CHM411

1a. EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING OBSERVATIONS

(i) water spread on a clean glass surface and wets it; but not on a waxy or greasy
surface
(ii) ducks do not float on water containing much detergent
(iii) bubbles do not shrink to reduce the total surface area
(iv) cohesive forces contributes more to surface tension than adhesive forces

Explanation:

(i) The adhesive force of water within the glassy surface is greater than the cohesive force
while in a waxy or greasy surface the cohesive force is greater than the adhesive force.
Hence, in the first case, water will spread and wet a clean glass surface while in the
second scenario, water will not wet and spread on a waxy or greasy surface.
(ii) The introduction of detergent on the water has reduced its surface tension and therefore
the ducks will sink instead of remaining afloat on the surface.
(iii) Bubble does shrink but only until the pressure build up to a high enough value to prevent
from further shrinking. There is an excess pressure inside the bubbles compared to the
outside and energy gain in shrinking the bubbles is equal to the work done in
compressing air inside.
(iv) Cohesive forces contribute more to surface tension than adhesive forces because
molecules of the same substances are closer, more strongly attracted to each other, and
work to minimize the liquid’s surface area by drawing molecules back into the bulk,
creating surface tension.

1b. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF WETTING AND SPREADING

Wetting – is the ability of a liquid to spread over a particular surface in contact with. Wetting
could be complete or incomplete depending on the contact angle. At β >0 the liquid wet the
surface and the body been wetted are lyophilic (water loving) but when β <0, the liquid does not
wet the surface and the body is called lyophobic (water hating).

The surface of a body is wetted only by a liquid that lowers the surface tension of a given body at
the interface of air.

Spreading - is a maximum case of wetting, it occurs as a result of interaction of bodies whose

molecules are different in structures, it also occurs when two mutually insoluble bodies come in
contact. Example. Polar molecules like (organic solvent, organic acid, higher alcohols, solution
of organic salt.) spread out on the surface of water.
When spreading occur, the different bodies involved have considerably different surface tension
and also, sufficiently great force of adhesion underline non low values of the surface tension at
the interphase of the liquid and the body been wetted.

1c. STATE THE FREUNDLICH AND LANGMUIR ADSORPTIONS EQUATION. ARE

THESE EQUATION THEORETICALLY OR EMPIRICALLY DERIVED?

Freunlich

x/m = KPn

Where x= mass of the gas adsorbed, m = mass of the adsorbent P = pressure, K and n = constant
at a particular temperature of a particular adsorbent

It is empirically derived

Langmuir

1 1 K1
= +
v Vm VmP

It is theoretically derived

2a. EXPLAIN THE PHENOMENON OF MOLECULES AT THE SURFACE AND AT

THE INTERIOR OF A HOMOGENOUS SOLUTION

The phenomenon existing at the surface of a liquid or solid is different from that in the interior
and thus has important consequences on the surface tension of the liquid. Molecules in the
interior of a liquid are completely surrounded on all sides by other molecules with the same force
(cohesive force) and intermolecular attractive force exerted equally from all directions and the
resultant force acting on them is zero. When molecules at the surface of a liquid is surrounded on
one side by molecules in the liquid and on the other side by more widely scattered molecules in
the vapor state, such surface molecules will experience inward attractive forces which results in
surface tension. Thus adhesive contributes more to surface tension than cohesive forces.

2b. (i) WRITE SHORT NOTE ON THE FOLLOWING (I) MOLECULAR COLLOIDS
(II) PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDS

Molecular colloids are colloids that are composed of;

 Substances having molecular mass ranging from 1000 to several millions

 They are also known as reversible or lyophilic colloids
 They include natural and synthetic high molecular weight substances such as polymer and
proteins
 They are often called macromolecules or reversible colloids
PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDS

Colloids obtained either by dispersion or condensation methods contain some dissolved

substances such as electrolytes and ions of impurities thus, there is need to purify the colloids in
order to get rid of these impurities. This can be achieved by two techniques namely; (i) dialysis
and (ii) ultra filtration

Dialysis: this is the process of removing dissolved substances (ions) from colloidal system using
diffusion process via a suitable membrane.

In dialysis a finely porous membrane that can retain the dispersed phase particles and freely
allow the ions to pass through is used.

 The dispersed system to be purify is placed in a vessel (made from a finely porous material)
 Distilled water is allowed to flow round the vessel
 By the law of diffusion, the ions/molecules in the dispersed system passes through the porous
material into the distilled water while the larger particle of the dispersed phase are retained
and remain in the dispersed system.
 The rate of dialysis is usually slow but it can be increased by the introduction of an electric
field on the ions of the dissolved impurities. This is termed as electro-dialysis.

