ANEES HUSSAIN

HANDOUT OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

S – and P – Block Elements:
Chemical reactions of the period 3 elements:
• Reaction with water:
1) Sodium has a highly exothermic reaction with cold water producing sodium
hydroxide and hydrogen
2) Magnesium has a very slight reaction with cold water to form magnesium
hydroxide and hydrogen but burns in steam with white flame to produce
magnesium oxide and hydrogen
3) Aluminium reacts slowly with steam to form protective layer of aluminium oxide
and hydrogen gas
4) Silicon, phosphorous and sulphur do not react with water
5) Chlorine reacts with water to produce HCl and HOCl
6) Argon does not react with water

• Reaction with oxygen:

1) Sodium burns in oxygen with yellow flame to produce sodium oxide and excess
of oxygen to produce sodium peroxide
2) Magnesium burns in oxygen with shite flame to give magnesium oxide
3) Aluminium reacts with oxygen to produce aluminium oxide
4) Silicon reacts with oxygen to produce silicon dioxide
5) White phosphorous reacts with oxygen to produce a mixture of P4O6 and P4O1o
6) Sulphur burns in oxygen with pale blue flame to produce sulphur dioxide gas
7) Chlorine and argon does not react with oxygen

PROPERTIES OF OXIDES

Formula State Conduction Bonding Reaction Reaction Reaction with base Nature
of with with
electricity water acid
Na2O Solid Good Ionic Form Form ---------- Basic
NaOH NaCl
MgO Solid Good Ionic Form Form ---------- Basic
Mg(OH)2 MgCl2
Al2O3 Solid Good Ionic ---------- Form Form sodium Amphoteric
AlCl3 tetrahydroxoaluminate
SiO2 Solid Very poor Covalent ---------- ---------- Form silicates and Acidic
glasses

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P4O10, Solid Nill Covalent P4O10 ---------- Form phosphates, Acidic
P4O6 reacts to hydrogen and di
form hydrogen phosphates
H3PO4
SO2, SO3 Gas Nill Covalent SO3 ---------- Form sulphates Acidic
reacts to sulphites and
form hydrogen sulphites
H2SO4
Cl2O7, Liquid Nill Covalent Cl2O7 ---------- Form chlorates Acidic
ClO2 reacts to
form
HClO4

PROPERTIES OF CHLORIDES

Formula State Boiling Conduction Bonding Reaction pH

Point(oC) of electricity with water

NaCl Solid 1465 Good Ionic Hydrtaion 7

MgCl2 Solid 1418 Good Ionic Hydrolyze 6
AlCl3 Solid 423 Very poor Covalent Hydrolyze 3
SiCl4 Liquid 57 Nill Covalent Hydrolyze 2
PCl3, PCl5 Liquid, Solid 74, 163 Nill Covalent Hydrolyze 2

S2Cl2 Liquid 136 Nill Covalent Hydrolyze 2

PROPERTIES OF HYDROXIDES

1) Sodium and magnesium hydroxides are ionic and basic. Both react with acids to form
salts
2) Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. React with acid and base to form salt
3) Hydroxides of Si, P, S and Cl are acidic. Acidic character increases from left to right
ALKALI METALS:
Trends in reactivity with water:
The reaction of alkali metals with water is highly exothermic. Reactivity increases down the
group. K, Rb, Cs reacts with ice also. Li, Na and K are less dense than water

Reactions with oxygen:

Li forms normal oxide, sodium form golden yellow per oxide while other alkali metals form
super oxide. Normal oxides of other alkali metals (other than Li) are formed by reducing
peroxides, nitrites, and nitrates with metals. Normal oxides reacts with water to form hydroxides
whereas per oxides and super oxides are strong oxidizing agents and reacts with water to give
hydrogen per oxide and oxygen gas. Oxides of alkali metals reacts with dilute acids to form salt
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Reaction with chlorine:

Alkali metals react with halogens to give halides. Li, Na reacts slowly with chlorine than K, Rb
and Cs. Molten Na burns with a yellow flame in the atmosphere of chlorine to form NaCl

Nitrates and Carbonates:

Carbonates of alkali metals are highly stable towards heat and stability increases down the group
whereas nitrates decomposes on strong heating to corresponding nitrite and oxygen gas (except
Li nitrate which decomposes into Li2O, NO2 and O2)
Flame Test
Li → Choclate Red/Brown
Na → Golden Yellow
K → Pale Violet
Rb→ Violet
Cs → Blue
Cu → --------- Blue-Green
Be → ---------
Mg → --------
Ca → Brick Red
Ba → Apple Green
Sr→ Chromium Red
Pb → -------- Greyish-white

