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EFFECT OF TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON
ACHIEVEMENT IN KENYA CERTIFICATE OF PRIMARY
EXAMINATION IN KIRINYAGA COUNTY, KENYA
BY
DAMARIS WAGIKONDI KARIUKI
E83/CE/14249/2009
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR
OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, KENYATTA
UNIVERSITY
NOVEMBER, 2019
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented in any
other university/institution for consideration of any certification. This research
proposal has been complemented by referenced sources duly acknowledged
according to anti-plagiarism regulations.
DAMARIS WAGIKONDI KARIUKI Date
E83/CE/14249/09
We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate
under our supervision as university supervisors.
DR. NORBERT OGETA Date

Lecturer
Department of Educational Management,
Policy and Curriculum Studies
Kenyatta University
DR. FLORENCE ITEGI Date

Senior Lecturer
Department of Educational Management,
Policy and Curriculum Studies
Kenyatta University
iii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my husband Peter and our three sons, Kelvin, Edwin and
Lewis for their unwavering support. In honour of my late mother Cecilia Wachoro
Mugo.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge the invaluable support and guidance I received from my
supervisors, Dr. Norbert Ogeta and Dr. Florence Itegi. I sincerely appreciate their
close supervision of my work and their comments as they will forever continue to
inspire my academic career. I am also indebted to Prof. Fatuma Chege, DVC
(Administration) Kenyatta University for her guidance especially in the field of
data collection and management. Her insights and exposure into the field of
educational research have shaped my outlook of research instruments, research
ethics and data collection techniques. I am particularly grateful to her for giving
me an opportunity to be introduced to participatory visual methodologies. I also
acknowledge the insights I received from my friends and colleagues Dr. Hellen
Guantai and Dr. Purity Muthima from the department of Education Management,
Policy and Curriculum Studies, Kenyatta University. My sincere thanks also go to
Dr. Samson Kariuki and Dr. Martin Ogola for their guidance and support in
shaping this work. I acknowledge the encouragement I received from my study
mates Dr. Mary Gaturu and Dr. Christopher Mugambi.
God bless you all.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... x
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ xi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..........................................................xiii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ xiv
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .......................... 1
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................... 14
1.3 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................. 14
1.4 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................. 15
1.5 Hypotheses ................................................................................................ 15
1.6 Significance of the Study........................................................................... 15
1.7 Limitations ................................................................................................. 17
1.8 Delimitations ............................................................................................. 17
1.9 Assumptions of the Study .......................................................................... 18
1.10 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 18
1.11 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................. 23
1.12 Operational Definitions of Terms .............................................................. 25
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................. 27

LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 27
2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................... 27
2.1 The Concept of Teacher Professional Development and Academic
Achievement .............................................................................................. 27
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2.2 Teacher Perceptions on Continuing Professional Development and

Academic Achievement............................................................................. 36
2.3 Formal Training Professional Development Programs and Academic
Achievement .............................................................................................. 39
2.4 Collaborative Teacher Professional Development Activities and Academic
Achievement .............................................................................................. 43
2.5 Head teacher support for Professional Development and academic
Achievement .............................................................................................. 54
2.6 Summary.................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER THREE............................................................................................. 62
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ............................................. 62
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................... 62
3.1 Research Design ........................................................................................ 62
3.2 Variables .................................................................................................... 65
3.3 Location of the Study ................................................................................ 65
3.4 Target Population ...................................................................................... 66
3.4.1 Schools .......................................................................................... 66
3.4.2 Respondents ................................................................................... 66
3.5 Sampling Technique and Sample size ....................................................... 67
3.5.1 Schools .......................................................................................... 67
3.5.2 Respondents ................................................................................... 67
3.6 Research Instruments................................................................................. 69
3.6.1 Piloting .......................................................................................... 73
3.6.2 Validity .......................................................................................... 74
3.6.3 Reliability ...................................................................................... 74
3.7 Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................... 75
3.8 Data Analysis............................................................................................. 76
3.9 Logistical and Ethical Considerations ....................................................... 79
3.9.1 Logistical Considerations .............................................................. 79
3.9.2 Ethical Considerations ................................................................... 80
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CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................... 81

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS, INTERPRETATION AND
DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 81
4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................... 81
4.1 Demographic Information ......................................................................... 81
4.1.1 Gender and Age of teachers .......................................................... 81
4.1.2 Distribution of Teachers by Age and School type......................... 83
4.1.3 Teaching Experience and School type .......................................... 85
4.2 Teachers’ perceptions of their Professional Development and KCPE
Achievement .............................................................................................. 87
4.2.1 Teachers’ Reasons for Engaging in Professional Development .... 87
4.2.2 Teachers’ perceptions of benefits of professional development ... 98
4.2.3 Teachers’ perception of impact of professional development and
mean Score improvement ........................................................... 100
4.2.4 KCPE Achievement..................................................................... 102
4.2.5 Effect of Teachers’ Perception of professional development on
KCPE Achievement.................................................................... 104
4.3 Formal Teacher Professional Development Programs and KCPE
Achievement ............................................................................................ 108
4.3.1 Teacher participation in professional development activities and
school type .................................................................................. 109
4.3.2 Distribution of Teachers by their Academic Qualifications ........ 112
4.3.3 Teachers’ Attendance to in Service Courses ............................... 115
4.3.4 Forms of in Service Training Attended ....................................... 117
4.3.5 Duration of the in Service Courses .............................................. 119
4.3.6 Frequency of Teacher Attendance to in Service Courses ............ 122
4.3.7 Effect of Teacher participation in Formal Training on KCPE
Achievement ................................................................................ 124
4.4 Teacher Participation in Collaborative activities and KCPE
Achievement ............................................................................................ 127
4.4.1 Sharing of Professional Development Information ..................... 127
4.4.2 Teacher Peer Coaching Activities ............................................... 130
4.4.2.1 Teachers being assisted by others .................................... 130
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4.4.2.2 Teacher assisting others ................................................... 133

4.4.3 Lesson Observation ..................................................................... 136
4.4.3.1 Teacher being observed by others ................................... 136
4.4.3.2 Teachers observing others teaching................................. 138
4.4.4 Team Teaching ............................................................................ 140
4.4.5 Effect of Teacher Collaborative activities on KCPE
Achievement ................................................................................ 143
4.5 Head Teacher Support for Teacher Professional Development and
Achievement ............................................................................................ 147
4.5.1 Head Teacher Support for Teacher Professional Development .. 147
4.5.2 Effect of Head Teacher Professional Development Support on
KCPE Achievement..................................................................... 153
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................... 159

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................... 159
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................. 159
5.1 Summary.................................................................................................. 160
5.1.1 Teacher Perceptions of Professional Development and KCPE
achievement ................................................................................. 160
5.1.2 Formal Professional Development Programs and KCPE
Achievement ................................................................................ 161
5.1.3 Collaborative Professional Development Activities and KCPE
Achievement ................................................................................ 161
5.1.4 Head Teacher Support for Teacher Professional Development and
KCPE Achievement..................................................................... 162
5.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................. 163
5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................... 164
5.3.1 Recommendations ....................................................................... 164
5.3.2 Recommendations for Further Research ..................................... 166
REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 167

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APPENDICES.................................................................................................... 187
Appendix I: Cover Letter .............................................................................. 187
Appendix II: Questionnaire for Teachers....................................................... 188
Appendix III: Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers ........................... 194
Appendix IV: Head Teacher’s Interview Guide .............................................. 195
Appendix V: Questionnaire Validation Tool ................................................. 196
Appendix VI: Letter of Research Authorization ............................................. 199
Appendix VII: Research Permit ........................................................................ 200
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.2: A model of Teacher professional development and KPCE

achievement ................................................................................... 23
Figure 2.1: A model of teacher professional development in Kenya ............... 32
Figure 2.2: Ways in which principals influence teacher development ............ 56
Figure 3.1: Model of the research design ......................................................... 64
Figure 4.1: Teachers’ Age and school type...................................................... 84
Figure 4.2: Professional development and improvement in mean score ....... 100
Figure 4.3: KCPE subject mean score by school type ................................... 103
Figure 4.4: Distribution of KCPE subject mean score ................................... 104
Figure 4.5: Teacher participation in professional development activities ..... 109
Figure 4.6: Teachers’ academic qualifications when joining teaching
profession .................................................................................... 112
Figure 4.7: Teachers’ academic qualifications progress ................................ 114
Figure 4.8: Forms of in service courses attended by teachers ....................... 117
Figure 4.9: Forums for sharing professional development knowledge .......... 128
Figure 4.10: Teacher engagement in team teaching ........................................ 140
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Target population........................................................................... 66

Table 3.2: Sampling matrix ............................................................................ 69
Table 3.3: Reliability Statistics ....................................................................... 75
Table 3.4: Summary of Data Analysis ............................................................ 79
Table 4.1: Gender and school type ................................................................. 82
Table 4.2: Teachers’ experience and school type ........................................... 86
Table 4.3: Reasons for engaging in professional development ...................... 88
Table 4.4: Extent teachers benefitted from teacher professional development99
Table 4.5: Improvement in subject mean score and school type .................. 101
Table 4.6: Summary of descriptive statistics of KCPE subject mean score . 103
Table 4.7: Model summary for teachers’ perceptions of PD and KCPE
achievement ................................................................................. 106
Table 4.8: Analysis of variance for teachers’ perceptions of professional
development and KCPE achievement ......................................... 107
Table 4.9: Teachers’ attendance to in service courses and school type ........ 116
Table 4.10: Duration of in service courses attended by teachers ................... 119
Table 4.11: Number of in service courses teachers attended .......................... 122
Table 4.12: Group statistics for teachers’ formal training and KCPE
achievement ................................................................................. 124
Table 4.13: Independent Samples Test on effect of teachers’ formal training on
KCPE achievement ...................................................................... 125
Table 4.14: Teacher being assisted by other teachers and school type .......... 130
Table 4.15: Areas in which teachers were assisted by other teachers ............ 131
Table 4.16: Teacher assisting others and school type..................................... 133
Table 4.17: Areas in which teachers assisted others ....................................... 134
Table 4.18: Number of times teachers have been observed teaching ............. 136
Table 4.19: Number of times teacher observed other teachers’ lessons ......... 138
Table 4.20: Frequency of team teaching in the last two terms ....................... 142
Table 4.21: Group statistics for teacher participation in collaborative activities
and KCPE achievement ............................................................... 144
Table 4.22: T-test for collaborative activities and KCPE achievement .......... 145
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Table 4.23: Head teacher support for teacher professional development ....... 148
Table 4.24: Head teacher support for teacher professional development on
Table 4.25: Model summary on head teacher support and KCPE
achievement ................................................................................. 155
Table 4.26: Analysis of Variance on head teacher support for teacher PD and
Table 4.27: Regression coefficient on head teacher support for teacher PD and
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
ATS Approved Teacher Status
CPD Continuing professional Development
EFA Education for All
ICT Information Communication Technology
INSET In-Service Education and Training
KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Program
KIE Kenya Institute of Education
KNEC Kenya National Examination Council
KNUT Kenya National Union of Teachers
MOEST Ministry of Education Science and Technology
NGO Non-Government Organization
PD Professional Development
SMASE Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Education
SbTD School Based Teacher Development
TAC Teacher Advisory Centre
TPC Teacher Proficiency Course
TPD Teacher Professional Development
TSC Teachers Service Commission
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

xiv
ABSTRACT
Teacher professional development is a critical component of educational reforms

