct rectangles with class intervals as bases and corresponding frequencies as
heights.

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THE FREQUENCY POLYGON:
A frequency polygon is essentially a line graph for the graphical representation of frequency
distribution. It is a graphical form of representation of data. A frequency polygon is almost
identical to a histogram. The frequency polygon exposes the characteristics of the distribution
more easily and clearly, and makes it more convenient to compare the frequency distribution of
more than one sample.
It is used to depict the shape of the data and to depict trends.

It is usually drawn with the help of a histogram but can be drawn without it as well. A
histogram is a series of rectangular bars with no space between them and is used to
represent frequency distributions.

Steps to Draw Frequency Polygon:

Step 1- Choose the class interval and mark the values on the horizontal axes.

Step 2- Mark the mid value of each interval on the horizontal axes.

Step 3- Mark the frequency of the class on the vertical axes.

Step 4- Corresponding to the frequency of each class interval, mark a point at the height in
the middle of the class interval.

Step 5- Connect these points using the line segment.

Step 6- The obtained representation is a frequency polygon.

For Example: Q: Construct a frequency polygon using the data given below:

Test No.
Scores of Stud.
49.5 – 59.5 5

59.5 – 69.5 10

69.5 – 79.5 30

79.5 – 89.5 40

89.5 – 99.5 15

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LINE GRAPH
A line graph (also known as a line plot or line chart) is a graph which uses lines to connect
individual data points that display quantitative values over a specified time interval.
Line graph are simple mathematical graphs that are drawn on the graph paper by plotting the
data concerning one variable on the horizontal x-axis and other variable of data on the other y-
axis. With the help of such graphs the effect of one variable upon another variable during an
experimental study may be clearly demonstrated.
A line graph is commonly used to display change over time as a series of data points
connected by straight line segments on two axes. The line graph therefore helps to determine
the relationship between two sets of values, with one data set always being dependent on the
other set.
Line graphs are useful in that they show data variables and trends very clearly and can help
to make predictions about the results of data not yet recorded. They can also be used to display
several dependent variables against one independent variable. When comparing data sets,
line graphs are only useful if the axes follow the same scales. Some experts recommend no
more than 4 lines on a single graph, any more than that and it becomes difficult to interpret.

For example, given line graph tells about the trend in the temperature of New York on a hot
day.

Hence the line graph is a powerful visual tool for marketing, finance, and other areas. It is also
useful in laboratory research, weather monitoring, or any other function involving a correlation
between two numerical values. If two or more lines are on the chart, it can be used as a
comparison between them.

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3. Q: WHAT IS MEANT BY SCHOOL BASED CREDITS? DISCUSS THEIR ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES.
Answer:
The credit system in education is a standard used to measure and assess students' work and
effort during their educational programme. The thought-out meaning behind the System is to
meet the requirements of every student in order to stay up with the advancements in
education methods in India and abroad.

In addition, the Choice Based Credit System provides students a simple and flexible method
of versatility to move from one educational organization to another at any time and request
for transfer of the credits he/she earned without losing scope on the syllabus. For example, if a
student, studying the XYZ course in engineering at Anna University and wants to continue it at
Mumbai University he/she can.

Choice Based Credit System – CBCS is a Pedagogical approach that facilitates the students to
choose their preference of core subjects, elective courses, skillset, or global-based elective
courses. The CBCS system enables the students to get multi-disciplinary education. For
instance, in the CBCS system, an engineering student can take up arts, humanities, law, or
history as subjects in the global-based elective courses. CBCS was a universal education model
followed by the foreign countries, wherein you could have probably heard of a law student
studying history and clinical psychology. Choice Based Credit System in higher
education was first introduced by the IGCSE and ICSE syllabus (the international Cambridge
syllabus), wherein the students had the Choice of studying science and arts or humanity and
computer science.

CBCS at the school level helps the students explore different career courses for their college. The
subjects in CBCS are provided in different categories:

a. Core subjects:
A core subject remains the crux of the introductory education course chosen by the student.
Core subject credits are mandatory to complete the course.
b. Elective course:
These subjects are more generic but may or may not be related to the core subject, and these
subjects help discover different topics that would otherwise be out of reach for the students.
c. Skillset or globally based elective courses:

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These courses are additional courses taken up by the students out of their interest to gain
knowledge. These courses comprise subjects that help the students climb their career ladder.

CBCS is an educational approach that allows students to choose courses from the prescribed
set of courses. It includes a skill-based course, a core course, and an elective/minor course. The
course can be evaluated based on the grading system which is an upgrade to the conventional
marks system.
Quality education plays an important role in enhancing knowledge, developing skills,
building confidence, and creating a positive impact on students‘ life. It empowers students to
grow not just professionally, but also lays a solid foundation of personal growth. To ensure
quality education, higher education institutions must focus on developing a balance between -
imparting education & promoting skill development by providing flexibility to explore various
fields.

