LIQUEFACTION OF SOILS DURING EARTHQUAKES by Kenji Ishihara September, 1974‘The following is a summary of the presentations made at the seminars at Waterways Experiment Station, Vickburg, Mississippi during the visit from September 1 to 6, 1974.INTRODUCTION TO LIQUEFACTION To furnish rough idea of liquefaction, damage ineurred at the time of the Niigata earthquake of 1964 was explained. In Niigata, where sand deposits in lowland area are widespread, the damage was primarily associated with the liquefaction of loose sand deposits. Buildings not embedded deep in firm strata sank or tilted. Underground structures, such as septic and storage tanks, sewage conduits and manholes floated up 2 meter or two above the ground level. In flat fields, sand flows and mud volcano ejected water and sand 2 to 3 minutes after the quake. Sand deposits 20 to 30 cm thick covered the entire city, as if the whole area were devastated by a sand flood. Damage to modern bridges was also extensive. Most notable was the toppling of five girders of the Showa bridge which crosses the Shinano river in downtown area The foundation piles were bent excessively due to the loss of lateral resistance of the riverbed sand deposit, and this caused the simply supported girders to fall. The features of damage as above were demonstrated and the importance of liquefaction as a potential hazard to sandy grounds was emphasized. . mjCASE STUDIES OF LIQUEFACTION IN JAPAN Four biggest earthquakes that ever hit alluvial plains of Japan were taken up for case history studies of liquefaction. These are Mino-Owari earthquake of 1891, Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, Fukui earthquake of 1948, and Niigata earthquake of 1964, Based on the detailed account in old documents, several spots which had certainly developed liquefaction were pinpointed and the soil profiles at these sites were sought. As a result, it was found that there are three types of alluvium in which liquefaction could occur. (4) Sand deposit : Sand with different grain compositions exist in layer all the way through the depth of at least 20m. The sand deposit in Niigata typically represents this type of soil profiles. (41) Sandwitehed sand deposit : A sand layer with a thick ness of 3 to 10 m exists at relatively shallow depths. On top and underneath this sand layer, there exist silt or clay strata that are not liquefable. @his type is found in many recent deposits in alluvial plains throughout Japan. (411), Sand layer containing gravel : Sand layers containing coarse materials could develop liquefaction, if the worst situations are encountered like severity of shaking and pres- surized water. C2]IN-SITU TESTS USING VIBRATION PILES AND EXPLOSIVES. Although method of approach has been developed based on laboratory tests in which prediction of liquefac- tion potential is feasible, there are some influential factors that can not fully be taken into account. These may inelude : effect of cementation among sand grains in old sediments ; effect of inclusion of fine or coarse mate- rials in basically sand deposit ; and Effect of layered structures in relation to existence of unliquefable soil pockets and deposits. For proper evaluation of these fac- tors, in-situ tests become necessary. (1) Vibratory pile driving test. Before a pile is driven, several holes are drilled colse to the pile to install accelerometers and piezometers Then, the pile is driven by a vertically oscillating vibra- tor and simultaneous measurements are made of the pore pres- sures and accelerations developed in the nearby boreholes. As the pile penetrates, the pore pressure increases together the acceleration. Drawing attention to the increasing stage of pore pressure change, the amplitude of vertical accelera~ tion was correlated with the pore pressure which has been reached for the first time. Further, the acceleration required to increase pore pressures by 10 % of the initial overburden pressure was correlated with the blow count of the standard. 3]penetration tests. Results of four tests carried out under nearly similar conditions at different sites revealed that, although the acceleration needed to raise a certain pore pressure increases almost in proportion to N-value at a particular deposit, this relation is not uniquely defined for all deposits considered, but rather changes depending upon the origin and composition of the deposits. Based on the results of four tests, it was suggested that the recent fills as old as, say, 50 years are considered susceptible to liquefaction, whereas the old fills in the area of nat ural levee appears strong enough. (41) Blasting test Before blasting, piezometers and accelerometers are embedded in nearby drilled holes. Then, explosive % charges are detonated. Piezometers record an initial peak pore pressure and the resulting residual pore