WATER TECHNOLOGY YEAR 2

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

TOPIC 1: THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Definition of terms.

I. Atmosphere refers to the envelope of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial body,
held in place by gravity. On Earth, the atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen,
with smaller amounts of other gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, and noble gases.
The atmosphere plays a crucial role in regulating temperature, protecting life from harmful
solar radiation, and facilitating weather and climate patterns. It's divided into several layers
based on temperature and composition, including the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
II. The lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On Earth, the lithosphere is
composed of the crust and the upper portion of the mantle. It is divided into several large
and small tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. The
lithosphere is involved in various geological processes such as plate tectonics, where the
movement of these plates results in the formation of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanic
activity. It also plays a crucial role in supporting the Earth's surface features and influencing
the distribution of landmasses and oceans.
III. The hydrosphere refers to all the water on Earth, including water bodies such as oceans,
seas, rivers, lakes, groundwater, and ice caps. It encompasses both liquid and frozen water
and plays a fundamental role in shaping the Earth's climate, weather patterns, and
supporting life. The hydrosphere interacts with other Earth systems, such as the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and biosphere, through processes like the water cycle. This cycle involves the
continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, land, and oceans through
processes like evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, and infiltration. The
hydrosphere is essential for sustaining life on Earth, providing habitats for various organisms
and serving as a vital resource for human activities such as agriculture, industry, and
transportation.
IV. Energy pathways refer to the routes or channels through which energy flows in various
systems, including natural ecosystems, technological infrastructures, and biological
organisms. These pathways describe the movement of energy from one form to another or
from one location to another.
In natural ecosystems, energy pathways often involve processes like photosynthesis, where
solar energy is converted into chemical energy by plants, and then transferred to herbivores
that consume the plants, and subsequently to carnivores that prey on the herbivores. This
flow of energy through the food chain represents one example of an energy pathway in an
ecosystem.
 TOPIC 2: BASIC ECOLOGY

Definition of terms.
A) ECOLOGY
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.
It encompasses the interactions between living organisms (biotic factors) and their
surroundings, including non-living components such as air, water, soil, and climate (abiotic
factors). Ecology seeks to understand how organisms interact with each other and with their
physical environment, as well as how these interactions influence the distribution,
abundance, and diversity of life on Earth.
Ecology is a broad and interdisciplinary field that encompasses various sub-disciplines,
including:
1. Population Ecology: Focuses on the dynamics of populations of individuals of the
same species and the factors influencing their growth, distribution, and interactions.
2. Community Ecology: Examines the interactions between different species within a
community and the factors influencing species diversity, competition, predation, and
symbiosis.
3. Ecosystem Ecology: Studies the flow of energy and nutrients through ecosystems and
the interactions between living organisms and their physical environment.
4. Landscape Ecology: Investigates the spatial patterns and processes in ecological
systems across multiple scales, including the effects of human activities on landscapes.
5. Conservation Biology: Addresses the preservation and management of biodiversity
and ecosystems, with a focus on mitigating human impacts such as habitat destruction,
pollution, and climate change.

B) Ecological communities
Ecological communities refer to groups of interacting species that coexist in a particular
habitat or ecosystem. These communities are characterized by the various relationships and
interactions among the organisms within them, including competition, predation, mutualism,
and symbiosis. Ecological communities can range in size from small assemblages of a few
species to complex ecosystems containing numerous interacting species.
Key features of ecological communities include:
1. Species Composition: The species composition of a community refers to the
identities and abundances of the different species present within it. Each species occupies a
specific ecological niche, representing its role within the community.
2. Species Interactions: Interactions between species within a community play a crucial
role in shaping community structure and dynamics. These interactions can be positive (e.g.,
mutualism and facilitation), negative (e.g., competition and predation), or neutral (e.g.,
commensalism).
3. Trophic Structure: The trophic structure of a community refers to the feeding
relationships among its constituent species, organized into trophic levels such as producers
(plants), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores or omnivores),
and decomposers (detritivores and decomposer organisms).
4. Keystone Species: Certain species within a community, known as keystone species,
have a disproportionately large impact on community structure and function relative to their
abundance. The loss or addition of a keystone species can have significant consequences for
the entire community.
5. Succession: Ecological communities are dynamic entities that can undergo changes
over time through a process called ecological succession. Succession involves the gradual
replacement of species and changes in community structure following disturbances such as
fire, hurricanes, or human activities.