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ALKALINE EARTH METALS:

Trends in reactivity with water:
Be does not react with water while magnesium reacts with hot water to produce magnesium
oxide and hydrogen gas and reacts very slightly with cold water to magnesium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas whereas calcium, strontium and barium reacts more vigorously with cold water

Reactions with oxygen and Nitrogen:

Be,Mg and Ca forms normal oxides whereas Sr and Ba forms super oxides. BeO and MgO are
insoluble in water while rest are soluble in water. BeO is amphoteric while rest are basic oxides.
Basic character increases down the group. BeO is covalent while rest are ionic
They react with nitrogen to form nitrides. All of them are soluble in water. Be nitride is volatile
while rest are non-volatile

Trends in solubility of hydroxides, sulphates and carbonates:

Be and Mg hydroxides are insoluble in water while rest of them are soluble in water. Solubility
increases down the group. Suspension of Mg hydroxide is called milk of magnesia and is used to
remove acidity of stomach while Ca hydroxide is used as lime water
Solubility of sulphates decreases down the group. Be and Mg sulphates are fairly soluble, Ca
sulphate is sufficiently soluble while Sr and Ba sulphates are almost insoluble
Carbonates of alkaline earth metals are insoluble in water. Their solubility decreases down the
group. However they dissolve in water containing CO2 forming bicarbonates

Trends in thermal stability of Carbonates and Nitrates:

Carbonates of alkaline earth metals decomposes to give CO2. Stability of carbonates increases
down the group
Nitrates of alkaline earth metals decomposes to give metal oxide, NO2 and oxygen gas. Stability
of nitrates increases down the group

Peculiar behavior of Be:

Be is the hardest of all the elements of its group
Melting and boiling points of Be are the highest
It forms covalent compounds
It does not react with water
It does not react with directly with hydrogen to form hydrides
It react with alkalies to from hydrogen gas
Its oxides and hydroxides are amphoteric
Its carbide decomposed by water to form methane while carbides of other alkaline earth metals
decomposed by water to form acetylene
Its nitride is volatile while nitrides of other alkaline earth metals are non-volatie
Its salts cannot have more than four molecules of water of crystallization

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It also form stable complex compounds
GROUP III – A
GENERAL
1: Elements of group III – A are consisted of boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga),
indium (In) and thallium (Tl). They have three electrons in the outermost shell. Two
electrons are in the s – orbital and one unpaired in the p – orbital.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTS OF III – A

2: Their atomic sizes increase down the group.
3: Melting and boiling points decrease down the group, but gallium shows abnormal
behaviour. Ionization energies, electron affinities and electronegativities along with the
heats of sublimations decrease down the group.
4: B, Al and Ga show the oxidation states of +3, but indium and thallium also show the
oxidation state of +1 due to the inert pair effect.
5: Boron is a semi – metal and is close to non – metallic character. Other elements of this
group are metallic and good conductors of electricity.
6: Elements of III – A form oxides of different natures. B2O3 is acidic, Al2O3 and Ga2O3 are
amphoteric, while In2O3 and Tl2O3 are basic in character.
7: All the elements react with halogens to form tri – halides with a general formula MX3 and
they do not react with hydrogen directly. Anyhow, their hydries are prepared indirectly.

GROUP IV – A ELEMENTS
8: The elements of group IV – A are carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn) and
lead (Pb). They have four electrons in the outermost shell. Two electrons are in the s –
orbitals and two in p sub – shell, while two electrons are unpaired.
9: Their melting and boiling points go on decreasing from upper to the downward direction.
Anyhow, their atomic and ionic radii increase down the group.
10: Their ionization energies, electron affinities and electronegativities decrease down the
group.
11: They show the valencies of four, but tin (Sn) and lead (Pb) can show the valency of two
as well due to inert pair effect. The property of allotropy is associated with all these
elements except lead.
12: Metallic character increases down the group. Carbon and silicon are non – metals.
Germanium is a metalloid while tin and lead are metals.
13: All the elements of this group have the property of catenation. This property decreases
down the group, while tin and lead hardly show this property.
14: The general formula of hydries is MH4.