pressure. Accelation records monitored by the conventional low-frequency pockup do not yield reliable results vecause the equivalent frequency involved in the first peck in as high as 500 to 1000 HZ. So, attention was drawn only on the result of pore pressure measurement. A method was suggested in which the relationship between the initial peak and residual pore pres- sure can be correlated with the result of friaxial shear tests on laboratory samples. C4]STRESS CONDITION IN THE GROUND DURING EARTHQUAKES ‘The stress systems to which soils under ground level are subjected during earthquakes may be devided into two classes: a deviator stress system resulting from upward propaga- tion of compressional waves; and a system of shear stress act- ing on horizontal planes caused by shear waves coming up from underlying layers. It has been costomarily assumed that the deviator stress due to longitudinal wave propagation has only small influence on the pore pressure inducement in the ground. Whether this assumption is adequate or not can be discussed in two steps as follows. (1) Magnitude of vertical motions : According to a number of accelerogram records taken during past earthquakes, it is known that the amplitude of motions in the horizontal direction is two to three times greater than that of the vertical direc- tion. Therefore, the deviator stress due to this cause is con- sidered small. (41) Magnitude of deviator stress : The soil element under level ground is not free from lateral deformation during the pasaage of compressional wave, and accordingly, the deviator stress is a function of Poisson's ratio alone. Poisson’s.ratio in saturated soils is close to 0.5, and, with this value, it is readily verified that the deviator stress is very small and can be neglected. . (5)LIQUEFACTION IN TRIAXIAL TESTS UNDER IRREGULAR LOADING ‘The most sophisticated loading equipment for dynamic laboratory test would be the electrically controlled hydraulic machine. This is particularly called MPS-system in the United States. If it is incorporated with a data recorder, any time sequence of random wave patterns recorded on a magnetic tape can be retrieved as an analog command, and transformed into the time-history of stress change. When this machine is to be used for liquefaction study, some difficulty is encounted During loading, samples reduce its rigidity, upon initiation of liquefaction, to less than one-twenties, and this much of acute change in sample stiffness mades it difficult for the machine to follow the commanded time history of stress. By using @ rubber joint in a loading ram of triaxial shear test apparatus, this difficulty was overcome. Various kinds of acceleration time histories were used to test saturated sand samples. It was found that, in triaxial tests, samples exhibit different pore pressure enhancements between when the maximum peak is oridented down- wards and when it is directed upwards, This is considered the ease because triaxial apparatus has different response character- istics between triaxial compression and extension, Using the acceleration ¢ime histories taken at the time of Niigata and Tokachioki earthquakes, the maximum peak deviator stress divided by the initial confining pressure, which is required to cause (6Jliquefaction, was determined for each wave form used. At the same time, the stress ratio require to bring about liquefaction under 20 cycles of uniform loading was determined by the same triaxial test apparatus. By comparing between these types of tests, it was found that, for the case of shock type of loading defined as a loading in which the maximum stress occurs in a few cycles, the corresponding 20-cycle failure amplitude ranged between 47 and 61 % of the maximum stress in the irregular loading. The cor- responding stress ratio for the case when the stress builds up more slowly was in the range of 56 to 65 %. ‘These ratios are con- sidered useful when one tries to convert the stress ratio at lique- faction under uniform loading into the stress ratio under random loading. {71LIQUEFACTION IN HOLLOW CYLINDER TORSION TESTS UNDER IRREGULAR LOADING In the previous work using triaxial test apparatus, it was pointed out that it usually produces greater pore pressure on the side of extension than on the side of compres- sion. Because of such asymmetry inherent to the apparatus with respect to the pore pressure characteristics, difference in the resistance to liquefaction appears when asymmetric time histories in stress change are imposed on triaxial samples. In view of this disadvantage, it was considered highly neces- sary to perform similar dynamic tests by means of the other types of apparatus in which response is essentially symmetric with respect to the sample displacement which changes direc- tion alternately. For this reason, torsion shear test apparatus was