and school improvement that is focused on enhancing learning outcomes for all
children. Continuing Professional Development plays a key role in teacher
improvement geared towards classroom improvement. Investments have therefore
been put into teacher professional development but its effect on achievement in
Kenya Certificate of Primary Examination in Kirinyaga County is not established
despite the glaring performance disparities. The purpose of this study was to assess
the effect of teacher professional development on Kenya Certificate of Primary
Education (KCPE) achievement. The objectives of the study were to determine the
effect of teacher perceptions of professional development on KCPE achievement in
Kirinyaga County, to establish the effect of teacher participation in formal training
programs on KCPE achievement, to determine the effect of teacher participation in
collaborative activities on KCPE achievement, to establish the effect of head
teacher support for teacher professional development on KCPE achievement. The
study was guided by Desimone (2009) core conceptual framework for studying
effectiveness of teacher professional development as well as Deci and Ryan (2000)
self-determination theory. Convergent parallel mixed methods design was used.
The target population was 1705 class eight teachers and 341 head teachers.
Stratified random sampling and purposive sampling was used to obtain 68 schools,
a sample of 194 public and private primary school and 20 head teachers for the
study. Instruments for data collection were teacher questionnaires, teacher focus
group discussion guide and head teacher semi structured interview guide.
Descriptive (mean, frequency, standard deviation) and inferential (t-test, regression
analysis) statistics were used to analyze quantitative data while qualitative data
were analyzed thematically. The study established that teachers had a positive
perception toward their professional development but this did not have a
significant effect on KCPE achievement. Majority of the teachers engaged in
professional development so as to obtain salary increment and promotion. The
study also found that teachers had improved their academic qualifications and also
attended in service trainings, however, this had no statistically significant effect on
KCPE achievement. The major form of in service training was workshops. The
study found out that teachers participated in collaborative activities like sharing
and assisting one another, lesson observation and team teaching. These
collaborative activities had a statistically significant effect on KCPE achievement.
The study also established that head teachers supported teacher professional
development by providing information, teaching/learning resources and releasing
teachers. The areas in which they offered least support were financial support and
invitation of resource persons to the schools. Head teacher support for teacher
professional development had a statistically significant effect on KCPE
achievement. The study recommends that the Teachers’ Service Commission,
Ministry of Education and school management enhance collaborative professional
development activities at the school level and empower head teachers to provide
support for such interventions in order to improve learner outcomes.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction
In this chapter the background to the problem is presented as well as the statement
of the problem, research objectives and hypothesis. The chapter also has the
purpose, significance of the study as well as the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks and operational definition of terms.
1.1 Background of the Study
The 21stcentury education is bold, flexible, creative, challenging and complex with
a lot of focus being put on teacher quality which is a major contributing factor to
teacher effectiveness and pupil achievement. The teacher is the locus of classroom
instructional activity and curriculum delivery. Therefore, he or she is an important
determinant of education quality. Teachers play a key role in the academic and
career life of the learners therefore the quality of their professional development is
an issue of great concern. This is because quality professional development
impacts positively on pupil achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2009). According to
(Darling-Hammond, 2000; King Rice, 2003; MOEST, 2005) teachers are the most
crucial of the school related factors that affect student achievement through their
effectiveness. Professional development, like other means of improving teacher
quality requires expenditure of resources. To justify resource use therefore requires
understanding the effectiveness of the professional development programs.
Notwithstanding the level of preparation pupils bring into the classroom, teachers’
classroom practices can either greatly enhance pupil learning or serve as a barrier
2
to it (Wenglisnky, 2002). This is also important because efforts to improve pupils’
learning succeed or fail inside the classroom. Pre-service teacher training alone is
not capable of preparing teachers for lifelong teaching and learning challenges,
which lie ahead in this rapidly changing 21st century society and therefore the need
for continuous professional development (World Bank, 2010). According to World
Bank (2010), educators, researchers and policy makers are convinced that pre-
service education is not yielding the expected results and that resources would be
better utilized if directed to effective professional development programs. It is
therefore critical to pay close attention to how teachers are trained and most
importantly supported especially through professional development.
Teacher Professional Development gives teachers opportunities to explore new
roles, utilize new instructional skills, refine and broaden their practice both as
educators and as individuals. The Teachers’ Service Commission is cognisant of
this fact and therefore developed the Teacher Performance Appraisal and
Development (TPAD) tool in 2014 with professional development as one of the
teacher competency areas (TSC ACT, 2012). It is necessary to investigate the
effect of teacher professional development on achievement in Kirinyaga County as
combined KCPE results analysis indicate Kirinyaga County as a top performing
County with a mean score of 270 and above. However, glaring disparities exist
where private schools dominate the top list of performing school with a mean of
300 marks and above while many public schools dominate the bottom of the list of
schools with 250 marks and below.

3
The major goal of any professional development program is its impact on learner
achievement. In America, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2001) focused
on provision of high quality professional development for teachers across all states
in order to improve student academic gains. The Act had a provision for systematic
review of evidence on the effects of professional development in student learning.
The Act describes "high-quality" professional development as activities that
improve teacher knowledge, is sustained and intensive (duration) as well as being
aligned to academic standards and assessments. Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree,
Richardson, & Orphanos, (2009) however confirmed that teachers in the US were
not participating in well-designed professional development opportunities to have
effect on achievement.
In America, huge resources were spent at the local, state and federal levels on
professional development. For instance, in 2004-2005, the federal government
spent approximately $1.5 billion on professional development for teachers
(Birman, Le Floch, Klekotka, Ludwig, Taylor, Walters, & Yoon, 2007). Therefore,
it is important to understand what effective professional development entails in
order to further understand the success or failure of educational reforms. In Kenya,
low achievement in KCPE achievement has continued to be witnessed particularly
in public schools yet there have been initiatives to professionally develop teachers
with a view to improve learner outcomes.
In China, the National Teacher Training Program (NTTP) was launched in 2010 to
close the gap between rural and urban students’ performance. Lu, Loyalka, Sha,
Changa, Liu and Rozelle (2016) in a study on the impact of the NTTP program on
4
student achievement found that it had no significant effect on Math achievement
and it may even harm student achievement. There are also conflicting results on
the effect of professional development. Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley,
(2007) carried out a review of the evidence of the effects of professional
development on student achievement in reading, mathematics, and science. The
review showed that teacher professional development had a moderate effect on
student achievement across nine studies. On the other hand, Guskey and Yoon
(2009) research on professional development effectiveness showed little evidence
of professional development effectiveness. The study ascertained that teachers who
had undergone professional development were not more effective than those who
had not. On the background of such conflicting results, it is necessary therefore to
ascertain the effect of teacher professional development on achievement in KCPE.
Bruns and Luque (2014) assert that although policy makers and other developing
countries invest billions of dollars in teacher professional development programs
each year there is limited evidence of whether these programs are effective. In
Kenya, resources have also been committed to teacher professional development
initiatives by the government, development partners and individual teachers. Some
of these professional development interventions include projects like Strengthening
of Mathematics and Science Education (SMASE); School based Teacher
Development (SbTD), workshops, engagement in peer coaching and lesson
observation. It would be imperative to assess the effect of teacher professional
development on achievement in national examinations.

5
African governments have also embraced teacher professional development at
various levels. In Tanzania, the Primary Education Development Program (PEDP)
2001-2006 was implemented to enhance the capacity of primary school teachers. A
study on ‘Teacher professional development in Tanzania: perceptions and
practices’ found that majority of the teachers viewed Teacher Professional
Development as valuable because it helps to improve teachers professionally,
academically and technically. However, most respondents felt that professional
development was not adequately supported and motivated. The study
recommended the use of more comprehensive and wide models that comprise
academic advancement in the content areas, pedagogy and teaching ethics. This
study seeks to find the effect of formal PD programs on achievement.
Sifuna and Kaime (2007) study on in service training in Kenya established that,
while teachers evaluated Strengthening Mathematics and Science in Education
(SMASE) and School Based Teacher Development programs (SbTD) programs as
having been effective in exposing them to a student-centered approach, their
classroom practices were largely teacher centered. It was important therefore to
find out the effect of teacher participation in different professional development
activities on KCPE achievement. If the ultimate goal of education reform is to
improve pupil achievement through changes in teaching practices, then teaching
practice changes are likely to result from high-quality professional development
and these improvements should impact on pupil achievement.
Sessional Paper No. 10 of 2012 on Kenya Vision 2030 is focused on providing a
globally competitive and quality education, training and research. To achieve this
6
knowledge based economy teachers need high quality continuing professional
development. The government of Kenya embarked on the implementation of
SMASE-INSET programme for mathematics and science teachers in primary
schools between 2009 and 2013 (Republic of Kenya, 2008). Sessional Paper No. 1
of 2005, a Policy Framework for Education Training and Research also
comprehensively focused on teacher development and utilization under which the
in-service training of teachers was given priority. The Ministry of Education
Science & Technology also highlighted in service training of teachers (INSET) for
primary teachers as one of the 23 investment programs in the Kenya Education
Sector Support Program (KESSP) 2005-2010. The government has also partnered
with development partners like Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to
provide professional development to teachers in the country. For example, since
1998 (JICA) has partnered with the Kenyan Government in provision of In-Service
Education and Training (INSET) with a view to raise the quality of teaching
mathematics and science in primary and secondary schools. In Kirinyaga County,
by 2015, most of the teachers had undertaken at least one form of teacher
professional development according the curriculum support officers in the sub
counties.
Guskey (2002) asserts that change in teacher attitudes and beliefs occur primarily
after they experience proof of improvement in pupil learning. Teacher perceptions
of the teaching role and profession, is also determined by the prevailing attitudes in
the environments whey they teach. Kirinyaga County being a top performing
county is characterized by achievement disparities across sub counties and between

7
public and private primary schools was ideal to investigate teacher perceptions of
professional development and its effect on achievement.
Dede (2006) observes that teachers are frequently disappointed with professional
development because it is sometimes ineffectual or requires sacrifices
disproportionate to the professional enhancement it provides. Therefore, teachers
consider the benefits they gain from the teacher professional development program
before engaging in one. Alderman (2004) noted that teachers’ feeling of efficacy
was found to be one of the best predictors of increase in learner achievement.
Through reflective practice a teacher gains a sense of efficacy and can become
motivated to address relevant issues including developing a personal strategy for
professional development. Factors such as policy change, reflective practice,
organizational support, promotion and higher pay influenced teacher performance.
This study looked into teacher perceptions of their Professional Development and
the effect on KCPE achievement.
Gailble and Burns (2005) assert that effective continuing professional development
of teachers starts with the comprehension of teachers’ needs and their work
environment. There was need therefore to look into the scenario in both public and
private primary schools as far as teacher professional development was concerned.
It was not clear how teachers working in these different environments and contexts
were professionally developed and how they adopt and adapt the knowledge and
skills they acquired to address the particular learning needs of their pupils in their
schools. When assessing professional development, the content of the experiences,

8
the process by which it will occur as well as the context in which it will take place
should be critically examined (Ganser, 2000; OECD, 2008).
Teachers engage in academic programs but the effects of these programs on learner
achievement are conflicting. For instance, some studies show association between
teacher acquisition of an undergraduate or graduate major in mathematics and
higher student achievement in high school and middle school (Aaronson, Barrow,
& Sanders, 2003; Wenglinsky, 2000 2002). On the other hand, other studies do not
find substantial benefit for students taught by teachers with advanced degrees; but
these studies also assert that teachers with master’s degrees and above may
influence their students’ achievement negatively (Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor,
2006; Rowan, Correnti, & Miller, 2002). In fact, Betts, Zau, and Rice (2003) found
marginal but insignificant benefits for middle school mathematics achievement
when teachers hold master’s degrees. Hanushek, Kain, O’Brien, and Rivkin (2005)
found no relationship between teacher master’s degrees and fourth to eighth grade
student mathematics test scores. Parise and Spillane’s (2010) study on teachers in
30 American elementary schools showed that teachers appreciate formal further
education that is directly connected to teaching in school.
In Kenya, it was highlighted that the long term accredited programs that teachers
are pursuing are having little impact on their professional development (Otieno,
2009). This study sought to find out the effect of primary teacher academic
progress and attendance to in service courses on KCPE achievement. Most
Professional Development programs like in service courses are conducted outside
the school. Brown-Easton (2004) points the shortcomings of traditional forms of in

9
service training and workshops and the need for teachers to be exposed to a wide
and rich variety of Professional Development practices and modes of delivery.
Fullan (2007) is of the view that external approaches, like workshops, are not
powerful, specific, or sustained enough to change the classroom and school culture
and have effect on leaner achievement. This is because these trainings are most
often removed from the daily working environment of the teachers.
Collaborative professional development is embedded in teachers’ daily practice.
Akiba (2012) carried out a longitudinal state wide survey on effect of teacher
professional learning activities on student academic growth.The study found
moderate yet positive relationship between student achievement rates in Math and
teacher participation in collaborative activities, professional conferences and
informal communications.The study also established that the effect of informal
communications among teachers on student achievement growth was greater than
that of formal teacher collaboration activities. These positive effects of informal
communications and teacher collaboration are consistent with prior research
(Goddard and Goddard, 2007; Vescio, Ross, & Adams, 2008). On the other hand,
Garet, Wayne, Stancavage, Taylor, Eaton, &Walters, (2011) and Newman, Finney,
Bell, Turner, Jaciw, Zacamy, & Gould, (2012) carried out large scale randomized
control trials of coherent, continuous and collaborative professional development
which did not to show positive results in improving teacher knowledge and student
achievement. The collaborative activities are most often embedded in the daily
work of the teachers at school and involve working with colleagues.