Technology changes & the surge in automation has risen at a great pace in the last few years,
demanding students to be more ready for the industry. Studying & Understanding other
departmental courses can compliment & empower students‘ growth. An engineering student
can learn a Finance Management Course, which would be helpful for him.

Managing such various permutations requires great effort, majorly to map clashes in timetables
& examinations, and more.

University Grants Commission has come up with the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
programme in which the students have a choice to choose from the prescribed courses, which
are referred as core, elective or minor or soft skill courses and they can learn at their own pace
and the entire assessment is graded-based on a credit system. The basic idea is to look into the
needs of the students so as to keep up-to-date with development of higher education in India
and abroad. CBCS aims to redefine the curriculum keeping pace with the liberalisation and
globalisation in education. CBCS allows students an easy mode of mobility to various
educational institutions spread across the world along with the facility of transfer of credits
earned by students.

FEATURES OF CBCS
• This is a uniform CBCS for all central and state and other recognised universities.
• There are three main courses: Core, Elective and Foundation.
• There are also non-credit courses available which will be assessed as ‗Satisfactory‘ or
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―Unsatisfactory‘. This is not included in the computation of SGPA/CGPA.
• All the three main courses will be evaluated and accessed to provide for an effective and
balanced result.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

It has the following basic elements:
• Semesters: The assessment is done semester wise. A student progresses on the basis of the
courses taken rather than time like three years for science, arts, commerce or four years for
engineering etc. Each semester will have 15–18 weeks of academic work which is equal to 90
teaching days. There is flexibility in creating the curriculum and assigning credits based on the
course content and hours of teaching.
• Credit system: Each course is assigned a certain credit. When the student passes that course,
he earns the credits which are based on that course. If a student passes a single course in a
semester, he does not have to repeat that course later. The students can earn credits according to
his pace.
• Credit transfer: If for some reasons, he cannot cope with the study load or if he falls sick, he
has the freedom to study fewer courses and earn fewer credits and he can compensate this in
the next semester.
• Comprehensive continuous assessment: There is a continuous evaluation of the student not
only by the teachers but also by the student himself.
• Grading: UGC has introduced a 10-point grading system as follows:

O (Outstanding) : 10
A+ (Excellent) : 9
A (Very Good : 8
B+ (Good) : 7
B (Above Average) : 6
C (Average) : 5
P (Pass) : 4
F (Fail) : 0
Ab (Absent) : 0

ADVANTAGES
The advantages of Choice Based Credit System for the students are liberating.
1. They have a choice of studying the course they desire. For example, you can choose
medicine as my core subject and study history or clinical psychology. It helps the students

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 to discover various career paths for themselves and also provides a venue to choose a
different stream of higher studies.
2. The rate of employability among students will increase.
3. They are not restricted to one stream of education. Instead, they can explore to find their
passion and pursue them further.
4. The burnout rate among young professionals decreases, and the country would see
innovations soaring sky high.
5. The unemployment rate will significantly decrease as the students will be professionally
qualified. A software engineer can land a primary executive-level branding of marketing
sector job because of the choice-based credit system.
6. The transfer of students to other universities or colleges is feasible.
7. The students can study from anywhere, from campus, off-campus (digital campus), and
the model can be used during pandemics where there is limited access to physical entities.
8. It helps the students to develop a sense of responsibility as they are their sole responsibility
in completing the course
9. The students can choose what they study and from which faculty.
10. The semester pattern helps students to complete the course earlier than before or take it
slow as per their convenience.
11. There are no more uniform timetables, and each student will have their study plan.
12. The students can support study and work at the same time at a very early point in their
career.
13. They don‘t need to wait until graduation to get a job

DISADVANTAGES OF CBCS:
CBCS, how it has advantages, also has some disadvantages. If there is no integrated learning
management system in place, it becomes challenging to manage the data and students‘
information along with the different courses and faculty details. The institutions must have
faculty for the subjects that have a negligible number of students. Thus, incurring additional
costs for the management.
The universities that do not have proper reach to resources for their students will suffer from
the choice-based credit system. The actual marks of the students can never be estimated for
betterment.

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[ADDITIONAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES]

ADVANTAGES
• The CBCS offers a ‗cafeteria‘ approach in which the students can choose courses of their own
choice.
• The credit system allows a student to study what he prefers in his own sequence as per his
interests.
• They can learn at their own pace.
• They can opt for additional courses and can achieve more than the required credits.
• They can also opt for an interdisciplinary approach to learning.
• Inter college/university migration within the country and outside becomes easy with the
transfer of Credits. This means that it will be easier for foreign universities to come and offer
courses in India.
• Can opt for one part of the course in one institute and the other part in another institute. This
will help in making a clear choice between good and bad colleges/ institutes.
• The students have more scope to enhance their skills and more scope of taking up projects
and assignments, vocational training, including entrepreneurship.
• The system improves the job opportunities of students.
• The system will help in enabling potential employers assess the performance of students on a
scientific scale.