adopted. Irregular time histories taken as acceleration records at various recent earthquakes were converted to the torsional stress and applied to hollow cylindrical samples con- solidated under uniform ambient pressures. Relationship between the maximum stress ratio and residual pore pressure was establish- ed for each wave form used. Then, the stress ratio required to cause liquefaction under irregular loading was determined. At the same time, tests employing uniform load patterns were conduct— ed to determine the stress ratio at liquefaction under 20 cycles of uniform loading. By comparing between these two types of 8}test results, it was concluded that the reduction factor as defin- ed by the ratio of torsion shear stress causing liquefaction under 20-cycle uniform loading and irregular loading ranges from 0.47 to 0.60 for shock type wave pattern and from 0.62 to 0.65 for vibration type wave form. An alternative way of establish- ing equivalence relationship between uniform cyclic and random loading conditions may be.to find out the number of stress appli- cation in uniform loading to cause liquefaction with the same stress ratio as that required under random loading condition. It was shown that, in the case of shock type loading, the equiv- alent number of cycles required to cause liquefaction under uniform loading was about 2 to 3, while 6 to 7 cycles of uniform stress application is necessary for the vibration type of loading. [9]YIELDING OF SAND IN TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION When an attempt is made to establish a deformation model of sand under cyclic stresses, it 1s first mandatory to have some criterion by which to perceive at which stage of loading, unloading and reloading, plastic or elastic deformation takes place. This criterion is furnished by what is called yield loci. In a virgin state where no stress has ever been applied, yield loci is considered to spread over the entire stress space. As the stress is applied with concomitant occurrence of plastic deformation, yield loci is erased and in the stress domain where yield loci have disappeared the stress change produces only elastic deformation. In other words, the yield loci are a series of curved lines in stress space which are wiped off whenever stresses are changed across it. For clays, Schofield and Wroth proposed oval-shaped yield loci, but as a result of Poorooshasb's work it was shown that yield loci more like straight curves are more correct representation of real phenomenon for sands. Using Poorooshasb's procedure, a number of triaxial compression tests were conducted in which samples of sand were subjected to complicated stress paths As a result of studies, it turned out that yield loci are near- ly straight lines radiating from the origin, having a general [10]shape such that the deviator stress at yield becomes greater as the mean principal stress increases. Tt was also shown that the yield loci is determined almost uniquely irrespective of the stress history which the sample has ever undergone. It was recognized that the yield loci change to some extent depend- ing upon the density of the sample, with looser samples requiring greater deviator stress to cause yielding under a given mean prin- cipal stress. Some of the test results conducted in the domain of triaxial extension have also disclosed the similar conclusions about the yield loci. : (njANISOPROPY IN YIELDING By the term isotropy, it is meant that once yield loci are erased due to a stress change in the domain of triaxial compression, the corresponding portion of stress space in the domain of triaxial extension must be erased at the same time even though there occurs actually no stress change. In other words, the yielding in one direction of loading wipes off the virgin characteristics of deformation in every other direction of loading as if it were erased by actual application of loads. In contrast to this, when virgin characteristics of sand in one direction of loading is not affected by the previous loading in the other direction, plastic yielding is called anisotropic. As a result of a number of tests, it was known that, when shear stress in triaxial extension is removed from a strain level smaller than some limit, the behavior in subsequent triaxial compression is almost the same as if the sample did not experience a previous cycle in extension. This conclusion was generalized as follows. The sand behavior during shear in one direction is not influenced by the stress history previously applied in the opposite direction of loading, whether drained or undrained, if the amplitude of the previous stress is small and kept within some limit. : 012]DRAINED DEFORMATION MODEL OF SAND UNDER CYCLIC STRESSES On the basis of the fundamental rules investigated before, a deformation model is devised by which it is possible