10
Peer coaching is one of the school based collaborative interventions adopted across
countries. It is a developmental and reflective model of supervision (Pajak, 2003)
that involves teachers sharing and helping each other in areas they find difficult.
Peer coaching can provide a valuable tool for collaboration, evaluation of teacher
effectiveness, and improve teacher quality (Marshall, 2005). In a study in senior
high schools in Central Ghana, Ampofo (2017) found that peer coaching was not
practised regularly and was not also institutionalized. Green (2004) had found that
teachers who engaged in peer coaching were more effective in the use of new
instructional strategies compared to those who did not. Murray, Xin Ma, Mazur
(2009) findings showed no association between peer coaching and student
improvement in mathematics. This study sought to find out if teachers engaged in
collaborative professional development activities such as assisting one another in
teaching areas they found difficult and the effect of such activities on KCPE
achievement.
Lesson observation is also a collaborative professional development strategy.
Meirink, Meijer, Verloop, & Bergen, (2009) in a study of secondary teachers in
Netherlands found out that, teachers learn at their workplace by trying out different
teaching methods which they observe from colleague teachers or after reflection on
teaching together with others. Lawrence and Chong (2010) investigated ten
teachers from a secondary school in Singapore on lesson observation and found
that teachers’ sense of togetherness and self-efficacy were strengthened. However,
participants in the study pointed out challenges in relation to finding time to
observe and reflect. In Kenya, the Teacher Performance Appraisal and

11
Development (TPAD) tool, adopted by TSC in 2014 expects teachers to be
engaged in lesson observation at school level.
Team teaching is another aspect of cooperative teaching adopted in many schools.
According to Jaruda and Takeuchi (2007) team teaching is an instructional
situation with two or more instructors teaching together by collaborating in lesson
preparation and teaching. Aliakbari and Bazyar (2012) measured the influence of
team teaching on the general language proficiency of English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) learners’ in Iran. The findings revealed no meaningful difference
between the participants’ performance in two groups. Aliakbari and Mansouri
(2010) had earlier indicated that implementation of team teaching among EFL
students had no effect as compared to other contexts. Wei, Darling-Hammond,
Andree, Richardson and Orphanos (2010) stated that American teachers and
teachers in other nations engage in almost similar number of professional
development activities. However, according to findings from a survey, American
teachers do not engage in “intense, collaborative, content-rich, and practice-
focused PD that leads to improvement in student outcomes.” There is need to
establish if teachers in Kirinyaga county are engaged in collaborative activities that
have an effect on achievement.
The school principal has the unique position to control the form and function of
professional development in schools. Timperley, Wilson, Barrar and Fung (2007)
also assert that it the responsibility of the school leaders to promote teacher
professional development. The principal decides who and when teachers can
participate in continuing education. According to Hawley and Sykes (2007), the

12
success of school improvement rests on the principal providing the support and
resources needed for teachers to deepen their expertise or to learn different
practices. Robinson, Hohepa, & Lloyd (2009) found that when head teachers
promote or participate in professional learning activities it has twice impact on
student achievement than any other single leadership activity.
The right of children to quality education is provided for in law (Republic of
Kenya, 2010) and it is therefore necessary to reflect on this quality from the point
of view of teacher continuous professional development and its effect on academic
achievement. This is because studies show that student involvement in learning is
to be valued more than curriculum plans and materials. The UWEZO (2010)
assessment report also indicated that only half of the children in Standard 1-8 aged
6-16 years had attained the highest numeracy competence expected of Standard 2
learners. Similarly, the Kenya National Examinations Council’s (KNEC, 2010)
assessment report showed poor learning achievement in numeracy and literacy for
standard 3 learners. These reports reflect on the issue of teacher quality and learner
outcomes. The EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013/14, Teaching & Learning:
Achieving quality for all also noted that the overall KCPE mean score nationally
was below the pass rate of 250 out of possible 500. Some teachers also scored
poorly in tests set for pupils they teach and those set to assess their level of
competency (KNEC, 2010, Otieno, 2010). There was therefore a need to establish
the effect of primary teachers’ professional development and achievement. There is
also growing literature on the relationship between pre-service training and student
achievement (Kukla-Acevedo, 2009; Harris and Sass, 2011). However, effect of
professional development teacher professional development and achievement has

13
not received much analytical focus particularly in the locale of the study despite
the performance disparities between public and private primary schools in KCPE
as shown in figure 1.1
KCPE Perfromance Trends

320
310
300
290
mean score
280 combined
270 public
260 private
250
240
230
2017 2016 2015
Figure 1.1: KCPE Performance in Public and Private Primary Schools
Source: Kirinyaga County Education Office
Figure 1.1 shows that KCPE mean score for private schools across the three years
i.e. 2017, 2016 and 2015 was higher than that of the combined county mean score
in which the performance disparities between public and private is blurred. The
figure also shows that public primary schools registered lower mean score than that
of the private schools and the combined county mean score. It would be important
therefore to investigate the effect of teacher professional development on KCPE
achievement in the light of such performance disparities.

14
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Quality teacher professional development has positive impact on learner
achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2009). Pre-service training alone is not adequate
to prepare teachers for lifelong teaching and learning challenges of the rapidly
changing 21st century society. In Kenya, the government in partnership with
development partners has therefore put in resources into teacher continuing
professional development programs like Strengthening of Mathematics and
Science Education (SMASE). Individual teachers have also devoted their effort,
time and resources in various forms of professional development including
academic advancement, in service courses and peer coaching. However, there is
disconnect between these professional development efforts and KCPE achievement
especially in public and private primary schools in Kirinyaga County. While
stakeholders agree that teachers need effective professional development, it is not
clear if teacher professional development has effect on achievement particularly in
KCPE. Kirinyaga is a top performing County in KCPE with a combined mean
score of 270 and above for a period of 10 years. However, performance disparities
exist with many private schools obtaining a mean of 300 marks and above while
many public schools have mean score of 250 marks and below. This study
therefore, seeks to find out the effect of teacher professional development on
KCPE achievement in public and private primary schools in Kirinyaga County.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to assess the effect of teacher professional
development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County.

15
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1. To establish the effect of teacher perceptions of their professional development
on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
2. To find out the effect of teacher participation in formal training programs on
KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
3. To determine the effect of teacher participation in collaborative activities on
4. To establish the effect of head teacher support for teacher professional
development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
1.5 Hypotheses
The study sought to establish the effect of teacher professional development on
KCPE achievement by testing the following four null hypotheses
Ho1There is no statistical significant effect of teacher perceptions of their
professional development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
Ho2There is no statistical significant effect of teacher participation in formal
training programs on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
Ho3There is no statistical significant effect of teacher participation in collaborative
activities on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
Ho4There is no statistical significant effect of head teacher support for teacher
1.6 Significance of the Study
We are living in an era of educational reforms and the ever changing learning
environment requires teachers to sharpen their skills. This study sought to assess
16
the effect of teacher professional development on KCPE achievement. It is
expected the findings of the study would be of significance to the Teachers’
Service Commission in providing data on the status of primary school teacher
continuing professional development in Kirinyaga County.
Since not many studies have been conducted on the effect of teacher professional
development on KCPE achievement in Kenya and the locale, the study contributes
to knowledge by filling this gap. The findings may be useful in helping the
Ministry of Education and Teachers’ Service Commission identify the
shortcomings in teacher professional development and put measures to improve.
This may be by adopting best practices on effective teacher professional
development initiatives.
The data on effect generated from this study may also inform the school
management on ways to improve teacher professional development at the school
level. This is by enhancing the capacity of head teacher in relation to teacher
professional development and also sensitizing teachers on a variety of
collaborative professional development activities.
The Kenya National Union of Teachers may also benefit from the findings of the
study in terms of the gaps in primary teacher professional development and liaise
with the TSC to support a variety of teacher professional development programs.
Teachers may also benefit from the findings of this study by reflecting on their
own personal professional development and its effect on achievement. This could
result in teachers developing their own personal professional development plans
and strategies.
17
1.7 Limitations
One of the limitations of the study was that a number of teachers felt apprehensive
and interpreted that they were being evaluated on their performance. The
researcher however assured them that their responses would only be used for the
purposes of the study and their identity was anonymous. Since the questionnaire
was administered in a participatory approach, getting the appropriate time to
engage the teachers was a limitation. This was overcome by prior arrangements
with the respondents depending on their work schedules and the use of a
participatory questionnaire. The use of self-report questionnaires only could also
pose reliability issues and the researcher therefore included focus group discussion
guide for teachers and semi structured interview guides for head teachers for
purposes of triangulation of the study findings.
1.8 Delimitations
Teacher professional development is a wide and current topic that involves many
stakeholders in the education sector but the study confined itself to teachers and
head teachers in public and private primary schools in Kirinyaga County. The
study also focused on only the variables outlined in the objectives namely; teacher
perceptions, formal training, collaborative teacher activities and head teacher
support for teacher professional development and their effect on KCPE
achievement. The study would limit itself to achievement based on KCPE subject
mean scores for the years 2015, 2016 and 2017.

18
1.9 Assumptions of the Study
The assumptions of the study were that all public and private primary schools in
Kirinyaga County undergo a similar curriculum and national examination. The
study assumed that different forms of professional development programs were
available for public and private primary school teachers to engage in. The other
assumption of the study was that in every school there were five teachers who
participated in teaching each of the five examinable subjects at KCPE level. All
respondents would cooperate to give accurate and reliable responses. Another
assumption of the study would be that the data obtained on subject mean in KCPE
would be sufficient to establish the relationships and effect sought.
1.10 Theoretical Framework
This study was mainly guided by Desimone (2009) core conceptual framework
used for studying effectiveness of teacher professional development. It is
considered to be a comprehensive theoretical framework as in a theoretical study,
Desimone (2009) identified five characteristics namely, content focus, active
learning, coherence, duration and collective participation or co-operation that
comprise teachers’ learning. Desimone’s argument is that empirical research
supports identification of a core conceptual framework for studying effects of
professional development. Wayne, Yoon, Zhu, Cronen &, Garet, (2008) note that
these are key features in determining effectiveness of professional development.
This is not however to imply that each study would be required to measure only
these features. This study borrowed and made reference to the framework and
focused on effect of teacher perceptions, teacher formal training, collaboration and
head teacher support for teacher professional development on KCPE achievement.