DISADVANTAGES OF CBCS
• Not very easy to estimate the exact marks.
• Teachers‘ workload may fluctuate.
• Needs proper and good infrastructure for a universal spread of education.
Conclusion: It is too early to say whether CBCS will be successful or not. The UGC has always
initiated measures to bring efficiency and excellence in the Higher Education System of India.
The basic motive is to expand academic quality in all aspects, right from the curriculum to the
learning-teaching process to examination and evaluation systems. However, so far multiple
methods are followed by different universities across the country towards examination,
evaluation and grading system. Considering this diversity, the implementation of the choice
based credit system seems to be a good system in assessing the overall performance of a student
in a universal way of a single grading system.

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4. Q: WHAT IS FLEXIBILITY IN EXAMINATION? EXPLAIN THE ELEMENTS OF
FLEXIBILITY IN EXAMINATION.
Answer:
Flexibility allows students to get to know themselves better and schedule their learning
schedule accordingly. This means that the time their focus is high and their capability of
retaining information is significant is when they will start their learning. In time, it will lead to
them having better results.

Flexibility in assessment can further motivate students and engage them in the learning
process by giving them some control over their learning.

The purpose of flexibility in the examination is to provide students with the opportunity to
demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a way that is more aligned with their strengths and
abilities. This can help to reduce stress and anxiety for students, promote a more inclusive and
equitable learning environment, and ensure that students are able to perform to the best of their
abilities.

‗Flexibility‘ in examination/assessment is about responding to students‘ individual learning

needs as well as needs of the curriculum. The key is making assessment relevant to the learner.
The most effective strategies for achieving such flexible assessment will utilise a variety of
accessible and inclusive approaches, employing a carefully designed and balanced range of
authentic assessment tasks and formative assessment processes that enable all students to
demonstrate what they know, understand and can do.

Flexibility is a multi-layered and multi-faceted. In its broadest sense it is a continuum of

approaches in terms of time, place, pace, content and mode of learning applied in varying
degrees. Its overarching purpose is to increase opportunities and options available to learners
and give them greater control over their learning through a variety of learning modes and
interactions.

According to Shurville, ―Flexible Learning is a set of educational philosophies and systems,

concerned with providing learners with increased choice, convenience, and personalisation to
suit the learner. In particular, flexible learning provides learners with choices about where,
when, and how learning occurs‖.

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Flexible learning approaches are often designed using a full range of teaching and learning
theories, philosophies and methods to provide students with opportunities to access
information and expertise, contribute ideas and opinions, and correspond with other learners
and mentors. This may occur through the use of internet-based tools such as Virtual Learning
Environments or Learning Management Systems, discussion boards or chat rooms; and may be
designed as a "blended" approach, with content available electronically and remotely, as well as
"face-to-face" classroom tutorials and lectures.

BENEFITS OF FLEXIBILITY IN EXAMINATION

Flexibility in the examination can also benefit students with disabilities or learning differences,
who may require accommodations such as extra time or alternative exam formats to fully
demonstrate their knowledge and abilities. Providing these accommodations can help to level
the playing field and ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to succeed.

ELEMNTS OF FLEXIBLITY IN THE EXAMINATION INCLUDE:

1. Alternative exam formats: This can include options such as oral exams, take-home exams,
or open-book exams, which allow students to demonstrate their knowledge in different
ways.
2. Accommodations for disabilities: Students with disabilities or learning differences may
require accommodations such as extra time, specialized equipment, or a quiet testing
environment to fully demonstrate their knowledge and abilities.
3. Rescheduling options: In some cases, students may require flexibility in their exam
schedules due to personal circumstances, such as illness, family emergencies, or other
unforeseen events.
4. Clear policies and procedures: Institutions should have clear policies and procedures in
place to ensure that students are aware of their options for flexibility in examination and
know how to request accommodations or rescheduling.
5. Consistent standards and rigor: While providing flexibility , institutions must ensure that
academic standards and rigor are maintained and that students are held to the same
standards of performance regardless of the exam format or accommodations.

21
Flexibility in examination can further motivate students and engage them in the
learning process by giving them some control over their learning.
There are multiple ways to be flexible with assessments while challenging
students, maintaining rigour, and continuing to provide needed structure.
Some examples described below include flexibility around assessment timelines,
weighting, and formats.

TIMELINES
Instructors have incorporated flexible deadlines and timelines in several ways, such as:

 Allowing students to choose their own deadlines from a set of options or within a set of
criteria;
 For an assignment tied to weekly course content, having students choose which week‘s
content they would like to focus on; and/or
 Creating an online test that can be written over a window of time, offering multiple times to
write a test, and/or budgeting significantly more time to write a test than what is generally
needed, and giving this extra time to all students.