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15: They react with oxygen to give mono – oxides or dioxides. The nature of dioxides
changes from acidic to amphoteric and then to basic down the group.
16: The general formula of halides is MX4. Anyhow, SnCI2 and PbCI2 are also common
compounds.
17: Carbon is widely distributed in nature in the forms of minerals as limestone, dolomite and
magnesite. Anyhow, carbon is present in natural products, closely associated with plants
and animals. It is also present in carbohydrates, proteins, oils and fats.
18: Silicon is a very abundant element and about 25% of the mass of the earth’s crust is due
to this element.
19: Silicon is not found free in nature, and it forms the major constituent of rocks in the form
of silica and silicates.

OXIDES OF CARBON AND SILICON

20: The most important compound of silicon found in the earth’s crust is SiO2 and its various
forms are rock crystal, amethyst quartz, smoky quartz, rose quartz and milky quartz.
Actually, it is called sand. The hydrated variety of quartz is called opal.
21: Carbon differs from its family members due to its very small size and maximum
electronegative character. It is non – metallic in nature and shows the valency of four.
22: It has an excellent property of catenation and is closely related with the organic
compounds.
23: Carbon has three oxides as CO, CO2 and C3O2. In CO, two bonds are covalent and one is
a coordinate covalent bond. CO is a polar molecule and its dipole moment is 0.112 D. CO
acts as a good ligand. CO2 is acidic in nature.
24: CO2 has a linear structure in which carbon is sp – hybridized and oxygen is sp2. The net
dipole moment of CO2 is zero and the solid CO2 which is called dry ice, has a face
centered cubic structure.
25: Silicon gives SiO2 with oxygen, which is called silica. SiO2 is transparent to light, and
can tolerate high temperature. It has low thermal expansion. It is an excellent insulator. It
is hard, brittle and elastic.
26: SiO2 is insoluble in water. It is not affected by acids and many other reagents. Anyhow, it
reacts with HF.
27: Quartz is one of the common crystalline forms of SiO2. Quartz is hard, brittle, refractor
and a colorless solid.
28: SiO2 differs from CO2 in structure. SiO2 has a giant network structure, while CO2 is a
linear molecule and can exist independently.
29: In SiO2, every silicon and oxygen atom is sp3 – hybridized, bond angles are 109.5o and
the whole chunk of silica is considered as one molecule.

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SILICATES
30: Silica glass, which is also called fused quartz, has a random structure. In the form of
viscous liquid, it has a random structure as well. When this liquid silica is cooled, it is not
crystallized readily.
31: Silicates are the derivatives of meta – silicic acid (H2SiO3). Na2SiO3 is an important
silicate, which is also called water glass, or soluble glass. It is soluble in water. Its
aqueous solution is strongly alkaline. It is used for the preparation of chemical garden.
32: Sodium silicate is used as filler in soap manufacture, in textile as a fire proof, for
furniture polish, in calicoprinting and as a preservatives of eggs.
33: Aluminium silicates are used to make porcelain and chinawars. They can be used to glaze
the stonewars. Chinawars are made from the mixture of kaolin, bone ash and feldspar.
34: Talc or soap stone is another important silicate with the formula Mg3H2(SiO3)4. It is
greasy to touch and is used in making cosmetics and some household articles.
35: Asbestos is a mixed silicate of calcium and magnesium with the formula CaMg3(SiO3)4.
It is used to make incombustible fabrics and hard board etc.

SILICONES
36: Silicones are produced when dichlorodimethyl silicon is treated with water.
37: The lowery silicones are oily liquid while higher members are waxy solids. They are
stable towards heat and chemical reagents. They are not wetted by water and are non –
toxic.
38: The viscosity of silicons oils doesn’t change that much with temperature as compared to
the petroleum oils.
39: Silicones oils are used in high temperature oil baths and high vacuum pumps. Silicon oils
are used for low temperature lubrication in making vaseline like greases.
40: Methyl silicones of high molar masses resemble rubber and are used as insulating
materials for electrical motors. Silicones are used to cover the surfaces of plastics,
asbestos, glass, leather, filter paper and blotting paper.

SEMICONDUCTORS
41: Germanium, selenium and silicon are important semiconductors. Electrical conductivity
of semi – conductors depends upon temperature.
42: When a semiconductor is heated, its resistance decreases and conductivity increases.
Similarly when a semiconductor absorbs light, the electrons become mobile and
conductivity increases.
43: Semi – conductors are used in transistors, which are used in radio, T.V, computers and
calculators.