Ultra filtration: This is the process of separating colloidal particles from the solvent and solute
present in them using specially prepared filters which are permeable to all substances present
except a colloidal particle. The specially prepared filters are known as ultra filters. Example is
pastures filter note: ultra filtration is a slow process hence pressure or suction is usually applied
to speed up the process.

2b. (ii) ENUMERATE ANY THREE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COARSELY AND

HIGHLY DISPERSED COLLOIDAL SYSTEM

S/no Coarsely Dispersed System Highly Dispersed System

1. The average colloidal particle diameter The particle diameter ranges from 1-100nm
ranges from100-1000nm
2. The dispersed phase particles can be The particles are not visible under a
identified under a conventional conventional optical microscope
microscope
3. The particles can be retained by filter They exhibit low visible changes when left
paper and can be stratified when left standing
standing
2c. FOR THE FOLLOWING COLLOIDS; FOAMS, MILK, MIST, TOOTH PASTE,
PAINTS AND DETERGENTS, IDENTIFY THE NATURE OF (I) DISPERSED PHASE
(II) CONTINUOUS PHASE (III) THE TYPE OF COLLOID

Colloids Dispersed phase Continuous phase (dispersion Type of colloid

medium)
Foams Gas Solid Foam (bread)
Whipped cream Gas Liquid Solid emulsion
Soap foam Gas Liquid Foam
Butter Liquid Solid Solid emulsion
Milk Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Mist/fog Liquid Gas Liquid aerosol
Paints Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Mayonnaise Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Tooth paste Solid Liquid High solid
Detergents Solid Liquid Micellar solution
Smoke Solid Gas Sol aerosol
Alloy Solid Solid High solids
Dust Solid Gas Solid aerosol

3a. IN A TABULAR FORM, DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN LYOPHOBIC AND

LYOPHILIC SOLS.

S/no Lyophobic sols Lyophilic sols

1. They are solvent hating They are solvent loving
2. There is no interaction between the There is a strong interaction between the
dispersed phase and the dispersion dispersed phase and the dispersion medium
medium
3. They are irreversible They are reversible
4. The solid particles are kept dispersed The dispersed phase of the already made colloid
throughout the liquid phase can be separated from the dispersion medium
by simply remixing

3b. DESCRIBE A SIMPLE TEST THAT COULD BE USED TO DETERMINE

WHETHER A CLEAR COLOURLESS MIXTURE IS COLLOIDAL OR TRUE
SOLUTION
The sample test that one could carry out to determine whether a clear colorless solution is a
colloidal or not is to carry out a light scattering effect experiment on the solution. This is done by
passing a beam of light rays through the solution and observing it by the side as it passes through
a convergent lens into the solution. If the rays of light passes through the solution without it
getting dispersed then the solution is a true solution. However, if it dispersed, as it passes
through the solution, it is a colloidal. The experiment is summarized in the diagram below.
(Refer to Material)
4a. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADSORPTION AND ABSORPTION

s/no Adsorption Absorption

1. It is a process that occurs when a gas Absorption is the dissolution of gases in liquid or
or liquid solute accumulates on the assimilation of one substance by another
surface of a solid or a liquid forming
a molecular or atomic film (the
adsorbate)
2. It is a surface phenomenon It is an internal phenomenon

4b. ENUMERATE FIVE FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE EXTENT OF

ADSORPTION OF GASES BY SOLIDS

(i) Temperature
(ii) Chemical nature of the adsorbent
(iii) Surface area of the adsorbent
(iv) Partial pressure of the adsorbed gas
(v) Porosity or porous nature of the adsorbent

4C. EXPLAIN TYNDALL EFFECT

[Diagram]

Tyndall effect is the cloudy appearance in the path of light when a colloidal suspension is
illuminated by a beam of light and is observed at right angle to the beam. Tyndall beam appears
as simple luminating path of light when viewed with naked eyes. But with an ultra microscope
consist of discrete tiny spots, each spot indicating the presence of colloidal particles. The
presence of dust in the air is made apparent by the luminating of the beam of light if no dust is no
luminating will be observed.

Test ‘23

1a. EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING OBSERVATION:

(I) the spherical shape of drops of water: Since the cohesive force of water is greater than the
adhesive force therefore, water does not spread out rather it forms a spherical shapes of drops of
water

(ii) Alkalis are good emulsifiers for greasy - due to the presence of hydrophobic and
hydrophilic parts. Their hydrophobic part increases the alkalis or greasy.
 1B. IN TABULAR FORM DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PHYSIORPTION AND
CHEMISORPTIONS (CHARACTERISTICS)

s/no Physisorptions Chemisorptions

1. Extent of physical adsorption is smaller at Extent of physical adsorption is higher at
higher temperature higher temperature
2. Low heat of adsorption High heat of adsorption
3. It can be reversed by lowering the pressure It can’t be reversed
4. It depends on the nature of adsorbed It depends on the specific nature of the
molecules of solid adsorbent solid
5. Amount of substances absorbed results to Complete absorption of substance results
several layer of absorbate to a mono layer
6. There is no binding force like those found in There is a strong binding force between
ordinary chemical combinations. the adsorbent and the adsorbate.
7. This depends on the surface area of the solid This depends on the specific nature of the
adsorbent. solid.