WEIGHTING
While the rearrangement of weighting can take some planning and preparation at the outset
and while a system is being introduced, it can then become part of a routine and efficient way of
steering a course.
Flexibility in weighting might look like:
 Offering several quizzes/tests and dropping the lowest mark from the final grade,
providing optional quizzes for students who would like to reduce the weighting of a final
exam, or adding the weight from a missed or poorly completed test to the final exam;
and/or
 Allowing students the option of completing 2 smaller assignments or 1 larger assignment.

FORMAT

Many format variations can be offered to encourage and support students‘ individual passions
and strengths.

22
For example:
 Permitting an assignment to be submitted as a written text, podcast, video, or oral
conversation (Fuller, Healey, Bradley & Hall, 2004);
 Offering short answer questions as an alternative to multiple choice questions; or
 As Dr. Vanessa Watts describes in this clip, challenging students to design a campaign of
their choosing to share what they‘ve learned from the course with the broader community.

Overall, the purpose of flexibility in the examination is to promote fairness, equity, and
student success, while also ensuring that academic standards are maintained. By providing
options and accommodations, institutions can help to support the diverse needs of their student
populations and promote a more inclusive learning environment.

23
5. Q: WHAT IS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION? DISCUSS THE STEPS INVOLVED IN THE
FORMATION OF A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION.
Answer:
Frequency distribution is a table that displays the frequency of various outcomes in a sample.
Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of the occurrences of values within a
particular group or interval, and in this way, the table summarizes the distribution of values in
the sample.

Frequency distribution is used to organize the collected data in table form. The data could be
marks scored by students, temperatures of different towns, points scored in a volleyball match,
etc. After data collection, we have to show data in a meaningful manner for better
understanding. Organize the data in such a way that all its features are summarized in a table.
This is known as frequency distribution.

In order to make the data, collected from tests and measurements meaningful they must be

arranged and classified systematically. Therefore we have to organize the data in to groups or

classes on the basis of certain characteristics. This principle of classifying data into groups is

called frequency distribution. In this process we combine the scores into relatively small

numbers of class intervals and then indicate number of cases in each class.

BELOW ARE GIVEN THE STEPS TO DRAW UP A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

Step—1:
Find out the highest score and the lowest score. Then determine the Range which is highest

score minus lowest score.

Step—2:
Second step is to decide the number and size of the groupings to be used.

In this process the first step is to decide the size of the class interval. According to H.E. Garrett

(1985, P. 4) ―commonly used grouping intervals are 3, 5, 10 units in length.‖ The size should

be such that number of classes will be within 5 to 10 classes. This can be determined

approximately by dividing the range by the grouping interval tentatively chosen.

24
Step—3:
Prepare the class intervals. It is natural to start the intervals with their lowest scores at multiples

of the size of the intervals. For example when the interval is 3, to start with 9, 12, 15, 18 etc.

when the interval is 5, to start with 5, 10, 15, 20 etc.

The class intervals can be expressed in three different ways:

First Type:

The first types of class intervals include all scores:

For example:
10—15—includes scores —10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 but not 15

15—20 —includes scores —15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 but not 20

20—25—includes scores —20, 21, 22, 23 and 24 but not 25

In this type of classification the lower limit and higher limit of the each class is repeated.

This repetition can be avoided in the following type.

Second Type:

In this type the class intervals are arranged in the following way:
10—14 —Includes scores 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14

15—19 —Includes scores 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19

20—24 —Includes scores 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24

Here there is no question of confusion about the scores in the higher and lower limits as the
scores are not repeated.

Third Type:
Sometimes we are in confusion about the exact limits of class intervals. Because very often it is

necessary the computations to work with exact limits. A score of 10 actually includes from 9.5 to

10.5 and 11 from 10.5 to 11.5. Thus the interval 10 to 14 actually contains scores from 9.5 to 14.5.

The same principle holds no matter what the size of interval or where it begins in terms of a

given score. In the third type of classification we use the real lower and upper limits.

9.5—14.5

14.5—19.5

19.5—24.5 and so on.

Step 4:

25
Once we have adopted a set of class intervals, we have to list them in their respective class

intervals. For that we have to put tallies in their proper intervals. (See illustration in Table No.

1.)

Step 5:
Make a column to the right of the tallies headed ‗f (frequency). Write the total number of tallies

on each class interval under column ‗f. The sum of the f column will be total number of cases—

‘N‘.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION EXAMPLE:

26
 Section – (C)

IX. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON ALL OF THE FOLLOWING:

(i) Meaning of assessment.
Answer: See in Notes [Already given]

(ii) Purpose of diagnostic assessment.

