2.

0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Coal is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from ancient vegetation which has been
consolidated between other rock strata and transformed by the combined effects of microbial
action, pressure and heat over a considerable time period (Osborne, 2013).
There are different types of coal, classified based on carbon content and energy value; the main
types include:
 Peat: This is the lowest in carbon content and energy value, peat is an early stage in coal
formation and is often used as a source of fuel in some of places.
 Lignite: It’s a soft and brownish coal with higher carbon content than peat but lower than
other types. It has a lower energy content compared to higher-ranked coals.
 Bituminous Coal: This is a relatively soft coal with a moderate carbon content. It is
widely used for electricity generation and industrial purposes.
 Anthracite: It’s the highest rank of coal, anthracite is hard, has high carbon content. It
produces a high amount of energy and is often used in residential heating and industrial
processes.
Coal has historically been a crucial source of energy, particularly for electricity generation and
industrial processes. However, it is a fossil fuel and burning it releases carbon dioxide and other
pollutants, contributing to environmental concerns and climate change. Efforts are underway to
transition to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources.
2.1 Coal formation
The process that creates coal varies slightly in different areas depending on the plants and
conditions that are present, but the overall process is similar. There are two main phases in coal
formation, those are peatification and coalification. Bacterial activity is the main process that
creates the peat during peatification. Increasing temperature and pressure from burial are the
main factors in coalification. To form coal, the following steps are followed (calgary, 2012);
(i) Plant matter in mires and wetlands, such as ferns, shrubs, vines, trees, and algae die
and accumulates on the surface. Initially the organic matter is decomposed by
bacteria yielding carbon dioxide and methane.
(ii) The plant matter becomes buried, and are no longer exposed to air. Anaerobic
bacteria then start to decompose the material. Burial and accumulation can occur for
several thousands of years, producing several meters of partially decayed plant matter
known as peat.
(iii) When this peat is deeply buried, water and other compounds is squeezed out from the
increasing pressure and the lowest quality of coal, lignite, begins for form.
(iv) Continued burial, resulting in increasing pressures and temperatures, causes this low-
quality lignite coal to be transformed into higher quality “black coals”. First lignite
becomes sub bituminous coal, the amount of water and other compounds in the coal
decreases and the coal becomes denser. Along with this, comes a higher carbon
concentration.
2.2 Coal sampling and Preparation
How samples are collected is dependent on the aspect of mining and the purpose for which the
coal is being tested. Samples may be required for technical evaluation, process control, quality
control or for commercial transactions. It is important, before collecting a sample, to decide
what the purpose of the sample will be, and then plan the sampling procedure
accordingly so that it will be unbiased and sufficiently representative for the purpose
2.2.1 General principles of sampling
The fundamental requirements of sampling include;
1. all particles of coal in the lot to be sampled are accessible to the sampling
equipment and each individual particle shall have an equal probability of being
selected and included in the sample.
2. the dimension of the sampling device used should be sufficient to allow the
largest particle to pass freely into it.
3. the first stage of sampling known as primary increments is the collection of an
adequate number of coal portions from positions distributed over the entire lot to
reflect the variability of the coal. The primary increments are then combined into
a sample, as taken or after reducing the mass of the sample to a manageable
size. From this gross sample, the required number and types of test samples are
prepared by a series of processes jointly known as sample preparation;
4. the minimum mass of the gross sample should be sufficient to enable particles to
be present in the same proportions as in the lot of coal from which it is taken.
2.2.2 General rules of sample preparation Any errors resulted from the sample preparation
practice will remain in the final sample. Therefore, the standard procedure to be used
for sample preparation should be carefully selected. Whenever possible, mechanical
methods are preferable to manual methods to minimise human error. Sample
preparation operations should be carried out by trained and experienced personnel.
Before preparing the sample, the number and nature of the analysis and tests should be
considered. A reserve sample is desirable in case a check analysis or test is required.
The following precautions should be taken during sample preparation (Smith and others,
2010):
 in collecting, handling and preparing the sample, all operations should be done
rapidly and in as few operations as possible to minimise possible coal oxidation
and changes in coal moisture content;
 the sample should be protected from moisture change due to exposure to
rain/snow, wind, sun, extreme temperatures, and from contamination on contact
with other material;
 most coals oxidise on exposure to air and hence, the air-‐drying procedure should
not be prolonged past the time necessary for air-‐drying (follow the procedure
specified by the Standards). When the sample is air dried at above ambient
 temperatures, the sample should be allowed to attain ambient temperature before
weighing and further reduction and division;
 whenever the sample is stored or transported, the sample bag/container should be
weighed. The sample should be allowed to attain equilibrium to the new
atmosphere by air-‐drying and the weight loss or gain should be used in the
calculation of moisture content