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GROUP V – A
GENERAL PROPERTIES
44: The elements of group V – A are nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth.
45: They have five electrons in the outermost principal quantum number. Two are in s –
orbital and three in p – orbitals. The electron in p – orbitals are unpaired.
46: When they unpaired the electrons of s – orbital, they can show the oxidation states of five
instead of three, but nitrogen can not do so. Anyhow, antinomy and bismuth hesitate to
increases their oxidation number due to inert pair effect.
47: Except nitrogen, all elements of group V – A occur in the combined state. Nitrogen
constitutes approximately 80% of the earth’s atmosphere.
48: All the elements of group, V – A show allotropy except bismuth.
49: Nitrogen is a gas while other substances are solids. The melting and boiling points
steadily increases, but Bi shows abnormal behaviour.
50: The M.P of As is 816o C at 39 atm, while it sublimes at 615o C.
51: The ionization energies, electrons affinities and electronegativities decrease down the
group, however the densities decrease from upper to the downward direction.
52: Nitrogen and phosphorus are non – metals. As and Sb are metalloids while Bi is a metal.
53: The elements of group V – A gives the oxides of type M2O3, M2O4 and M2O5. Anyhow,
nitrogen also gives N2O and NO.
54: The elements of group V – A give the hydries of general formula MH3 and give trihalides
and pentahalides of general formula MX3 and MX5. Anyhow, nitrogen cannot give MX5.

NITROGEN
55: N2 differs from its family members in many respects. In diatomic form it exists in free
state. Moreover, it is chemically inert as compared to others.
56: Nitrogen exists in the combined state in living matter. In plants and animals it exists in
the form of proteins, urea and amino acids.

OXIDES OF NITROGEN
N2O
57: Nitrogen gives five oxides i.e. N2O, NO, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5.
58: N2O can be prepared by reaction of Zn and dil. HNO3 or by heating ammonium nitrate.
59: N2O is a colourless gas with a sweetish taste. It is also called laughing gas. It is heavier
than air and neutral to litmus.

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60: N2O is a supporter of combustion and supplies oxygen to P, Mg, Na, Cu, hydrogen and
NH3. In all these reaction, N2 gas is set free.
61: N2O is used as a propellant gas in whipped cream bombs, and is also used as mild
anaesthetic in dental and other minor surgical operations.

NO
62: NO gas is prepared by treating Cu with cold dilute HNO3.
63: NO is a colourless gas, heavier than air, sparingly soluble in H2O and neutral to litmus.
64: NO acts as an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent as well. It combines with FeSO4 and
K2SO4 to give nitroso derivatives. It is used as a catalyst in lead chamber process for
manufacture of H2SO4.

NO2
65: NO2 gas can be prepared by the reaction of Cu metal with conc. HNO3 or by heating
Pb(NO3)2.
66: NO2 is a reddish brown gas, has a pungent smell and is soluble in water. It forms blue
acidic solution and turns blue litmus red. At 14o C, it has deep brown colour, but as the
temperature falls its colour goes on fading and ultimately it gives colourless crystals at –
9o C.
67: NO2 gas is seriously affected by change in temperature.
68: NO2 reacts with non – metals and converts them into their oxides. It gives acid by
reacting with water and combines with alkalies to give salt and water. Moreover, it is a
good oxidizing agent.
69: NO2 is used as a rocket fuel and a starting material in manufacture of HNO3.

PHOSPHORUS
70: Phosphorus occurs in nature in the combined state as bone ash having 80% Ca3 (PO4)2.
Phosphorus is especially found in seeds, yolk of eggs, nerves, brain and bone – marrow.
71: Phosphorus exists in six allotropic forms, but three are more important i.e. white, red and
black.
72: White phosphorus is yellowish white waxy solid, soluble in benzene and Cl2, volatile in
nature and a poisonous substance. Its molecules are consisted of P4 and when heated
above 700oC, it dissociates to form P2 molecules. It has a cubic structure as P4 molecules.
73: Red phosphorus is obtained by heating white phosphorus. It exists in the form of macro
molecules. Black phosphorus is obtained by red phosphorus to high temperature and
pressure.