Answer: See in Notes [Already given]

(iii) Demerits of essay type tests.

Answer: See in Notes [Already given]

(iv) Limitations of projects as a tool of assessment.

Answer: See in Notes [Already given]

(v) Significance of continuous and comprehensive evaluation.

Answer: See in Notes [Already given]

(viii) Demerits of mode.

Answer: See in Notes [Already given]

(ix) Quality of questions as an Examination Reform.

Answer: See in Examination flexibility/Reform

27
(vi) Method for finding the mid-point of a class-interval.
Answer:
Intervals are used in mathematics for a variety of reasons. An interval is a specific segment of
a data set. For example, an interval might be from 4 to 8. Intervals are used in statistics and in
calculus when deriving integrals. Intervals are also used when attempting to find the mean
from frequency tables. The midpoint of each interval is needed to complete this process and
find the mean.

Find the upper and lower limit of the interval. For example, an interval from 4 to 8 would
have 4 as the lower limit and 8 as the upper limit.

Sum the upper and lower limit. In the example, 4 + 8 = 12

Divide the sum of the upper and lower limits by 2. The result is the midpoint of the interval.
In the example, 12 divided by 2 yields 6 as the midpoint between 4 and 8.

(vii) MEANING OF NORMAL DISTRIBUTION.

Answer:

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Normal distribution, also known as the Gaussian distribution, is a probability distribution that
is symmetric about the mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent in
occurrence than data far from the mean.
In graphical form, the normal distribution appears as a "bell curve".

The normal distribution is the most common type of distribution assumed in technical stock
market analysis and in other types of statistical analyses. The standard normal distribution has
two parameters: the mean and the standard deviation.

The normal distribution has several key features and properties that define it.
First, its mean (average), median (midpoint), and mode (most frequent observation) are all
equal to one another. Moreover, these values all represent the peak, or highest point, of the
distribution. The distribution then falls symmetrically around the mean, the width of which is
defined by the standard deviation.

28
In a normal classroom, we always observe that, most of the students get average marks, very
few get excellent marks and very few get poor marks. So if we draw graph or curve of such data
we get Normal Probability Curve.
Example: Many human characteristics like height, weight, strength, learning ability,
cooperativeness, social dominance etc. yield Normal probability curve.

In statistics normal distribution is important because:

(а) It is the distribution of many naturally occurring variables, such as intelligence of 8th grade

students, height of the 10th grade students etc.

(b) The distribution of the means of samples drawn from most parent populations is normal or

approximately so when the samples are sufficiently large.

Therefore normal curve has great significance in social sciences and behavioural sciences. In

behavioural measurement most of the aspects approximates to the normal distribution.

29
APPLICATIONS/USES OF NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

1) To calculate the percentile rank scores in a normal probability distribution.

2) To normalize a frequency distribution, an important process in standardizing a

psychological test or inventory.

3) To test the significance of observed measures. To find out sampling errors.

4) To determine the percentage of cases within the given limits or scores.

5) To know how many students fall below and above the average performance.

6) To compare two different distributions.

7) To find out the relative difficulty of test items.

8) To find out the number of cases between mean and one standard deviation.

9) To divide a group according to same ability and assigning same grade.

10) Find out the percentage rank of a student from the scores & score from the percentile

rank.

APPLICATIONS/USES OF NORMAL CURVE/NORMAL DISTRIBUTION IN

EDUCATION:

There are a number of applications of normal curve in the field of measurement and evaluation
in psychology and education. These are:
(i) To determine the percentage of cases (in a normal distribution) within given limits or scores.
(ii) To determine the percentage of cases that are above or below a given score or reference
point.
(iii) To determine the limits of scores which include a given percentage of cases.
(iv) To determine the percentile rank of a student in his group.
(v) To find out the percentile value of a student‘s percentile rank.
(vi) To compare the two distributions in terms of overlapping.
(vii) To determine the relative difficulty of test items, and
(viii) Dividing a group into sub-groups according to certain ability and assigning the grades.

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(x) BENEFITS OF ON DEMAND EXAMINATION.
Answer:
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) has been working on the concept of On-Demand
Examination (ODE) at Secondary Level since 2003 in the area of its feasibility and
operationalization. The novel concept of ODE is a great step in the direction of flexibility to the
open and distance learning. This will make the total system of examination independent of the
time frame and will help the student to take up the examinations as per their wish and
preparation. The basic concept of On Demand Examination is that NIOS Student can walk into
the examination center as and when he/she feel ready for the examination. NIOS re-introduced
the ODES at Secondary level in 2005. With the success of ODE at Secondary level, NIOS started
the On-Demand Examination in Sr.Secondary also from October 2007.

NIOS is becoming more and more popular in the world of education. Several students are
getting enrolled for the NIOS on demand exam. It has given the students the option of
flexibility learning. Being independent of any particular time frame, this examination system
offers the students an added advantage. Only when the students are ready to appear in the
examination, they go to the center and write the exam.