19
It looked at the content, duration and shared learning aspects of these professional
development aspects as outlined in Desimone (2009) core conceptual framework.
This study began by establishing teacher perceptions of their professional
development. In the framework, content focus deals with the link between
activities that focus on increase in teacher subject matter knowledge. This
positively impacts on teacher attitudes and beliefs and learner outcomes. This
study looked at the formal training and its focus on teacher subject matter
knowledge, pedagogy and its effect on achievement.
The model holds that active leaning is related to the effectiveness of professional
development. This involves observing an expert teacher or being observed,
followed by interactive feedback and discussion. This study investigated the
engagement of teachers in collaborative activities such as peer coaching, lesson
observation and team teaching and their effect on achievement.
The other core feature of this model is coherence which is the extent to which
teacher learning is consistent with teacher knowledge and beliefs. This should be in
line with state reforms and policies. Subject content knowledge and change in
pedagogy require professional development activities of sufficient duration and the
span of time over which the activity is spread. This study investigated the duration
and frequency over which teachers engaged in formal training as well as
collaborative school based professional activities.
Desimone (2009) identified collective participation as another core feature of
professional development. This allows teachers to hold interaction and discourse

20
forums with colleague teachers. This study focused on teacher participation in
collaborative activities with other teacher such as teachers helping each other in
areas of difficulty, lesson observation and team teaching. The model postulates that
effective professional development increases teacher knowledge and skills,
teachers then use their new skills, attitudes and beliefs to improve content of their
instruction or their pedagogical approaches. These instructional changes foster
increased student learning.
This study added the aspect of head teacher support of teacher professional
development and its effect on achievement. This is because the support of the head
teacher is critical in teacher professional development without which the teacher
cannot be effective. The head teacher provides the environment within which
teachers engage in professional development activities and their support is critical.
This model operates with context as an important mediator and moderator. These
contexts include schools, districts and communities where teachers work as they
can affect implementation of professional development and its effects. Other
mediating factors in Desimone’s model include; student and teacher
characteristics, principal leadership, school culture and policy environment. The
current study had school type and policy on teacher professional development as
the intervening variables. These were held constant by sampling both male and
female teachers in public and private schools.
This theory is relevant as it relates to the study variables as Desimone (2009) posits
that when teachers engage in content focused, sustained and collaborative
professional development, they influence learner achievement positively. The

21
theory supports the engagement of teacher in professional development activities
in cooperation with others however, it has limitations as it does not consider the
engagement of teachers in professional development activities out of their own
volition as individuals who have an inborn desire to grow professionally. This
study therefore adopted a second theory (Self-determination theory by Deci and
Ryan 2000) that supports that human beings have innate desire to be autonomous.
They therefore choose and engage in programs they feel will be beneficial to them
as individuals depending on their professional needs. The second theory also
captures the aspect of the school contexts in which teachers operate which should
be conducive and allow teachers opportunities to liberate their full potential. The
two theories were therefore adapted as they were found to be complementary.
Self Determination Theory by Ryan and Deci (2000)
This theory was also used to explain the concept of teacher professional
development from the point of view of the individual teacher and the school
contexts in which they operate. Self Determination Theory proposes that human
beings have an in born drive to be autonomous, self-determined and connected to
one another, and when this drive is liberated, people achieve more and live
fulfilling lives. This assumption is relevant to this study as teachers need to be
viewed as well as to view themselves as individuals with innate desire to excel in
their careers and should therefore be given more opportunities to exercise their
freedom. At the same time, they should be given opportunities to work closely with
others as far as their professional development is concerned. Schools should
therefore focus on these drives when managing their teachers by creating settings
which focus on teachers’ innate need to direct their own careers (autonomy), to
22
learn and create new things (mastery), and to do better by themselves and their
world (purpose). This informed this study as it looks at teacher individual and
collaborative professional activities and their effect on KCPE achievement.
Social environments can, according to this theory, either, facilitate and enable
human integration and growth or they can disrupt, forestall and fragment these
processes, (Deci and Ryan, 2002). This means that schools need to provide
environments for teachers to interact and question their practice as well conducive
environments for professional development. This facilitation and provision of
conducive environments need to be provided by the school head teacher. This
study looked at the school head teacher leadership as far as teacher professional
development is concerned.
According to James and McCormick (2009), teacher autonomy is important if
teachers are to learn. This can be supported by giving teachers opportunities to
identify their learning need through sharing with colleagues. This study supports
that teachers need to have individual professional development plans as well as
collaborative professional activities to enhance their effectiveness and have impact
on learner outcomes.
23
1.11 Conceptual Framework
Independent variable Dependent variable
TEACHER PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Teacher Perceptions of
PD
 Reasons for PD
 Benefits of PD
 Effect of PD on
achievement
Teacher participation in
Formal PD programs
 Academic
advancement
 In-service courses
KCPE
Teacher participation in ACHIEVEMENT
collaborative PD Subject Mean
Activities Score
 Sharing knowledge
 Peer coaching
.
 Lesson observation
 Team teaching
Head teacher PD
support
 Information School type
 Recommendation Policy on teacher
 Resources professional
 Experts development
Figure 1.2: A model of Teacher professional development and KPCE

achievement
24
The conceptual framework illustrates the researcher’s conceptualization of the
independent and dependent variable. It shows teacher professional development as
composed of formal training and collaborative school based activities. These
practices are based on the perceptions teachers have about their professional
development. These are perceptions on reasons and motivation for engaging in
professional development, its relevance and effect on achievement. The
perceptions that an individual hold are likely to affect the outcome of the activities
they engage in. The study sought to establish the teachers’ perception of their
professional development and assess if these perceptions had an effect on KCPE
achievement.
The other aspect was on teacher participation in formal professional development
programs i.e. academic progress and in service courses which are expected to
enhance teacher knowledge in their subject matter and teaching skills. The content,
duration and frequency of these programs were also investigated to establish the
effect of these programs on KCPE achievement. The level of teacher participation
in collaborative activities i.e. sharing knowledge from professional development,
peer coaching, lesson observation and team teaching was also established and the
effect of this on KCPE achievement. Teacher collaboration with peers helps to
build relationships where teachers assist each other within the school set up and
this is expected to have positive effects on achievement.
All these aspects help to enhance teacher knowledge and skills which in turn have
an effect on classroom practices and academic achievement. The other key factor is
the aspect of head teacher support because the school is critical in practicing and
implementing professional development skills. Conducive school environment and

25
teacher support enhance effective teacher professional development which in turn
positively impacts on achievement. Achievement is also affected by other factor
like the school type and policy on teacher professional development which were
the intervening variables as shown in Figure 1.2
1.12 Operational Definitions of Terms
Professional development formal training, in service courses and collaborative
school based teacher professional development
activities aimed at improving professional practice
and having impact on academic achievement
Teacher perceptions teacher opinions/views on professional development,
its benefits and effect on achievement
Formal professional academic qualifications after pre service training and
development programs attendance to other in service training courses
Collaborative activities teacher involvement in sharing professional
development knowledge, peer coaching, lesson
observation and team teaching
Peer coaching activities in which teachers at the same level share
and help each other on challenging areas in the
teaching learning process
Lesson observation activities where teachers observe or are observed by
other teachers in order to identify strengths and
shortcoming with an aim to improve in content
knowledge and delivery methods

26
Team teaching involves two or more teachers sharing teaching of a
class depending on the exceptional knowledge and
skills of the teacher
Head teacher support the assistance head teachers offer for teacher
professional development in terms of providing
information, recommendation, resources and time
KCPE achievement the average mean score a teacher attained in the
subjects they taught class eight in KCPE 2015, 2016
and 2017
27
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
Review of literature was done under the following themes as per the objectives of
the study; the concept of teacher professional development, teacher perceptions of
professional development, formal training, collaborative professional development
activities, head teacher support for professional development and their effect on
achievement.
2.1 The Concept of Teacher Professional Development and Academic
Achievement
The concept of teacher professional development has evolved over time with the
definition getting broader and incorporating more aspects. Little (1987) defined
professional development as activities that are partly or mainly intended to prepare
employees to improve their present or future role performance in schools.
Professional development comprises the skills and knowledge acquired for both
personal development and career development. It includes all facilitated
opportunities like college degrees, conferences and informal learning opportunities
situated in practice. These opportunities can be formal or informal, compulsory or
voluntary, impromptu or planned (Wilson & Berne, 1999).
However, more complex and broad-based views on how to conceptualize teacher
professional development emerged with focus on measurement of professional
development at both individual and community levels. Professional Development
is also defined as activities designed to improve teacher knowledge, instructional

28
practice, and student learning outcomes (Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree,
Richardson & Orphanos, 2009). The Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD, 2009) further defined teacher professional development as
those activities that develop a teacher’s pedagogical skills, subject knowledge,
expertise and other characteristics as a teacher.
According to OECD (2009), Professional development refers to participation in
both formal and informal learning experiences and processes that help deepen
understanding and improve practice. It may include formal programs like
vocational education leading to qualification or credentials required to get
employment or in-service professional development programs. The professional
development programs can either be formal, informal, group or individualized. All
systems of professional development should incorporate flexibility and respond to
changing needs of teachers as professionals (Darling-Hammond, 2005). In many
instances people equate higher academic qualification and attendance to seminars
with professional development. The changing needs of the teacher beg for a
broader understanding of professional development.
Professional development is also seen as wider than career development which
covers the growth that occurs as a teacher goes through the professional career
cycle. Professional Development is broader than staff development which is ‘the
provision of organized in-service programs designed to foster growth of groups of
teacher which is one of the intervention used for teacher development. (National
Research Council. (2007). The definition of professional development is becoming
broader and includes ongoing professional learning opportunities that are

29
embedded in the job (National Staff Development Council, 2010). Professional
development may be job embedded or discrete and may include but not limited to
activities like workshops, conferences, in service training, coaching, lesson study,
action research, data analysis and mentorship. This study looked at professional
development as comprising, formal training (academic advancement & in service
courses) and collaborative activities (peer coaching, lesson observation and team
teaching) that develop teacher knowledge and skills and improve achievement.
These activities are expected to have impact when head teacher provide conducive
school environment and support to teachers.
In Kenya, Teacher Advisory Centres (TACs) were created to offer support for
primary school teachers’ professional development (Ayot, 1982 & Republic of
Kenya, 1988, 2010). The government has also liaised with development partners to
roll out programs aimed at continually developing teachers professionally. These
include school based teacher development (SbTD), strengthening mathematics and
science (SMASE) projects, all geared towards positively impacting on student
achievement through teacher development. Efforts have also been made to provide
in-service training opportunities for teachers by the Ministry of Education through
donor supported projects, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs,), religious
organizations and publishers. Teacher Continuous Professional Development has
been provided under different titles such as refresher courses, orientation, updating,
induction, and in-service programs (Olembo, Wanga & Karugu, 1992: Wanzare
and Ward, 2010).