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PHOSPHORUS HALIDES
74: Phosphorus gives two types of halides i.e. PX3 and PX5. PCl3 is obtained by reaction of
phosphorus with Cl2 or by treating phosphorus with SOCl2.
75: The structure of PCl3 is pyramidal just like NH3, but the bond angles are just less than
those of NH3.
76: PCl3 is a colourless liquid but PCl3 is a yellowish white crystalline solid. The structure of
PCl3 is trigonal bipyramid and P completes its ten electrons in its outermost valence
shells.

OXIDES OF PHOSPHORUS
77: Phosphorus gives variety of oxides. P2O3 is prepared by the reaction of phosphorus with
limited supply of oxygen or by reacting phosphorus with N2O at 600oC.
78: P2O3 combines with H2O to give H3PO3. It is a white wax – like solid and has a garlic
smell. It is a highly poisonous substance.
79: P2O5 can be prepared by the reaction of phosphorus with oxygen or by reacting
phosphorus with CO2.
80: P2O5 is a white powdery solid. It gives strong phosphorescence after illumination. It is a
volatile solid and sublimes at 360oC.
81: It reacts with water to give H3PO4 and is a very strong dehydrating reagent. It is
extensively used as a drying and dehydrating reagent in the laboratory.

OXYACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS
82: Phosphorus gives various oxyacids, but H3PO3 and H3PO4 are important. H3PO3 is
prepared by the reaction of P2O3 or PCl3 with water.
83: H3PO3 is a white solid and is highly soluble in water. It has reducing properties and can
reduce CuSO4, AgNO3 and KMnO4.
84: H3PO4 can be prepared by the reaction of phosphorus pentaoxide with water.
85: H3PO4 is a hard substance having rhombic prisms and soluble in water in all proportions.
86: H3PO4 is a tribasic acid and is influenced by the temperature.
87: H3PO4 is used as a nerve tonic, in the manufacture of fertilizers and for the manufacture
of dyes and enamels.

GROUP VI – A
GENERAL PROPERTIES
88: Elements of group VI – A are O, S, Se, Te and Po. They have six electrons in the
outermost principal quantum number. Two electrons are in s – orbital and four in p –
orbitals.

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89: They have 2 unpaired electrons in p – orbitals and can show the oxidation states +2. But
if they do the unpairing of electrons, then the oxidation number can become +4 and +6.
This is due to availability of d – orbitals.
90: Oxygen can not do the unpairing of electrons and mostly shows the valency of two.
91: Their melting and boiling points increases down the group, but phosphorus shows
abnormal behaviour. Their densities also increase down the group.
92: Their ionization energies and electron affinities decrease down the group.
93: Oxygen exists in the form of O2 molecule. Other elements of this group are octa – atomic
and have cyclic structures.
94: Almost all the elements of this group show allotropy.
95: Oxygen shows the abnormal behaviour in its family members. Oxygen is the most widely
distributed and is common among all elements. It is 46.6 % of our earth’s crust.
96: Sulphur occurs in the form of ores and minerals and also occurs in many organic
compounds in animal and vegetable products like onions, garlic, mustard, hair, oils, eggs
and proteins.

IMPORTANT INFORMATIONS GROUP VII – A

GENERAL INFORMATIONS ABOUT HALOGENS
97: Elements of group VII – A are called halogens and they are named as fluorine (F),
chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At).
98: The word ‘halogen’ is derived from the Greek word ‘halos’, which means salt and
‘genes’ means born.
99: Astatine was discovered in 1940. It is an unstable element, is radioactive with half life of
8.3 hours.
100: Halogens have seven electrons in the outermost shell. Two electrons are in the s – orbitals
and five in p – orbitals. One of the electrons in p – orbital is unpaired and they normally
show the oxidation state of – 1. Anyhow, when they promote the electrons in the
available d – orbitals, their oxidation states increase and become +3, +5 and +7. Fluorine
can not do so.

PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS
101: Fluorine and chlorine are gases. Bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid.
102: All the halogens are colored and there is a progressive deepening of the color from upper
to the downward direction.
103: All the halogens have pungent shell and unpleasant odour.
104: Their atomic radii, ionic radii and covalent radii increase down the group, just like their
melting points, boiling points and densities.