to evaluate the performance of sand under cyclic stresses with different amplitude and direction. The proposed model consists of the four basic postulates as follows, (1) Volume change characteristics : Volume changes are assumed to be a function of stress ratio alone. The relation must be given first based on static drained tests. (4i) Shear strain characteristics : Shear strains are assumed to inerease in proportion to stress ratio and to have nothing to do with the stress history (441) Yield condition: Yielding 1s assumed to occur whenever yield loci are crossed over by changes in stress ratio (iv) Directional independency of yield condition : Yield condition in one direction of loading is assumed not to be affected by the yielding which has occurred in other direction. On the basis of the postulates as above, it 1s possible to predict how volume change and shear strain progress under a given sequence of stress change. This mehtod proves applicable also for prediction of volume change and shear stress under strain-controlled cyclic loading. . (131UNDRAINED DEFORMATION MODEL UNDER CYCLIC STRESSES AND LIQUEFACTION Drained deformation model mentioned above can be readily extended for the case of undrained deformation under eyelic stress. In undrained loading, effect of load repetition comes out as the increase in pore pressure with eventual liquefaction. Therefore, it is desirable to have some criterion on the initiation of liquefaction. Including this criterion, five postutates as follows are suggested to establish a model for undrained deformation. (4) Pore pressure characteristics : Undrained stress paths obtained in triaxial static tests must be given. It may be assumed that the stress paths have the same shape for any consolidation pressure from which shearing starts. (41) Shear strain characteristics : Shear strains are assumed to be a function of stress ratio alone (441) Yield condition : Yielding is assumed to occur whenever yield loci are crossed over by changes in stress ratio. (iv) Directional independency of yield condition : Yield condition in one direction of loading is assumed not to be affect- ed by the yielding which has occurred in other direction. (v) Onset condition of liquefaction : Liquefaction is assumed to take place whenever effective stress ratio becomes equal to the tangent of the angle of phase transformation. (14)The model based on these five postulates was used to assess the gradual increase in pore pressure and deformation behavior of sand under various loading conditions : static stress-controlled random and uniform loading ; static strain-controlled loading ; and dynamic stress-controlled random loading. As a result, it was shown that the proposed model is useful for prediction of pore pressure enhancement’ and consequent liquefaction. (351PREDICTION OF LIQUEFACTION BASED ON RESPONCE ANALYSIS : Before applying the proposed model to of pore pressures in the field, it is necessary time history of shear stress to be developed in during earthquakes. This can be known by means analysis of the ground. The computer program " the prediction to know the the ground of response SHAKE " was used for this purpose. A site in Niigata city where extensive Liquefaction developed in the 1964 earthquake was taken up for studies. Since the acceleration records on the ground surface are known, together with the detailed soil profile, it was possible to compute the shear stress time histories at this site. The irregular changes in shear stress were in- corporated into the proposed model and time changes in pore pressure at various depths were predicted. As a result, it was shown that liquefaction must have developed at depths 0.3 m to 1.0 mat the time of the 1964 earthquake. [36]EVALUATION OF DENSITY OF SAND Evaluation of density of sand has customarily been made in terms of relative density. However, it seems that the relative density is not necessarily the most versatile way of expressing the state of sand packing in relation to liquefaction or compaction potential. As a matter of fact, it has been known that some sands exhibit different liquefaction potential even though their relative densities are the same, This difference was considered attributable to the defference in grain size distribution of the materials, and the liquefaction potential was experimentally determined for each category of grain size characteristics. However, if a better defined index is used other than relative density, the above difference may be logically interpreted and properly embodied into more general concept. Since liquefaction potential is htough of as largely depending upon how far a sand can be packed from the current state of void ratio, the index @ -@ min may be considered the better way of representing the density of materials. The value € -Cmim is equal to (1-Dr)( max- min). Then