30
The policy framework on teacher continuing professional development in Kenya
has also been influenced by education commissions, taskforces, working groups
and the report of the taskforce on the realignment of the education sector to the
Kenya, the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and Vision 2030. Sessional Paper No. 1 of
2005 on Education, Training and Research which put emphasis on effective
teacher development and utilization also gave a guideline on the aspect of capacity
building of teachers. According to this sessional paper, education and training in
Kenya must incorporate the importance of learning through ones’ lifetime as being
essential to effective social and economic development. This therefore supports the
professional development of teachers throughout their teaching career. The Master
Plan on Education and Training (1997-2010) further indicated that professional
development and efficient management of the teaching force were crucial factors
in raising the relevance and quality of education. This should be done by
improving teachers’ pedagogical skills and approaches that prepare the teachers as
a medium for translating teaching and learning into a learner-centered process.
The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) since 1998 has partnered with
the Kenyan Government in In-Service Education and Training (INSET) of teachers
in order to raise the quality of teaching mathematics and science in primary and
secondary schools as teachers had inadequate opportunities to be capacity-built. In
the endeavor to improve pupil achievement in mathematics and science, the
government of Kenya implemented SMASE-INSET program for mathematics and
science teachers in primary schools between 2009 and 2013 (Republic of Kenya,
2008). The Teachers’ Service Commission Act (2012) further underscores that
teachers would be expected to undergo continuous career progression and

31
professional development either at Kenya Education Management Institute or any
other government recognized institutions of higher learning as prescribed by the
teachers’ employer failure to which teachers would be dealt with as per the
provisions in the Act. This was in order to upgrade as a means of keeping abreast
with the ever changing techniques in institutional management and classroom
work. This is also captured in the teacher performance and appraisal and
development (TPAD) 2014 tool introduced by the TSC in all public schools in
Kenya. Among the seven competency areas that teachers are appraised on is
Professional Development. There is need therefore to investigate the effect of
professional development against performance in KCPE.
Cohen and Hill (2001) in a study investigating California’s decade-long efforts to
improve elementary mathematics teaching indicated that state policy had a
constructive influence on teachers and students. This positive influence was only
noted when policy was aligned to the tests, curricula, and classroom practices.
Teachers also needed to be given numerous opportunities, to learn the practices
proposed by the policy. Figure 2.1 shows a model of teacher professional
development in Kenya.
32
Figure 2.1: A model of teacher professional development in Kenya

(Adapted from Wanzare and Ward, 2000)
Figure 2.1 illustrates that most of the professional development programs in Kenya
adopt the top-bottom approach with government agencies organizing the in service
training for teachers. It is envisaged that after engaging in service training there is
improved teaching and enhance learner performance. The head teacher is also a
critical link between the government agencies and the teachers.
Teacher professional development involves teachers’ learning, how they learn to
learn and how they apply their knowledge in practice to support pupil learning
(Avalos, 2011). Teachers learn through participation in various courses, reflection
of their own teaching and in observation of and reflection on teaching with
colleagues. Learning may occur in planned meetings between teachers, informal
communication with others before or after teaching. This means learning occurs
both formally and informally. This study sought to focus on teacher formal training
as well as collaborative school based activities and their effect on achievement in
KCPE.
33
Effective PD is supposed to provide teachers with enough time to learn, practice,
implement and reflect on the knowledge learnt. Darling-Hammond, Hyler and
Gardner (2017), define effective professional development as professional learning
that is structured resulting in changes in teacher practices and improvements in
student learning outcomes. The demand for improving the quality of teaching and
learning and the need for accountability have put issues related with effective
professional development high on the agenda of educators, researchers and policy
makers (OECD, 2005). UNESCO (2011) observed that if we want to offer quality
teaching and learning in school, quality learning for teachers should be made
available.
However, it is important to note that there is no single professional development
strategy that will always work in every school, for every teacher, all of the time.
There is need therefore to customize these programs to fit individual teachers’ and
schools’ needs (Fishman, Marx, Best, & Tal, 2003). A number of professional
development programs integrate several strategies in one intervention, for example
a workshop would have formal learning combined with teacher coaching. Wei,
Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, (2009) and Penuel,
Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, (2007) noted that effective professional
development programs have the component of improving teacher knowledge,
providing job-embedded opportunities for teachers to collaborate on issues that are
very close to the classroom. This learning should then have positive impact on
pupil achievement. Hiebert, Gallimore, & Stigler, (2002) assert that there is
growing consensus that professional development gives the optimal results when it
is long-term, school based and collaborative, actively involving all the teachers and
34
focused on student learning. Professional development contributes to teacher
effectiveness by providing continuous individual and collective improvement
necessary to adequately address expectations for improving student learning
(Elmore 2007). However according to Fullan (2007) not all professional
development is equally effective in improving teacher quality. Guskey (2004),
states that the main characteristics of effective professional development are
enhancement of teacher content and pedagogic knowledge. This is the reason why
this study sought to find out if the forms of professional development teachers
engaged in helped to improve their subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge
and the effect of these on KCPE achievement.
Darling-Hammond, Hyler and Gardner (2017) in a review of several studies
identified seven features of effective professional development namely, content
focused, incorporates active learning, supports collaboration, uses models of
effective practice, provides coaching and expert support, offers feedback and
reflection and is of sustained duration. According to O’sullivan (2011), traditional
ways of measuring impact of teacher professional development focused on teacher
satisfaction and ignored impact on teacher learning, use of new practices, pupils’
outcomes and/or value for money. What is the effect of teacher professional
development activities in Kirinyaga County on KCPE achievement?
Desimone (2011) observes that teacher professional development has been
considered as one of the most crucial factors for improving the quality schools in
the United State. The fact that the teachers are central in the teaching and learning
35
process is widely acknowledged and the link between low pupil achievement and
the skills and competence of teachers is consistently made (UNESCO, 2005).
Dembélé and Lefoka (2007) confirm that research on teacher quality concludes
that poor quality of students’ learning correlates strongly with poor quality of
teachers’ teaching. It is assumed that initial teacher education (ITE) and continuing
professional development (CPD) help teachers enhance pedagogic knowledge and
skill which then impact positively on student learning outcomes. The key to quality
education is outstanding instruction by highly proficient and effective teachers.
Effective professional development strongly links teacher and student learning and
is guided by data. The quality of teachers is a significant factor explaining student
achievement (Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor 2007; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005).
However, there has been little research in Kenya, linking teacher professional
development and achievement in national examinations. This is a concern of this
study.
Research studies link teacher effectiveness to student learning and achievement
(Darling-Hammond 2008; Goe, Bell, & Little, 2008). Literature emphasizes that
effective professional development programs focus on the improvement of student
learning (Guskey, 2000; Joyce and Showers 2002; Fullan, Hill, & Crevola, 2006).
In summary, various studies using different research methods, for instance,
correlational studies (Cohen and Hill, 2000; Garet et al., 2001; Ingvarson et al.,
2005;), meta-analyses (Yoon et al., 2007), and experimental studies (Carpenter,
Fennema, Peterson, Chiang, & Loef (1989) have all concluded that content-
focused professional development enhances teachers’ knowledge, and teaching

36
practice which then improves student learning. It was imperative therefore to
ascertain if the professional development activities teachers in Kirinyaga County
participated in had an effect on achievement.
2.2 Teacher Perceptions on Continuing Professional Development and
Academic Achievement
Teachers’ views and attitudes are critical factors to be considered when designing
teacher professional development programs. However, in most cases, professional
development programs are often designed, organized, and delivered by
policymakers and partners without allowing teachers to identify their needs and
designing programs to address those needs (World Bank, 2010). In 2013, a study
funded by Hewlett foundation on teacher preparation in Africa, researchers found
that most of the professional development interventions were top-down and donor
funded with no input of the recipients. Guskey (2002) argues that teachers’
attitudes and belief change when they witness evidence of improvement in
students’ learning. This study investigated beliefs and attitudes of primary school
teachers as far as their continuing professional development and achievement was
concerned since Kirinyaga is a top KCPE performing County but with performance
disparities among public and private schools and across the sub counties.
Continuous Professional Development has an effect on teachers’ beliefs and
behaviours. According to Sparks (2003), effective professional developments
transforms participants’ beliefs and assumptions hence bringing a change in habits
and practice. Wood (2003) supported this with results of a study of groups of early
childhood development (ECD) teachers in England who were helped to collect data
37
about their own theories of play and their relationship to practice. The study
concluded that, besides the individual satisfaction or financial benefits that teachers
get from participating in professional development programs, professional
development affects teachers’ beliefs and students’ learning positively. The current
study, however, sought to establish teacher perceptions on their professional
development by looking at the reasons for engagement in professional
development, its relevance and effect on KCPE achievement in private and public
primary schools.
One off seminars and workshops often attempt to change teachers’ beliefs and
attitudes. The expectations were that once teachers changed their beliefs and
practices, their classroom practices and behaviors would also change (Clarke and
Hollingsworth, 2002). Professional development should also focus on teachers’
values and beliefs about teaching which should be in accordance with teaching
practices. It also requires the development of certain ethical values and attitudes. A
teacher’s attitude, which is characterized by beliefs, expectations, strong
motivation, clarity of exposition, enthusiasm, interest in children, intensity of
interaction with pupils needs investigation. This is because the attitude of the
teacher affects their performance; even if he/she has high levels of professional
training and subject knowledge, if the teacher has a negative attitude the learners
may not perform optimally. This had relevance to this study, in that it sought to
investigate the perceptions of teachers on professional development and its effect
on their performance and pupils’ achievement

38
A teacher’s beliefs in his/her abilities along with their motivation impact student
learning. What were teachers’ beliefs of their professional development and its
subsequent effect on pupils’ KCPE achievement? According to the National
Research Council (2007), teachers’ perspectives of professional development need
to be taken seriously as there have been reported cases of teacher dissatisfaction.
Research indicates that teachers assert that the most effective development
programmes, according to their experiences, are the self-initiated ones like peer
observation, professional discussion and informal networking (Muijs and Harris,
2005).
Chih-Lun Hung and Feng-Chin Li (2017) carried out a study in Taiwan on teacher
perceptions of professional role and innovative teaching at elementary schools. The
study found out that the professional role perceptions of teachers, especially on
professional development, had positive and significant relationship with innovative
teaching. Hyslop-Margison (2010) identified six dimensions of role perception i.e.
professional knowledge, services, ethics, autonomy, development, and
organization. The current study investigated teacher perceptions of professional
development and its effect on KCPE achievement. Research shows that positive
teacher attitudes and perceptions are critical for effective teaching. Teachers’
beliefs, perceptions and attitudes affect their practice and influence the students’
performance (Eggen and Kauchak, 2001). Bentea Cristina-Corina and Anghelache
Valerica (2012) studied teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards professional
activity in Romanian primary, secondary and high schools. They examined the
relation between teacher perceptions of their profession, job satisfaction and
mentality towards work. They found that overall job satisfaction correlated with
39
positive perception of professional activity. The current study focused on the effect
of teacher perceptions of their professional development on KCPE achievement.
In his doctoral dissertation 2016, Jerry William Ripley collected data using an
online survey to examine PK-12 teacher perceptions of their individual
professional learning programs. He focused on the perceived benefits of
professional learning programs and whether the Professional Learning Programs
(PLP) helped focus teacher learning. The study found that regardless of the level of
experience or grade level taught, teachers had significantly positive perception of
PLP and the associated professional development activities. The current study
focused on teacher perception of their professional development as well as the
effect of this perception on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County. Mosha
(2015) study in Tanzania established that teachers had a positive perception
towards their professional development. They however felt that their professional
development was not adequately supported. The current study sought to establish
teacher perceptions of their professional development in terms of the reasons for
engagement, benefits as well as its effect on achievement.
2.3 Formal Training Professional Development Programs and Academic
Achievement
This study focused on teacher participation in formal training programs which
comprised teacher academic progress and attendance to in service courses.
Certain types of teacher qualifications are often positively linked with increased
student achievement particularly in mathematics. Teacher completion of an
undergraduate or graduate major in mathematics is associated with higher student

40
achievement in high school and middle school (Aaronson, Barrow, & Sanders
2003; Goldhaber and Brewer 2000; Wenglinsky, 2000 2002). Wenglinsky (2000)
found similar results in science. The effects associated with a teacher’s possession
of an advanced degree are strikingly counterintuitive, considering the salary
incentives given to teachers to pursue graduate degrees. On the other hand, some
studies find no substantial benefit for students of teachers with advanced degrees
and others indicate that teachers with master’s degrees and beyond may negatively
influence their students’ achievement (Clotfelter, Ladd, and Vigdor, 2006; Rowan,
Correnti, and Miller, 2002). Betts, Zau, and Rice (2003) found a positive but
insignificant effect for middle school mathematics achievement when teachers hold
master’s degrees. On the other hand, Hanushek, Kain, O’Brien, and Rivkin (2005)
did not find any association between teachers holding master’s degrees and fourth-
through eighth-grade students’ students’ mathematics in Texas. This study sought
to find out the effect of academic qualifications after pre service training and their
effect on KCPE achievement.
Cohen and Hill (2000) investigated the association between teachers’ participation
in student curriculum workshops and changes in teachers’ practice and student
achievement. They used regression analysis and found a positive relationship
between teachers participating in student curriculum workshops and students’ math
scores. This study investigated the effect of teacher participation in formal training
i.e. academic qualifications and in service training on KCPE achievement.
According to Fullan (2009), only 10% to 20% of American teachers engage in
meaningful professional development while 90% of them participate in