BENEFITS OF ON DEMAND EXAMINATION

The benefits of ODES can be stated as follows:

 Allows the Student to get assessed when he/ she is ready. Readiness depends on the
Student and not on the institution.
 Attempts to remove the stress of appearing in examination(s), whether for all subjects or in
one subject at a fixed time and schedule.
 Attempts to remove the threat of failure in examination.
 Removes frustration, loss of self esteem, peer group ridicule, depression etc.
 Knowledge of results is almost immediate and success, even in one subject, is a strong
motivating factor.
 Degree and level of performance is decided by the Student who can reappear in the
examination as many times as one wants, till satisfied.
 Malpractices will be reduced, as it is a system where the tools for evaluation are unique to
an individual Student. Every question paper for each Student is different having comparable
difficulty level.
 Respects the individuality and sovereignty of each Student.
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As well :
No Time Restriction
The major reason for choosing NIOS on demand exam is that it has no time restriction. Unlike
other exams that have a particular time frame to appear an examination, this system is
completely different. It allows the students to get educated according to their own pace. The
readiness factor is dependent on the student‘s ability and is independent of the institution.
Whenever the students feel ready to appear the exam, they can give the exam.
Limited Subjects
For students failing in some of the subjects in Board exam, NIOS on demand exam system is the
best option available. NIOS removes the burden of students to appear the examination of all the
subjects to pass the Board exam. Instead, it allows the learners to give the exam of only the
subjects that they have failed in the previous exam. This decreases their study load and helps to
score well.
The facility of Credit Transfer
By taking admission for NIOS on demand exam, the learners can avail the facility of credit
transfer. In this system, the marks of different subjects that the students have passed in the
previous exam get included in the NIOS result. The students have to appear the exam only for
the failed subjects. Even the students are allowed to change their subject in which they have
failed if they find it difficult to pass.
Selection of Subjects
In the formal education system, students are not allowed to select their subjects. They are bound
to study all the subject no matter how good or bad they are in particular subjects. In NIOS on
demand exam system, the students are given the option to omit the subject they are weak in.
Learners can remove difficult subjects like mathematics, accounting, etc., and instead choose
fine arts, events management, etc. This will help the learners to build their careers as per their
own choice.
Result Improvement
NIOS helps the learners to enhance their marks and get better board results. For availing
admission to a good college, the percentage requirements are quite high. NIO helps in
improving and increasing the percentage of students making them eligible for the reputed
colleges.
Center for the Disabled, Aged and Employed Individuals

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NIOS is also the right place for people who cannot avail the formal education due to various
reasons. The employed people lack time for formal education, which makes NIOS a good
option for them to complete their education. The aged person who has the willingness to learn
but is unable to go to school can join NIOS and fulfill their desires. The disabled children who
are unable to take formal education due to various impairments can study under NIOS. NIOS
has helped all such persons to avail quality education and clear examinations efficiently.
NIOS system of education also costs low making it an affordable option for many. It has
allowed the students to do well in examinations and achieve success in a career. With the
growing demand of NIOS, more and more features will get added. With the NIOS system, the
students can overcome the examination fear and get the necessary education at their own pace
and time.

33
 ADDITIONAL NOTES (ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING)

STATISTICS

1.1 STATISTICS (Meaning)

Originally the word ‗statistics‘ was used for the collection of data concerning states both
historical and descriptive. Now it has acquired a much wider meaning and is used for all types
of data and methods for the analysis of the data.

Statistics is used to describe the principles and methods which are employed in collection,
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. These devices help to simplify the complex
data and make it possible for a common man to understand it without much difficulty.

Statistics is that branch of mathematics which gives language to figures or imparts meaning
to numerals.

 Statistics may be called the science of counting. – Bowley A.L

 Statistics may rightly be called the science of averages. – Bowley A.L
 Statistics is the science of estimates and probabilities. -- Boddington
 Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of numerical data. – Croxton and
Cowden

Thus, statistics may be defined as: Collection, Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of
numeric data and make it possible for a common man to understand it without much difficulty.

Branches of Statistics:
The two main branches of statistics are:
 Descriptive Statistics
 Inferential Statistics

Descriptive Statistics – Through graphs or tables or numerical calculations, descriptive

statistics uses the data to provide the descriptions of the population.

Inferential Statistics – Based on the data sample taken from the population, inferential statistics
makes the predictions and inferences.

Both types of statistics are equally employed in the field of statistical analysis

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1.2 NATURE/CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTICS
The important characteristics of Statistics are as follows:
 Statistics is the science of observation, recording and enumeration of facts relating to a
social phenomenon.
 It involves the process of organization, classification and analysis of numerical facts.