when a given sand is of concern, @max-@min is fixed, and, therefore, the greater the relative density, the less likely liquefaction to oceur, When more than two sands are of concern having the : (271same relatively density, Dr is now fixed, and the sand with greater value of @max-@ min is more likely to develop liquefac- tion. The above concept was checked by a set of triaxial cyclic tests using many different granular materials, and it was shown that the concept seems promising. The advantages of adopting P- €min as a density parameter, instead of relative density, are as follows (4) Effect of density and grading 1s expressed jointly, and there is no need to investigate the effect of grain character- isties seperately from the effect of relative density. (41) There is no need to measure the maximum void ratio, @max, which could be the source of error if relative density were to be used. : : (18)LIQUEFACTION OF UNDISTURBED SILTY SANDS Whether a sand containing fines can liquefy or not has not been fully investigated. Fortunately, for a sand containing more than 30 % fines, it is easy to secure undisturbed samples by means of thin walled piston sampler. Special device was built up to pull out undisturbed samples out of 3" in diameter thinwalled sampler, and to put them in place in a triaxial chamber. After confirming full saturation, cyclic axial loads were applied to the samples and the stress ratio required to induce liquefaction was correlated with the number of cyclic load application. after this tests, samples were remolded, and the disturbed samples were made by the hilp of forming Jacket. Cyclic axial loads were then applied to determine the stress ratio at liquefac- tion. As a result of such tests, it was shown that the undis- turbed samples showed 10 to 30 % stronger resistance to liquefac- tion in otherwise identical conditions. (39)DISCUSSIONS It was impressive to learn that WES engineers are much concerned with the evaluation of in-situ density of sand and much work has already been done in connection with the site investigations for earth dams. They have tried even to test undisturbed sands under cyclic loading conditions, which appears to offer truly precious development in this field. : [20]DISTRIBUTION The distribution of this report as made by USA R&D Gp (FE) is as follows: U.S. Amy Research Office (3) Box CM, Duke Station Durham, North Carolina 27706 Defense Documentation Center Qa) ATIN: TISIA~2 Caueron Station, Alexandria, Virginia 22314 Office of Primary Scientific Liaison (20) U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station ATIN: Earthquake Engineering & Vibration Div, Soil and Pavements Laboratory Vicksburg, Miss 39180Unclassified REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Faroe) READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM TREFORT HUMBER fr Govt ACCESSION NO; FE-5h49 3 RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER fa TITLE (ana Sotto) LIQUEFACTION OF SOILS DURING EARTHQUAKES (U) ‘3 TWPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED Final Report 16 Aug 7h - 15 Nov 7% FEW549 RETRO CONTRACT OR GRANT WOMBERT) Kenji Ishihara (Professor) DAJBL7~75-C-0003 No. 2415-123, Nara-machi, Midori-ku, Yokohama-shi, Kanagawa-ken, Japan U.S. Army R&D Group (Far East) APO San Francisco 96343 25 September 197h, 23 | a-WONTTORING AGENCY WAWE W ROORESSIT Taran Tam Contraling Olice) | 18. SECURITY CLASS. (ol tila Fopar) Same as Block 11 Unclassified ‘BECLASSIFTEKTION/ COWNGRROING SeREBILE To BIST RTBUTION STATEMENT (1 ila Rear Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. V7 DISTRIBUTION STATEWENT (ol tha abatroct eniered in Bfosk 20, I dlfarent Wows Repor) Ta" ZEY WORDS (Continue on reverse vide Wr “mad Taently By Black mer) Liquefaction Compressional waves Voleanos ejection Yield loci aluvial Isotropy Cementation Fines Pore pressure FE ABETRACT (Connie or revo To provide a general view of Liquefaction, some of the larger earthquakes occur-| ring in the alluvial plains of Japan are discussed as case history studies, Anong the subjects discussed are the sand deposits in the lowland areas, and the damage directly associated with the Liquefaction of this loose sand deposits, the upward novement of underground structures such as storage tanks, sewage con-| duits and septic tanks, the volcanic ejection of water and sand, and the like; T aacassaiy and Tol By BOR mabey also discussed are structural damages to modern bridges, and denonstrates the (Cont) DD ,5Sk%5 1473 cornion oF 1 nov 68 1s cBsoLeTE: Unclassified SeCURTFY CLARIFIGATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered)Uaclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THis PAGE( hon Date Entered) importance of the study of liquefaction as a potential hazard, especially in sandy areas. 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