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105: The ionization energy values, electron affinities and electronegativities along with the
bond dissociation energies of halogens decrease from upper to the downward direction.
106: Halogens accept the electrons are reduced, so they are good oxidizing agents. Their
oxidizing properties decrease down the group.
107: The solubilities of the halogens decrease from chlorine to iodine. Fluorine can not be
dissolved in water because it decomposes water by librating O2 and O3.
108: Fluorine shows the peculiar behaviour in its family members due to its very small size,
high electronegativity, very low bond dissociation energy and non – availability of the d
– orbital for the promotion of electron. Moreover, fluorine is more reactive and its
halogen acid HF is exceptionally weak acid.
109: Halogens are oxidizing substance and the factors like heat of dissociation, electron
affinities, hydration energies and heat of vaporization control the oxidizing properties.
110: Due to great oxidizing capabilities of fluorine and chlorine, they can act as decolorizing
agents. For example, they can oxidize dyes to colorless substances. Litmus and universal
indicator can be decolorized. Chlorine can be used in bleaching powder.

PREPARATIONS OF HALOGENS ACID

111: Halogen forms the halogen acids as HF, HBl, HBr and HI.
112: HF can be prepared by the reaction of calcium fluorine on concentrated sulphuric acid.
HCl is prepared commercially by the combination of H2 and Cl2 or by treating NaCl with
sulphuric acid. HBr is prepared from H2 and Br2 in the presence of platinum mixed with
asbestos at high temperature. HI is produced directly by the reduction of elemental iodine
suspension by hydrazine.

PROPERTIES OF HALOGEN ACIDS

113: The melting and boiling points of halogen acids gradually increase from HF to HI, but
their heats of fusion and heats of vaporization decrease. Their bond dissociation energies
also decrease.
114: HF is a colorless volatile liquid, highly soluble in water, bad conductor of electricity and
has strong hydrogen bonding.
115: HF attacks on glass and it is handled in fluorine containing plastics. When HF is
absolutely dry, it is stored in copper or stainless steel vessels.
116: Gaseous HF molecules consist of an equilibrium mixture of monomers of HF and its
hexamer (HF)6. There are chains and rings of HF molecules. Some of the chains and
rings are also present in the vapour phase. For this reason, HF has relatively low boiling
point than the rest of the hydrogen - bonded compounds.
117: Halogen acids have reducing properties and this property increases from HF to HI.
Similarly, their acid strengths also increase from HF to HI.
118: The abnormal behaviour of HF from other halogen acids is due to its hydrogen bonding.

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GENERAL INFORMATIONS OF OXIDES OF HALOGENS

119: Halogens react with oxygen to give oxides, but they are prepared indirectly. It depends
upon the oxidation state of the halogens that which oxides is to be formed.
120: One of the important oxides of fluorine is O3F2.
121: O3F2 is prepared by passing electrical current through a mixture of O2 and F2. At 363oC,
O3F2 is a dark red viscous liquid but turns to reddish brown solid at 350oC. It is converted
to O2F2 on decomposition or by a reaction with fluorine.

OXIDES OF CHLORINE
122: Oxides of chlorine are generally unstable. ClO2 is prepared by the reduction of NaClO3
with NaCl or by treating KClO3 with sulphuric acid and oxalic acid.
123: ClO2 is a dark yellow pungent smelling gas, and can be condensed to a dark liquid with
boiling point of 11oC. It dissolves in water and gives a mixture of HCl and HClO3. It is
stable in dark and paramagnetic in nature.
124: ClO2 is an antiseptic used, for the purification of water, to bleach the cellulose material,
to improve the quality of low grade fats and oils and to make the wool unshrinkable.
125: Cl2O7 is prepared by treating HClO4 with P2O5 at – 10oC. It is colorless oily liquid,
extremely explosive in nature and slowly reacts with water giving HClO4.

OXIDES OF BROMINE
126: Br2O can be prepared by the action of bromine vapours on mercuric oxide. It is a stable
substance in the dark in CCl4 at – 20oC and has oxidizing properties.

OXIDES OF IODINE
127: I2O5 can be prepared by heating HlO3 at 240oC. It is a white crystalline solid, insoluble in
organic solvents and is stable up to 300oC. It is an oxidizing agent and can oxidize HCl,
H2S and CO.

SELF OXIDATION – REDUCTION REACTION

128: When chlorine reacts with NaOH at 15oC, NaCl and NaClO are produced. When the
reaction is carried out at 70oC, NaCl and NaClO3 are produced. In these reactions, the
chlorine atom in Cl2 is oxidized and reduced simultaneously. This is called
disproportionation reaction.