41
professional development consisting mainly of one day or short-term workshops
and conferences. In Parise and Spillane’s (2010) study on school staff members in
30 American elementary schools showed that teachers appreciate formal further
education that is directly connected to teaching in school. This study seeks to
investigate the level of teacher engagement in workshops and seminars and their
effect on KCPE achievement. This is because teachers have been attending in
service training activities provided by the government and other development
partners, publishers, religious organizations and other providers. The effect of
these formal training activities on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga is however not
clear. Bezzina (2001) claimed that professional development which takes place
outside of schools is out of context with the learning needs of teachers. Joyce and
Showers (2002) also showed that workshops alone have less than a 5% chance of
changing teacher classroom practices.
Literature notes the weaknesses of traditional forms of in service training and one
shot workshops and the need to engage teachers in a richer variety of professional
development activities and modes of delivery (Brown-Easton, 2004; Feiman-
Nemser 2001; Guskey 2000). Fullan (2007) is of the view that external approaches
outside the school are not powerful, specific, or sustained enough to change the
culture of the classroom and school. This is due to the fact that they are removed
from the daily classroom experiences of the teachers and are often of short
duration.
The duration and number of times teachers engage in professional development
activities is critical. Duration comprises both the number of contact hours of

42
professional development, and the length of time over which engagement in the
activity lasts (Hochberg and Desimone, 2010). Heck, Banilower, Weiss &
Rosenberg, (2008); Supovitz and Turner (2000) found that contact hours of
professional development had a positive relationship with teachers’ outcomes, like
attitude, preparedness, and teaching practice. Supovitz and Turner (2000) study of
science projects chunked the professional development participation hours into five
time periods: 1 - 19 hours, 20 - 39 hours, 40 - 79 hours, 80 - 159 hours, and more
than 160 hours. They found that a strong link existed between teacher total
participation hours in professional development and both inquiry-based teaching
practices and an investigative classroom culture.
Yoon, Duncan, Scarloss, & Shapley, (2007) analyzed nine studies and found that
duration of professional development had an effect on student learning: Six
studies showed that professional development that had a range of 30 to 100 hours
showed a statistically significant and positive effect on student achievement. On
the other hand, three studies with professional development, ranging from 5 to 14
hours, showed no statistically significant effect on student learning. Darling-
Hammond et al., (2009) and Desimone (2009) also point out to the importance of
sustained duration for PD to be effective. Literature supports that learning how to
teach as an excellent teacher was a long term process that required very practical
and complex skills acquired through expert guidance and supervision.
Kukla-Acevedo (2009) and Harris and Sass (2011) note that there is a lot of
literature on the relationship between pre-service training and student achievement
and not on the effectiveness of professional development in influencing in-service

43
teacher quality, and achievement. This study however sought to focus on effect of
teacher professional development i.e. formal training programs (academic
advancement and in service courses) on KCPE achievement.
2.4 Collaborative Teacher Professional Development Activities and
Academic Achievement
Collaboration, shared inquiry and learning from and with peers are critical aspects
of professional development. Learning through relationships is a foundation for
career growth. There is an increasing international body of knowledge that points
towards collaborative on-going teacher learning through participation in
professional communities of inquiry as means for successful and empowering
teacher learning (Ma, 2010). These professional learning communities comprise
groups of teachers that are formed with the aim of sharing and critically
interrogating their practice. This should be done in a continuous, reflective,
collaborative, inclusive, learning-oriented, and growth-promoting manner in order
to enhance teacher and student learning. This is because it assists in allowing other
crucial aspects of effective professional development to occur. At first it gives
teachers a chance to collaborate with other teachers. Secondly, it presents an
opportunity for more sustained learning and professional development to occur
because it becomes part of the teachers’ daily work. Finally, it allows work to be
well bred together in a very meaningful and concrete way that addresses individual
teachers’ specific classroom problems. The current study sought to find out the
level of teacher participation in collaborative professional development activities at
the school and its effect on KCPE achievement.

44
Little, Gearhart, Curry, & Kafka, (2003) observed that schools may not yet have
utilized the potential of knowledge sharing among teachers. However, Mawhiney
(2010) opines that teachers find sharing of other teachers’ knowledge as useful
means of learning. Darling-Hammond, Holtzman, Gatlin, &, Heilig (2005) note
that when teachers share on what good teaching entails they help set conducive
learning environment and apply the learnt strategies. As teachers carry out
activities and share their experience with colleagues, they get opportunities to learn
new strategies (Lieberman and Mace, 2008). This study addressed the issue of how
teachers share knowledge and skills acquired from professional development.
Effective professional development should allow teachers to directly apply what
they learn to their own classroom teaching. The feedback from colleagues and
facilitators, provide opportunities for teachers to critique their practice through
reflection. In most cases, assessment mechanisms are used for record keeping and
administration instead of focusing on giving teachers high quality professional
learning experiences that encourage problem identification, feedback, and
reflection on their practices.
Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, and Yoon (2001) in a study of teachers, who
participated in the Eisenhower Professional Development Program, established that
teachers were likely to change their instructional practices and gain more subject
knowledge and enhanced teaching skills when their professional development was
linked directly to their daily experiences and aligned with standards and
assessments. This study sought to find out if teacher engagement in school based
professional development activities had an effect on achievement.

45
Collaborative learning and peer-assisted learning are often identified as effective
practices in different setting (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). This study focused on
collaborative activities that include peer coaching and lesson observation and their
effect on achievement. Peer coaching is beneficial in providing opportunity for
collaboration, evaluating teacher effectiveness, and improving teacher quality
(Marshall, 2005). Briton and Anderson (2010) examined the effectiveness of peer
coaching on the teaching practices of pre-service teacher interns in high schools in
the US. The study sought to find out if teacher intern practices were altered and/or
affirmed by participating in peer coaching exercises. The study using 1900 racially
and economically diverse students in grades 9–12 found that peer coaching helped
change teachers’ teaching practices. The study therefore recommended the
addition of peer coaching as a requirement in the pre-service teacher-training
process. The current study however, sought to find out the effect of teacher peer
coaching activities on KCPE achievement. Joyce and Showers (2002) also note
that when teachers engaged in peer coaching there was increased practice and
transfer of new knowledge and skills. The current study was carried out among
primary school teachers and it focused on peer coaching after pre service training
particularly for teachers in upper primary and its effect on achievement. The other
gap was that this study utilized interviews while the current study used varied data
collection tools namely questionnaires, focus group discussion guide and interview
schedule guides for triangulation purposes. The gap the current study sought to fill
was if peer coaching after pre service training was having effect on KCPE
achievement.
46
Researchers have suggested a variety of ways to promote active learning which
include observing expert teachers or being observed, developing and presenting
lessons, coaching and mentoring, or interacting with teachers on how to improve
teaching practice (Desimone, 2009; Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry and
Hewson, 2003). This study was out to find out if teachers were promoting active
learning by observing others as well as being observed and if this was having
effect on achievement at KCPE level.
Garet et al., (2001) evaluated some aspects of active learning like teachers
observing and being observed; reviewing student work; and presenting, leading,
and writing. The found a positive link between teacher learning opportunities and
enhanced knowledge and skills. The study did not however relate teacher lesson
observation to achievement at national level examination, which is the concern of
the current study. Ingvarson, Beavis, Bishop, Peck, &, Ellsworth (2005) measured
active learning and found that active learning for teachers was positively associated
with both their knowledge and teaching. This study specifically focuses on
teachers assisting each other, observing each other and team teaching as aspects of
active learning. Their effect on KCPE achievement was also measured.
According to Borko (2000) the various ways suggested by research for teachers to
engage in effective teacher learning opportunities include coaching, mentoring,
study groups, action research, and observation of teachers. Self or observer
examination of the teacher's practice provide the most powerful teacher learning
experiences (Putnam and Borko, 2000). Stiggins (2004) opines that as researchers
47
advocate for collaborative professional development, the use of learning teams,
peer review are appropriate and viable options.
Hagen and Nyen (2009), show that good teachers assume responsibility for their
professional development even as they engage in co-operating with other teachers.
Levine and Marcus (2010) conclude that different forms of cooperative activities
should be planned to promote learning in various areas. Meirink, Meijer, Verloop,
&, Bergen (2009) in a study of 34 secondary teachers in Netherlands found that
teachers learn at their workplace by trying out various teaching methods after
having observed how a colleague teaches or after reflection on teaching together
with colleagues improve. A Norwegian project studied 12 teachers in a lower
secondary school where three subject teachers observed each other once a
semester. Each teacher observed two other teachers and was also observed once.
(Postholm, 2011). The study showed the importance of teachers having the time to
agree on teaching practices, and the need for them to implement the same. Lesson
study which originated in Japan, has contributed to teachers’ learning as teachers
plan a class together, and then one of them teaches this class while the others
observe. After the teaching, they reflect and make improvements and another
teacher teaches the class and is observed.
Lawrence and Chong (2010) investigated ten teachers from a secondary school in
Singapore on lesson observation. They found that the sense of togetherness among
colleagues and teacher self-efficacy was strengthened through teacher cooperation.
In their study, the teachers were also joined by an expert teacher. The findings
showed that tips from the expert teacher were found to be useful and allowed
48
teachers to learn new knowledge about the subject and education practice, thus
gaining more understanding of pupil needs and classroom management. However,
the participants in the study also pointed out challenges in relation to finding time
to observe and reflect. Camburn (2010), findings showed that teacher reflection
based on practice actions leads to changes in practice. The study also showed that
the opportunity to reflect together with colleagues and experts leads to more
reflection and teacher learning. These studies din not however relate teacher
observation to achievement.
Zwart et al., (2009) in a study of secondary school teachers showed that the
greatest number of changes in teaching practice are realized when the teachers
observe each other and give feedback on the observed practice. Teachers model
new teaching strategies when they know they are going to be observed. The study
also showed that teachers learn most when they have the opportunity to discuss
their experiences in a trusted, confident and constructive atmosphere. The study
showed that if teachers have internal motivation for learning, they will take part in
professional development programmes even if the school leaders do not support
this through time and scheduling. The current study investigated the effect of
teachers’ participation in lesson observation and its effect on achievement in
KCPE.
According to the 2008 Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) from
the OECD, the concept of a school as a learning organization is gaining popularity
in education. Teachers who apply varied teaching practices and who actively
involved in professional learning communities have higher self-efficacy. These

49
teachers receive more feedback and appraisal on their instruction and are more
involved in professional development activities outside of schools. However, the
correlations and effects of these aspects are not clear. The current study sought to
assess the effect of school based professional activities i.e. peer coaching, lesson
observation and team teaching on KCPE achievement.
Team teaching is an approach to program delivery where two of more educators
share teaching responsibilities within a classroom setting. Research findings on the
effect of team teaching on student satisfaction and achievement are mixed.
According to Spraker (2003) team teaching has positive effects on students
because it fosters better achievements and positive attitude towards schooling.
According to Wadkins, Miller, and Wozniak (2006) there are both tangible and
intangible benefits to students, faculty, and institutions that engage in team
teaching. Some of the benefits associated with teachers participating in team
teaching include learning about teaching, improving teaching skills and building
collegial relationships and improved student-teacher relationship. There are
however, draw backs associated with team teaching like having inadequate staff,
lack of sufficient time to collaborate and overlapping roles. Successful team
teaching requires the active school commitment of time, resources, and careful
planning.
Collective participation refers to the extent to which a number of teachers from the
one school participate in similar learning opportunities (Hochberg and Desimone,
2010). Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman (2002) found that professional
development where teachers from the same school participated in collective