 It provides the basis for explanation, description and comparison of different

phenomena.

 In Statistics, data are collected for a planned purpose and in systematic order.

 It has an aggregate of facts.

 Statistics must observe reasonable standards of accuracy in its enumeration.

 Helps the process of interpretation, prediction and decision-making about scientific

inquiry.

1.3 USES OF STATISTICS IN EDUCATION

The important functions of statistics are:
 Controlling the maintenance and operation costs for school buildings.
 Establishing statistical record systems for controlling school attendance.
 Analyzing and interpreting school promotions and school progress statistics.
 Comparing the results of one system of evaluation with another.
 Comparing the function and working of one institution with another.
 In gathering information‘s of various aspects to test assumptions or test hypothesis.
 Statistics helps in gathering information about the appropriate quantitative data.
 Making prediction regarding the future progress of the students.
 In testing the reliability, validity, usability and comprehensiveness of a test result.
 Statistics helps in gathering information about the appropriate quantitative data.
 It depicts the complex data in the graphical form, tabular form and in diagrammatic
representation, to understand it easily.
 Making selection, classification & promotion of the students and maintain various
records.
 Studying and utilization of library facilities.
 In deciding the procedures and techniques of a test preparation and its uses.
 It provides the exact description and better understanding.
35
  It helps in designing the effective and proper planning of the statistical inquiry in any
field.

1.4 BASIC TERMS IN STATISTICS / DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

So let us learn more about Data, Types of Data, Data collection, primary data, secondary data, and a
few other important terms in Statistics.

DATA
The term data denotes evidence or facts describing a group or a situation and from which
reference or conclusion are drawn. However, data is the base of all operations in statistics.
TYPES OF DATA
Data may be (i) qualitative or (ii) quantitative. Once you know the difference between them, you
can know how to use them.

(i) Qualitative Data: They represent some characteristics or attributes. They depict descriptions
that may be observed but cannot be computed or calculated. For example, data on attributes
such as intelligence, honesty, wisdom, cleanliness, and creativity collected using the students
of your class a sample would be classified as qualitative. They are more exploratory than
conclusive in nature.

(ii) Quantitative Data: These can be measured and not simply observed. They can be
numerically represented and calculations can be performed on them. For example, data on the
number of students playing different sports from your class gives an estimate of how many of
the total students play which sport. This information is numerical and can be classified as
quantitative.

36
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (Meaning)
Measures of central tendency are a combination of two words i.e. ‗measure‘ and ‗Central
tendency‘. Measure means methods and central tendency means average value of any statistical
series. Thus we can say that central tendency means the methods of finding out the central
value or average value of a statistical series of quantitative information.

The term measure of central tendency can be described as a single value which is used to
define a set of data by classifying the central position within that set of data. That‘s the reason
measures of central tendency is also known as measures of central location. It is also categorized
as summary statistics. Here, the mean (usually known as the average) mostly measure the
central tendency which is the most common, apart from the median and the mode.

All three mean, median, and mode are the types of central tendency, however, they have
different measures and conditions.

Objectives of Measuring Central Tendency:

 To present a brief picture of data- It helps in giving a brief description of the main feature
of the entire data.
 Essential for comparison- It helps in reducing the data to a single value which is used for
doing comparative studies.

 Helps in decision making- Most of the companies use measuring central tendency to plan
and develop their businesses economy.

 Formulation of policies- Many governments rely on this medium while forming any
policies.

8.2 Meaning and Objectives of Measuring Central Tendency:

―A measure of Central tendency is a typical value around which other figures congregate.‖
—Simpson and Kafka
―An average is a figure that represents the whole group.‖ —Clark

 An average represents all the features of a group; hence the results about the whole group
can be deduced from it.

37
 An average gives us simple and brief description of the main features of the whole data.
 The measures of central tendency or averages reduce the data to a single value which is
highly useful for making comparative studies. For example, comparing the per capita
income of two countries, we can conclude that which country is richer.
 Averages help to develop a business in case of a firm or help the economy of a country to
develop.
 Other statistical devices such as mean deviation, co-efficient of variation, co-relation,
analysis of time series and index numbers are also based on the averages.
 Average provides the overall picture of the series. We cannot remember each and every facts
relating to a field of enquiry.
 Average value provides a clear picture about the field under study for guidance and
necessary conclusion.
 It gives a concise description of the performance of the group as a whole and it enables us to
compare two or more groups in terms of typical performance.
8.3 Measures of Central Tendency:
Generally, the central tendency of a dataset can be described using the following measures:
 Mean: Represents the sum of all values in a dataset divided by the total number of the
values.
 Median: The middle value in a dataset that is arranged in ascending order (from the
smallest value to the largest value). If a dataset contains an even number of values, the
median of the dataset is the mean of the two middle values.
 Mode: Defines the most frequently occurring value in a dataset. In some cases, a dataset
may contain multiple modes while some datasets may not have any mode at all.