B) Ecological interactions
Ecological interactions refer to the various relationships and connections between different
species within an ecosystem. These interactions can be categorized based on the effects they
have on the individuals involved and can range from mutually beneficial to detrimental.
Some of the key types of ecological interactions include:
1. Mutualism: Mutualistic interactions benefit both species involved. Examples include
pollination, where plants provide nectar or pollen to pollinators in exchange for the transfer
of pollen between flowers, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria that form symbiotic relationships
with certain plants, providing them with essential nutrients.
2. Competition: Competition occurs when individuals of different species compete for
limited resources such as food, water, or territory. This interaction can lead to competitive
exclusion, where one species outcompetes another for resources, or to resource partitioning,
where species divide resources to reduce competition.
3. Predation: Predation involves one species (predator) feeding on another species
(prey). Predators play a crucial role in controlling prey populations and shaping community
structure. Adaptations such as camouflage, mimicry, and defensive mechanisms have
evolved in prey species as defenses against predation.
4. Herbivory: Herbivory involves animals (herbivores) feeding on plants. Herbivores can
have significant effects on plant populations and community structure. Plants have evolved
various defenses against herbivory, including thorns, toxins, and chemical compounds that
deter herbivores.
5. Parasitism: Parasitic interactions involve one organism (parasite) benefiting at the
expense of another organism (host). Parasites typically live on or inside their host and may
cause harm or disease. Examples include tapeworms in the intestines of animals and
parasitic plants that derive nutrients from their host plants.
6. Commensalism: Commensalism occurs when one species benefits from the
association with another species without causing harm or benefit to the host. An example is
epiphytic plants that grow on trees, using them for support and access to light without
causing harm to the host tree.
7. Amensalism: Amensalism is a type of interaction where one species is negatively
affected by another species, while the other species remains unaffected. An example is the
release of allelochemicals by certain plants that inhibit the growth of nearby plants without
being affected themselves.
 ➢ Biomass refers to the total mass of living organisms within a given area or ecosystem at a
specific point in time. It encompasses all living matter, including plants, animals,
microorganisms, and fungi. Biomass can be measured in terms of dry weight or carbon
content and is typically expressed in units such as grams per square meter (g/m^2) or tons
per hectare (t/ha).

Biomass serves as a crucial indicator of ecosystem productivity and is an essential component of

biogeochemical cycles, energy flow, and trophic interactions within ecosystems. It represents the
stored energy derived from photosynthesis and is utilized by organisms at various trophic levels for
growth, reproduction, and metabolism.

Biomass can be divided into several categories based on the types of organisms present:

I. Primary Biomass: Primary biomass refers to the biomass of autotrophic organisms, primarily
plants and algae, which produce organic matter through photosynthesis. Primary biomass
forms the base of the food chain and provides energy and nutrients for heterotrophic
organisms.
II. Secondary Biomass: Secondary biomass refers to the biomass of heterotrophic organisms,
including herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers, which consume primary
producers or other organisms for energy and nutrients.
III. Standing Biomass: Standing biomass refers to the biomass of living organisms present in an
ecosystem at a particular point in time. It includes both aboveground biomass (e.g., stems,
leaves, and fruits of plants) and belowground biomass (e.g., roots).
IV. Productivity: Biomass productivity refers to the rate at which biomass is produced within an
ecosystem through photosynthesis or other biological processes. It is often measured as the
net primary productivity (NPP), which represents the amount of organic matter produced by
primary producers minus the amount lost through respiration.

A) MOVEMENT OF MATTER AND ENERGY

The movement of matter and energy refers to the transfer and transformation of substances and
energy within ecosystems. This movement is essential for sustaining life and driving ecological
processes. The key processes involved in the movement of matter and energy include:

A) Energy Flow: Energy enters ecosystems primarily in the form of sunlight and is captured by
photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, through the process of photosynthesis. These
primary producers convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. Energy
then flows through the ecosystem as organisms consume other organisms, transferring energy from
one trophic level to another in food chains and food webs. However, with each transfer, some energy
is lost as heat through respiration and other metabolic processes.
B)Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and others are essential for the
growth and metabolism of organisms. Nutrients are cycled through ecosystems in biogeochemical
cycles, which involve both biotic and abiotic components. For example, in the carbon cycle, carbon
dioxide is taken up by plants during photosynthesis and released back into the atmosphere through
respiration and decomposition. Decomposers break down organic matter, releasing nutrients back
into the soil or water for uptake by plants, thus completing the cycle.

C)Decomposition: Decomposition is the breakdown of organic matter by decomposer organisms

such as bacteria, fungi, and detritivores. Decomposition releases nutrients from dead organisms and
organic matter back into the environment, making them available for reuse by other organisms.
Decomposition also plays a crucial role in the carbon cycle by returning carbon to the soil as organic
matter or releasing it into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.

D)Trophic Interactions: Trophic interactions involve the transfer of energy and nutrients between
different trophic levels in food chains and food webs. Predators consume prey, herbivores consume
plants, and decomposers break down dead organic matter, facilitating the movement of energy and
nutrients through ecosystems.

E)Physical Processes: Physical processes such as precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, and

erosion also play a role in the movement of matter and energy within ecosystems. For example,
water moves through ecosystems in the water cycle, cycling between the atmosphere, land, and
oceans through processes such as precipitation, runoff, and infiltration.