50
learning was effective in changing teachers’ classroom practices. Penuel, Fishman,
Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, (2007) also found that when all teachers in the
department or grade were involved more changes were reported. This study
focused on the effect of teacher participation in collaborative activities on
academic achievement.
Cordingley, Bell, Evans, & Firth, (2005) carried out a systematic review of
seventeen studies of collaborative and/or sustained continuing professional
development (CPD) in various contexts. They found that when teachers engage in
collaborative CPD, there was improvement in pupils’ learning and behaviour, and
in teacher’s practices, attitudes and beliefs. The results were not the same for
teachers engaged in individually-oriented CPD. This is relevant as the current
study investigated both individually oriented professional development activities
and collaborative professional development activities and their effect on KCPE
achievement.
On the other hand, Saxe, Gearhart, and Nasir (2001) found that providing teachers
time to collaborate and reflect did not have as strong an effect on student learning
in math as collaboration that focused on teachers’ content knowledge. This study
investigated the areas in which teachers collaborated on. Suporvitz (2002) found
that only one-fourth of the teachers’ teams participated in high levels of group
instructional practices, and the impact on student learning were mixed. There is
need therefore to investigate if teacher participation in collaborative activities like
team teaching had any effect on KCPE achievement in the locale of the study.
51
Cordingley et al., (2005) also found that collaborative continuous professional
development achieved best results when an outside expertise was brought in to the
classroom, and when these experts established fruitful and respectful relations with
teachers. Active learning experiences such as observing and being observed
teaching, planning lessons, and analyzing student work can have a powerful impact
on teacher practices and student achievement (Czerniak 2006; Meissner, 2008).
Guskey (2000) emphasized on five critical levels for evaluating professional
development, which include: teachers’ reaction, their learning, use of new
knowledge and skills, organization support, and student learning outcomes. In a
theoretical study, Desimone (2009) identified five characteristics of teachers’
learning that should be prominent if the knowledge and skills of teachers are to be
strengthened and their practice improved. These are: content focus, active learning,
coherence, duration and collective participation or co-operation. Content focus
deals with subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge while active learning
involves observing expert teachers or being observed with interactive feedback and
discussion. Coherence refers to the content in the teachers’ learning and whether it
is consistent with their prior knowledge. Duration is the period and spread of
activities over time. Desimone suggests that the professional development activity
should last one semester with 20 contact hours.
Research indicates that excellent teacher Professional Development is one that
integrates into the daily school life, offers opportunities for teachers to reflect and
learn and also supports innovation and collaboration for teachers to develop. It also
helps enrich teacher learning through critical engagement with others. While it is
52
true that other factors may comprise effective professional development, the five
empirical indicators of effective professional development identified during the
literature review were duration, active learning, focus on content knowledge,
coherence with teachers’ needs and collective participation (Desimone 2009; Garet
et al., 2001). Another important feature of good teacher development identified in
the systematic review by Cordingley et al., (2005) involves sustained professional
development that allows teachers to embed effective practices into their
classrooms.
Recommendation from a study in Kenya on teacher preparation and continuing
professional development by Bunyi, Wangia, Magoma and Limboro in a project
funded by William & Flora Hewlett Foundation, 2013 was that a policy on
continuous professional development should be urgently put in place to
institutionalize professional development as a strategy for improving the quality of
teaching and education in Kenya. They recommended a critical analysis of the
professional development programmes like SbTD, SMASSE to inform a sustained
reading and mathematics professional programme for lower primary teachers. The
current study however, addressed the professional development of teachers in
upper primary specifically those handling class eight and its effect on KCPE
achievement.
In her doctoral dissertation, Delilah Mitchell, 2013 on eighth grade teachers’
perceptions about the types, quality, and impact of their job-embedded professional
development experiences found that teachers mainly participated in traditional
workshops and conferences that took place in their school district. Respondents
rarely participated in non-traditional activities such as interning, coaching, and data

53
teams. This shows there is need for teachers to embrace more diverse job
embedded professional development for greater impact on student learning. The
current study focused on teacher collaborative activities (peer coaching, lesson
observation and team teaching) and their effect on KCPE achievement.
An integration of various approaches is required for optimal realization of
professional development. Effective professional development should; Engage
teachers in practical tasks and provide opportunities to observe, assess and reflect
on new practices, be participant driven and grounded in enquiry, reflection and
experimentation, be collaborative and involve the sharing of knowledge. It should
also directly connect to the work of teachers and their students, be sustained,
ongoing and intensive and content focused to have a positive and lasting impact on
classroom instruction and teacher performance (Darling-Hammond, 2009;
Desimone, 2009). Other approaches that teachers and principals can employ are
on-the-job training, networking, benchmarking visits, symposia and lecturers, and
joining professional organizations.
Above all, it is important to underscore that effective professional-development
programs should be embedded within the job and provide teachers with critical
elements. According to Darling-Hammond et al., (2009) first teachers get the
opportunity to learn in a supportive community where curriculum is organized
across grades and subjects. It also links curriculum, assessment, in the context of
teaching specific content where they apply use of new knowledge and receive
feedback. There should also be ongoing data to show how teaching practices
influence student learning over time. Authentic professional learning requires

54
methods for reflection and feedback. This study sought to find out if teachers
collaborated through lesson observation, team teaching and sharing feedback on
continuing professional development and the effect of these on achievement. Love,
Stiles, Mundry and Hewson (2003) outlined principles of effective professional
development which include: giving teachers opportunities to improve their content
and pedagogical knowledge, time to reflect on their practice and engaging in
collaborative communities focused on student learning.
There is also growing literature on the relationship between pre-service training
and student achievement (Kukla-Acevedo, 2009; Harris and Sass, 2011). However,
effect of professional development through in service and collaborative teacher
professional development and achievement has not received much analytical focus
particularly in the locale of the study.
2.5 Head teacher support for Professional Development and academic
Achievement
A school head teacher is the overall manager and leader in the school. He/she is in
charge of ensuring that effective teaching and learning is taking place in the
school, and that ineffective practices aren’t allowed identified and got rid of. Head
teachers are instrumental in building schools that promote powerful teaching and
learning for all students, (NPBEA 2001; Peterson, 2002). According to Odhiambo
(2009), the problem of poor performance is deeply rooted in management practices
which will have to change if the targets in education sector are to be realized. In
order to cultivate high-quality teaching, head teachers should support teacher
professional development. Traditionally, the head teachers’ role in schools was

55
among other responsibilities to promote academic performance and success of a
school. The head teacher however also needs to be involved in the professional
development of their teachers. The head teacher is the pivot around which most
school aspects revolve. This is because he/she is in charge of both academic and
administrative issues. A school is appraised against the performance of the head
teacher. This is a key role that the head teacher must play. The aspect of the head
teachers’ role in teacher professional development and its effect on learner
achievement needs to be investigated.
According to Moilanen and Moilanen, (2009), new teachers do not always have
information about the possible continuing education possibilities and therefore the
principal sometimes suggests suitable courses The principal decides who and when
teachers can participate in continuing education. The study however found out that
no personal development plans for teachers were done systematically. This was of
importance to this study as it would seek to find out how primary school head
teachers supported teacher continuing professional development and if this had an
effect on achievement.
Blandford (2000) asserts that in order for schools to be effective, managers and
teachers will need to engage in professional development. In his view, effective
schools don’t just happen; they thrive because the people in them work hard to
make them successful. One of the most influential links to accurate teacher
professional development is the active involvement of school heads in such
initiatives. Research identifies the critical role of principals in key areas of

56
recruiting, developing, and retaining teachers and creating a learning culture within
the school and supporting improvement as illustrated in the figure 2.2.
Teacher Satisfaction Teacher

 Motivation Recruitment
 feeling valued
 belongingness
 professional
autonomy
TEACHER
School DEVELOPMENT
Leadership
Teacher
Role/Performance
 Enhanced classroom
practices
External Pressures –  Teacher leadership Teacher
 Less trust of  School effectiveness/ Retention
professionals improvement/capacity
 Work load
 Lack of control
over work
 Poor pay prospects
Enhanced student
outcomes
Figure 2.2: Ways in which principals influence teacher development

Adapted from Muiford (2003)
School leaders influence most school related factors that improve performance and
help counter any negative external influences. As the framework in figure 2.2 for
OECD’s ‘Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers Project’ argues:
A skilled and well-supported leadership team in schools can help

foster a sense of ownership and purpose in the way that teachers
approach their job, giving professional autonomy to teachers will
enhance the attractiveness of the profession as a career choice and
will improve the quality of the classroom teaching practice (OECD
2002, p.14).
57
Head teachers should therefore consider giving teachers freedom in choice of
professional development activities as this helped enhance the attractiveness of the
teaching profession as a career choice. This would help contribute to the success of
the school and improve student achievement. According to Day, Hadfield, Tolley,
& Beresford, (2000) findings of research from different countries and school
contexts show that leadership has powerful impact on school effectiveness and
improvement. They further assert in schools where there is improvement, the head
teachers immensely contribute to the effectiveness of their staff through
professional support.
Studies suggest that principals noted that most teachers were likely to expand their
teaching range if there was clearly designed support and assistance program for
them (Berube 2004, Zimmerman, 2006). It is therefore imperative that principals
willingly support teachers by availing opportunities for professional growth like
sponsorship to seminars and workshops. However, some studies show that teachers
and principals view teacher professional development as well as the role of the
principal on teacher professional development differently. In a Phyllis and Lopez
(2011) study, 95% of principals said they sought teachers’ input before making a
decision but only 45% of teachers reported this to be so. Teachers in the study also
felt that principals did not acknowledge their professional growth and they
therefore felt disenfranchised.
Zimmerman (2006) found out that high teacher self-efficacy was associated with
high levels of communication between administration and staff. Teachers in the
study also felt that offering a mentor was more important in their professional
58
growth while principals viewed listening to teachers concerns as more important.
This clearly attests to the fact that teachers and principals have varied perceptions
as to what contributes greatly to teachers’ professional growth and its subsequent
effect on achievement. Leithwood, Seashore, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, (2004)
concluded that among school-related factors that help improve student
achievement, leadership came second and the greatest impact was witnessed in
traditionally underserved schools. The Wallace Foundation (2012) also concurs by
noting that school supervisors, principals, head teachers and those in leadership
positions in the school play an instrumental role as they provide the vision, time,
and resources to support continuous professional learning. This helps create a
positive school climate, and high achievement for all students. Research also
shows that the following features of effective leadership can improve student
achievement: high academic expectations, cooperative learning environment,
support and promotion of continuous professional learning (Leithwood, Seashore,
Anderson, & Wahlstrom, (2004); Vescio, Ross, & Adams 2008; The Wallace
Foundation, 2012).
“Professional development can succeed only in settings, or contexts, that support
it,” Sandra Harwell noted this in her paper “Teacher Professional Development:
It’s Not an Event, It’s a Process 2003” She also emphasized the role of leaders in
establishing such contexts and the significance of educators’ beliefs as they engage
in professional learning. Working conditions are also linked, not only to teacher
satisfaction and retention but also to student achievement. The effect of leadership
on classroom outcomes should be through support and development of teachers as

59
well as the organizational setup of the school. The most critical principal practice
involves:
Working directly with teachers to improve effectiveness in the

classroom, providing resources, and professional development to
improve instruction, regularly monitoring teaching and student
progress, participating in discussions on educational issues, and
promoting parental and community involvement in the school
(Leithwood &Jantzi, 2000, pg. 114).
The current study investigated not just how school leaders were involved in teacher
professional development but also its effect on achievement in KCPE.
Schools leaders need to recognise professional development as an integral part of
school improvement, which should be well planned and provided according to
teachers’ needs and school objectives. Supporting teachers in their professional
development often leads to improved outcomes for learners. Barber and Mourshed
(2007) emphasized the importance of principals’ providing pedagogical leadership
in high performing schools.
Hardman (2011) study focused on teacher perceptions of their principals’
leadership styles and the effects on academic achievement in improving and non-
improving schools. The study found that teachers in improving and non-improving
schools had minimal difference in how they perceived their leaders. The current
study looked at teachers’ views on the support provided by the head teacher with
regard to teacher professional development. A leader who is focused on the
teachers supports development of school capacity which helps in instilling positive
teacher capacity resulting in increased student achievement.