1c. DEFINE STICKING PROBABILITY AND STATE ANY THREE FACTORS THAT
AFFECT THE EXTENT OF SURFACE COVERAGE OF ABSORBATES ON AN
ADSORBENT

It is the proportion of collision of molecules that leads to adsorption. It can be expressed by the
ratio of the absorbed molecules by surface to the rate of the evacuation of molecules with the
surface

Factors: (i) Temperature (ii) surface area of absorbent (iii) the partial pressure of the absorbed
gas

1d. WRITE A CONCISE NOTE ON THE REVERSIBILITY OR OTHERWISE OF

INTERACTION BETWEEN THE DISPERSE PHASE AND DISPERSION MEDIUM.

1. Reversible colloid

There is a strong interaction between the disperse phase and the dispersion medium. There is also
formation of stronger bonds between the two phases due to greater adsorption between the
disperse phase and the dispersion medium. The disperse phase of the already made colloid can be
separated from the dispersion medium by simply remixing.

2. Irreversible colloid

There is little or no interaction between the disperse phase and the dispersion medium. The solid
particles are kept disperse throughout the liquid phase because they are electrically charge. The
lyophobic colloid cannot be reconverted into colloid again by simply remixing with the
dispersion medium.
3. Suspended

These are colloidal dispersion of metals, their oxide, hydroxide, and other sols in the dispersion
medium. They are also irreversible because the precipitate remaining after the evaporation of
such colloidal dispersion do not form a sol again upon contact with the dispersion medium.
There is also weak interaction between the disperse phase and dispersion medium.

1e. ENUMERATE ANY FOUR ASSUMPTIONS EACH OF (A) LANGMUIR AND (II)
BET ADSORPTION ISOTHERM

Langmuir adsorption isotherm

1. Adsorption can only take place if the adsorption surface is completely covered with a
unimolecular layer of adsorbed gas.
2. Langmuir considered a kinetic balance between gas molecules striking the surface been
adsorbed and the adsorbed molecules been evaporated from the surface.
3. Langmuir considered the surface of an adsorbent to be made up of elementary spaces each of
which could adsorbed one gas molecule.
4. Langmuir assumed that the presence of a gas molecule on one surface does not the properties
of a neighboring species.
5. He assumed (θ ) to be the fraction of the surface occupied by gas molecules and the ration of
evaporation from the surface as R θ .

BET Adsorption Isotherm.

1. BET assumed that surface possess uniform localized side.

2. Adsorption of/at one side does not affect adsorption at the neirbouring side.
3. That molecules can be adsorbed in second, third and nth layer with the surface layer been
available.
4. The energy of adsorption in the first layer (E1) was assumed to be constant and that of the
succeeding layer to be El.
5. That each layer with an exposed surface is in equilibrium with the gas.

1f. WHY IS CONTACT ANGLE AN IMPORTANT PHENOMENON IN MATERIALS

CHARACTERIZATION?

Contact angle is an important phenomenon in material characterization because it provides

crucial insights into the wetting behavior of a liquid on a solid surface, helping to understand
surface properties, adhesion, and compatibility, which have significant implications in fields
such as chemistry, material science and engineering for applications ranging from coatings and
adhesives to biomaterials and microfluidics
1g. EXPLAIN BRIEFLY THE TERM COLLOIDAL SYSTEM

A colloidal system is a system that is primarily composed of two phases namely disperse phase
and dispersion medium of relevant shape and size. And essential condition for dispersed system
is the miscibility of the two phases. Colloidal system possesses particles that have sizes less than
a suspension but greater than a true solution, there particles ranges between 400-300nm to 1nm.
Colloidal system when formed passes through most filter papers and are invisible with an optical
microscope, but can be detected by light scattering a phenomenon known as Tyndall effect.
Dispersed particles in a colloidal system could be mono or poly dispersed depending on whether
the particles of the dispersed are of the same size or not.

Colloidal systems are characterized by the following.

1. Particles size between 0.5um to 1.0um.

2. Filterability cannot be separated by ordinary filter paper however by special filter paper
called ultra filter.
3. Possess little diffusibility power.
4. Possess cloudy appearance when viewed through light scattering known as Tyndall effect.
5. Possess large surface area which increases with decreasing particle size possess some surface
charged particles.