GENERAL INFORMATION OF OXYACIDS OF HALOGENS

129: Halogens give oxyacids of formulas HXO, HXO2, HXO3 and HXO4. Bromine and iodine
do not give HBrO2 and HIO2. Fluorine also does not give such oxyacids.
130: The oxyacids are unstable compounds and they cannot be isolated in the pure form.
131: They are stable in aqueous solutions or in the form of their salts.

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132: The hydrogen atoms in oxyacids are connected with halogens through oxygen atoms.
Greater the number of oxygen atoms greater the acid strength. Similarly, greater the
number of oxygen atoms in the series of oxyacids of halogens, greater is the thermal
stability and greater the oxidation number of the halogens.
133: The oxyacids of chlorine are stronger than those of bromine which are stronger than that
of iodine with the same number of oxygen atoms. When the oxidation numbers of
halogen atoms increase and the number of oxygen atoms increase, the oxidizing
properties of the acids decrease.

HClO4
134: HClO4 is prepared by the reaction of KClO4 with concentrated H2SO4.
135: Anhydrous HClO4 is a colorless mobile liquid, hygroscopic in nature, gives fumes
strongly in the moist air and dissolves in water with hissing sound. It is a highly
dangerous acid and cause severe wounds on the skin.
136: HClO4 is an oxidizing agent. Its dissolving power is highest and when pure HClO4 is
heated, it decomposes with explosion. Moreover, it reacts with organic substances
violently and it is considered as a valuable analytical reagent.

GROUP VIII
OCCURRENCE OF NOBLE GASES
137: Elements of group VIII are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe)
and radon (Rn). They are called noble gases or inert gases.
138: Their outer most shell is complete having eight electrons except helium, which has only
two electrons. They are least reactive due to complete octet.
139: Helium is detected in the chromosphere of the sun. It is the second most abundant
element in the universe. Helium present in the earth is due to emission from radioactive
substances.
140: Helium and neon are isolated from air by liquefaction. Argon was discovered by Ramsay
and obtained from the liquefaction of air. Krypton is also present in air to the extent of 1
ppm. Xenon is present in the air to the extent of 0.08 ppm. Radon is alpha – decay
product of radium.

PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES

141: All the noble gases are colorless and odourless, but when subjected to high voltage, they
give different colors in the spectra. Neon glows reddish and its discharge is most intense
at ordinary voltage and current. Krypton has brilliant green and orange spectral lines.
142: Their melting and boiling points increase down the group due to the increasing
polarizabilities. Their ionization energies decrease down the group. They are least soluble
in water but solubility increase down the group. Their heat of vaporization increase down
the group.

Prepared By: Tayyab Nisar/Bilal Nisar

 ANEES HUSSAIN

COMPOUNDS OF Xe
143: Xenon gives the compounds with fluorine and oxygen and the oxidation states of Xe vary
from + 2 to + 8.
144: XeF2 is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, melts at 140oC and can be
sublimed. It is sufficiently stable and can be stored for indefinite period in nickel
containers.
145: XeF2 is a white crystalline solid at room temperature with melting point of 114oC and can
be sublimed easily. It is less soluble than XeF6.
146: XeF6 is a white solid, and melts at 48oC to give yellow liquid. It can be sublimed at room
temperature and can be stored in nickel container for indefinite period.
147: Fluorides of xenon react with hydrogen and xenon is set free. Similarly, they react with
mercury, ammonia, water and oxides of nitrogen to make them xenon free.
148: XeOF4 is a colorless substance, a mobile liquid and can be stored in a nickel container.
When it reacted with water, it undergoes hydrolysis and gives explosive XeO3.
149: XeO3 is a crystalline solid, a non – volatile substance and soluble in water. It is weakly
acidic, explodes violently when dry. It also explodes violently by heating, rubbing and
pressing.

USES OF NOBLE GASES

150: Helium is used in the treatment of asthma, filling of weather balloons, producing low
temperature, preservation of food, producing inert atmosphere, as a shielding gas in
signal lights and in atomic reactors.
151: Neon is used in making neon – advertising signs, in high voltage indicators and T.V tubes
and in making glass leasers.
152: Argon is used for filling the electrical bulbs, in Geiger counters, for producing inert
atmosphere, filling of fluorescent tubes and radio valves. By mixing with neon in neon
signs, the light of varing colors can be obtained.
153: Krypton is used for filling fluorescent tubes in flash lamps and for the measurement of
thickness of sheets.
154: Xenon is used in bactericidal lamps and in atomic energy field in bubble chambers.

Prepared By: Tayyab Nisar/Bilal Nisar