(1) The Mean (M): For a common man, average means the arithmetic mean. It is

most popularly used because of its simplicity, rigidity etc.

Uses of Mean:
38
There are certain general rules for using mean. Some of these uses are as following:

1. Mean is the center of gravity in the distribution and each score contributes to the

determination of it when the spread of the scores are symmetrically around a central point.

2. Mean is more stable than the median and mode. So that when the measure of central

tendency having the greatest stability is wanted mean is used.

3. Used to calculate other statistics like S.D., coefficient of correlation, ANOVA, ANCOVA etc.

MERITS OF MEAN
1. Mean is rigidly defined so that there is no question of misunderstanding about its

meaning and nature.

2. It is the most popular central tendency as it is easy to understand.

3. It is easy to calculate.

4. It includes all the scores of a distribution.

5. It is not affected by sampling so that the result is reliable.

6. Mean is capable of further algebraic treatment so that different other statistics like

dispersion, correlation, skew-ness requires mean for calculation.

DEMERITS OF MEAN
1. Mean is affected by extreme scores.
2. Sometimes mean is a value which is not present in the series.
3. Sometimes it gives absurd values. For example there are 41, 44 and 42 students in class
VIII, IX and X of a school. So the average students per class are 42.33. It is never possible.
4. In case of open ended class intervals, it cannot be calculated without assuming the size of
the open end classes.

(2) Median: Median is another measure of central tendency. It is a positional average because
its value is determined with reference to its position in the value column of a series. In the
Collins Dictionary of Statistics, it is defined as ―the middle value in a distribution, below and
above which lie values with equal total frequencies or probabilities.‖
D. Patri (1996) defines median ―as the value of the middle item of a series arranged in
ascending or descending order. As such it divides a series into two equal parts.‖
Median may be defined as a point on the distribution below which fifty percent cases and above
which fifty percent cases lies.

39
USES OF MEDIAN
1. Used when the exact midpoint of the distribution is needed or the 50% point is wanted.
2. When extreme scores affect the mean at that time median is the best measure of central
tendency.
3. Median is used when it is required that certain scores should affect the central tendency, but
all that is known about them is that they are above or below the median.
4. Median is used when the classes are open ended or it is of un equal cell size.

MERITS OF MEDIAN
1. It is easy to compute and understand.
2. All the observations are not required for its computation.
3. Extreme scores do not affect the median.
4. It can be determined from open ended series.
5. It can be determined from un-equal class intervals.

DEMERITS OF MEDIAN
1. It is not rigidly defined like mean because its value cannot be computed but located.
2. It does not include all the observations.
3. It cannot be further treated algebraically like mean.
4. It requires arrangement of the scores or class intervals in ascending or descending order.
5. Sometimes it produces a value which is not found in the series.

(3) MODE
Mode is the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution. As an average it represents the
most typical value of a series which almost coincides with the existing items. It is never affected
by extreme scores but by the extreme frequencies of the values. To determine mode different
methods are there.

USES OF MODE: THE MODE IS USED:

(i) When we want a quick and approximate measure of central tendency.
(ii) When we want a measure of central tendency which should be typical value. For example
when we want to know the typical dress style of Indian women i.e. the most popular dress
style. Like this the average marks of a class is called modal marks.

40
MERITS OF MODE:
1. Mode gives the most representative value of a series.
2. Mode is not affected by any extreme scores like mean.
3. It can be determined from an open ended class interval.
4. It helps in analysing qualitative data.
5. Mode can also be determined graphically through histogram or frequency polygon.
6. Mode is easy to understand.
DEMERITS:
1. Mode is not defined rigidly like mean. In certain cases it may come out with different results.
2. It does not include all the observations of a distribution but on the concentration of
frequencies of the items.
3. Further algebraic treatment cannot be done with mode like mean.
4. In multimodal and bimodal cases it is difficult to determine.
5. Mode cannot be determined from unequal class intervals.
6. There are different methods and different formulae which yield different results of mode and
so it is rightly remarked as the most ill-defined average.

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TYPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
There are four types of frequency distribution under statistics which are explained below:
 Ungrouped frequency distribution: It shows the frequency of an item in each separate
data value rather than groups of data values.
 Grouped frequency distribution: In this type, the data is arranged and separated into
groups called class intervals. The frequency of data belonging to each class interval is
noted in a frequency distribution table. The grouped frequency table shows the
distribution of frequencies in class intervals.
 Relative frequency distribution: It tells the proportion of the total number of observations
associated with each category.
 Cumulative frequency distribution: It is the sum of the first frequency and all frequencies
below it in a frequency distribution. You have to add a value with the next value then add
the sum with the next value again and so on till the last. The last cumulative frequency will
be the total sum of all frequencies.

42