60
A study carried out in Taiwan in 2017 examined principals’ change leadership as
perceived by elementary school teachers and its impact on teacher professional
development. The results of this study showed that a supportive environment and
principal’s change in leadership explained 23% of the teachers’ professional
development. It is hence important for head teachers to build supportive school
environments for teachers to engage in professional development activities within
and without the school compound.
2.6 Summary
This chapter has reviewed literature on teacher professional development and
achievement. Literature has revealed that the concept of professional development
has broadened to encompass not only seminars and workshops but also job-
embedded ongoing professional learning opportunities. Findings from research
concur that professional development should be long term, sustained and
embedded in the daily work of teacher. There is however divergence in the
findings on these professional developments on learners’ achievement at various
levels. Traditional forms of in service training and one shot workshops have been
found to have shortcomings and teachers therefore need to be exposed to a variety
of professional development practices like collaboration, shared inquiry and
learning from and with peers. There has not been a study carried out on this
broadened concept of professional development in the locale. This study focused
on the effect of teacher formal training (academic advancement and in service
courses) and collaborative activities (peer coaching, lesson observation and team
teaching) on KCPE achievement.

61
Professional development gives the optimal results when it is long-term, school
based and collaborative, actively involving all the teachers and focused on student
learning. Literature shows that there are conflicting results on the effect on teacher
professional development and achievement. In some studies, the average effect is
0.54 while in others there is no effect and also negative effect has been reported.
All these studies have been done in the developed world and none has been carried
out in the locale of this study. The other gap identified is that the reviewed studied
looked at the effect of professional development on subjects like mathematics and
reading especially at the elementary level. This study focused on teacher
professional development and KCPE achievement and in particular the KCPE
mean score a teacher posted in the subjects they taught at class eight.
Head teacher support for teacher professional development has also been identified
as critical to teacher professional development. In some studies, teachers and
principals have different views on how teachers are supported in their professional
development. From the reviewed studies, most of them focused on the effect of
teacher professional development on performance at school level but this study
looked at effect of teacher professional development at the teacher KCPE subject
mean score level. Most Studies also focused on either professional development in
pre service training or at the elementary level. This study focused on professional
development after pre service training and on teachers teaching in upper primary.
The literature reviewed showed scanty of information on teacher professional
development and achievement in Kenya and particularly the locale of the study as
most studies were in the developed world.

62
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter focused on the methodology that was utilized in this study. It
described the research design, locale of the study, study population, sampling
procedures and data collection tools, analysis and reporting of findings.
3.1 Research Design
This study used convergent parallel mixed methods research design. This design
was appropriate for this study as the researcher’s intention was to validate findings
using quantitative and qualitative data sources and therefore fully understand the
topic of teacher professional development and achievement. The purpose of the
convergent mixed methods design is to merge both quantitative and qualitative
data on the same topic in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research
problem (Creswell 2013). The study was carried out in one phase with both
quantitative data and qualitative data collected during the same period.
Quantitative data was collected from teachers using a structured questionnaire.
Qualitative data was collected using focus group discussions with teachers and a
semi structured interview guide for the head teachers. The intention of using this
design in the study was to bring together the differing strengths and weakness of
quantitative methods with those of qualitative methods. The data generated from
the teacher questionnaires and focus group discussions was validated while data
from head teacher semi structured interview guide was used for corroboration. The
researcher wanted to validate quantitative results with qualitative findings. The
purpose of this model is to end up with valid and well substantiated conclusions
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about a single phenomenon which in this study was teacher professional
development. Both quantitative data and qualitative data were needed to best
understand the problem. The notation for the study was QUAN + QUAL. Each of
these methods was used during the same time frame and was viewed as important
in addressing the overall purpose of the study.
Mixed methods approach focuses on collecting, analyzing and mixing both
quantitative and qualitative data in a single study (Creswell, 2009). The
combination of qualitative and quantitative data provides a more comprehensive
picture as well as in depth knowledge of participants’ perspectives. It was
appropriate for this study as it sought to find out teacher and head teacher
perspectives of professional development. The other justification for use of mixed
methods approach in this study is that it allowed for use of different tools of data
collection i.e. questionnaires, focus group discussion guides and interview
schedules rather than being restricted to the types of data collection typically
associated with qualitative or quantitative research. This study used structured
questionnaire for teachers, teacher focus group discussion guide and semi
structured interview schedule for head teachers. Both the quantitative and
qualitative data were integrated during data analysis with some being in agreement
and others differing.
The structure of how the study design was utilized in the data collection and data
analysis is illustrated in figure 3.1

64
CONVERGENT PARALLEL MIXED METHODS DESIGN
Quantitative Approach Qualitative Approach
Participatory Approach FGD Guide

Questionnaire Subjects: Teachers
Subjects: Teachers Sampling: Purposive
Interview
Sampling: proportionate
Subjects: Head teachers
stratified sampling Sampling: Purposive
Analysis
Descriptive: Mean, Frequency
Inferential: Multiple Analysis
regression, T-test, Simple linear Content Analysis
regression
RELATE
Figure 3.1: Model of the research design

65
3.2 Variables
The independent variable in the study was teacher professional development
comprising teacher perceptions, participation in formal training programs,
participation in collaborative professional development activities, and school head
teacher leadership support. This variable was measured by use of items on a Likert
scale as well as items that guided the focus group discussion and interview guides.
The variable was scored using mean and frequency.
The dependent variable was KCPE achievement which was measured as the KCPE
mean score of the subject a teacher taught at class eight for the period 2015, 2016
and 2017. This was measured by getting the average KCPE subject mean score for
the three years.
3.3 Location of the Study
The study was carried out in Kirinyaga County. The county is situated in an
agricultural county with the main cash corps being tea and coffee. The climatic
condition is ideal for economic stability leading to expected high performance
among learners. Kirinyaga County comprises five sub counties namely, Kirinyaga
Central, Kirinyaga East, Kirinyaga West, Mwea East and Mwea West. The county
borders Mbeere to the south East, Nyeri and Murang’a to the West, Embu to the
East. The county has been a top performing county in KCPE for many years.
However, there were glaring performance disparities with more private schools
having a mean score above 300 marks and public schools having a mean score of
250 and below across the sub counties. The overall mean score for the private
schools was also higher than for public schools across the five sub counties. It
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would therefore be ideal for examining the Continuing Professional Development
of primary school teachers in view of performance disparities.
3.4 Target Population
Table 3.1: Target population

Sub counties Schools Schools Teachers Teachers Head Teachers
Public private Public private
Kirinyaga central 35 42 175 210 77
Kirinyaga East 48 31 240 155 79
Kirinyaga West 41 18 205 90 59
Mwea East 37 32 185 160 69
Mwea West 36 21 180 105 57
Sub total 197 144 985 720
Total 341 1705 341
3.4.1 Schools
This is the total population to which the researcher wants to generalize the results
of the study (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). The target population for the study
comprised three hundred and forty-one public and private primary schools that had
up to class eight i.e. 197 public schools and 144 private schools.
3.4.2 Respondents
The study also targeted 1705 public and private primary school teachers teaching
class eight. The study held that each examinable subject was taught by one teacher.
There are five examinable subjects at KCPE and with three hundred and forty-one
schools, the total number of targeted teachers were 1705. All the 341 public and
private primary school head teachers formed part of the target population.
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3.5 Sampling Technique and Sample size
3.5.1 Schools
From a target population of 341, stratified random sampling was used to select the
schools that were involved in the study. According to Orodho (2005) stratified
random sampling is appropriate when the population from which the sample is
drawn is not uniform. The schools were in two strata i.e. public and private. The
schools were further stratified according to sub counties for total representation.
According to Gay (1992), 20% is the minimum acceptable sample size for a small
population that is as small as 500 and below. In each stratum therefore, the
researcher randomly selected 20% of the schools. The number of schools used in
the study was therefore 68The sampled schools were then proportionately allocated
as per number of schools in each of the five sub counties that comprise Kirinyaga
County. The lottery method was then employed to pick the names of the schools to
be used in the study.
3.5.2 Respondents
The respondents used in this study were primary school teachers and head teachers.
These categories of respondents were chosen for use in this study because teachers
are the key players in professional development activities and the implementers of
the gained knowledge and skills. Head teachers are charged with the responsibility
of supervision of curriculum implementation by the teachers.
Teachers
The target population for this study was 1705 teachers handling the five
examinable subjects at class eight. This was out of the assumption that there were
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five teachers that participated in teaching each of the examinable subjects at KCPE
level. Gay (1992) recommended that if the population is large i.e. as large as 1000,
a minimum of 10% is adequate for the sample. Proportionate stratified sampling
was used to distribute the 170 teachers to the 68 sampled schools in the five sub
counties. Purposive sampling was used to select six teachers from each of the four
schools where the focus group discussions were conducted. According to Patton
(2015) Purposive sampling is used in qualitative research where the researcher
selects information rich respondents in order to get an in depth understanding of
the study variables. A total of 24 teachers were also purposively selected to take
part in the focus group discussion. The total teacher respondents were 194.
Head teachers
Purposive sampling was used to select at least two head teachers in public schools
and two in private schools in each sub county to carry out the head teacher
interviews. Purposive sampling entails the use researcher judgement in getting the
persons who are likely to provide in depth information on the aspects being
investigated (Patton, 2015). Out of the 68 sampled schools, purposive sampling
was used to get four head teachers from four schools from each of the five sub
counties. This was done on the basis of two performing (above 300 marks) schools
and two non performing (250 marks and below) schools in each of the five sub
counties. A sample size of 20 head teachers was involved in the study.

69
Table 3.2: Sampling matrix

Sub county Sampled schools Sampled Sampled
Teachers Head teachers
Public Private Public Private Public private
Kirinyaga central 7 8 18 20 2 2
Kirinyaga East 10 6 25 15 2 2
Kirinyaga West 8 4 20 10 2 2
Mwea East 7 6 18 15 2 2
Mwea West 7 5 18 13 2 2
Total 39 29 99 73 10 10
68 170 20
24
TOTAL 214
3.6 Research Instruments
A variety of instruments was adopted for purposes of triangulation and for
enriching the depth and accuracy of the data. Each method has its own advantages
and limitations and therefore the use of mixed methods would help minimize the
disadvantage. The issue under investigation would elicit a variety of views and
perceptions and this justified the use of varied instruments for purposes of clarity
and validation of the information given.
i. Questionnaire for Teachers
Questionnaires were administered in a participatory manner to teachers in both
public and private primary schools in the sampled schools. This is an instrument
used to gather data that helps measure for or against a particular viewpoint on
social, educational and psychological topics (Orodho, 2005). The respondents in
this study were literate and therefore the questionnaire was a suitable method of
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data collection. Questionnaires have the advantage of reaching a large number of
people within a short time and also save costs.
The questionnaire was divided into six parts. The first part of the questionnaire
dealt with teacher background information i.e. gender, age, experience, school type
and school location. The second part focused on teacher perceptions of
professional development and teacher participation in formal training opportunities
was part three. Part four was on participation in collaborative professional
activities while part five looked at school head teacher leadership and teacher
professional development. The last part was on KCPE achievement i.e. teacher
subject mean score. The questionnaire was fed into a digital data collection
application and administered to each respondent at a sitting as the researcher keyed
in responses as they were being given. It took about 10-15 minutes to administer
one questionnaire. The researcher made prior arrangements with the respondents
for appropriate time to administer the questionnaire as the schools were in session.
ii. Teacher focus group discussion guide
The focus group discussion was used with the teachers in the four schools out of
those sampled to generate their views and perceptions with regard teacher
professional development and pupil achievement. FDGs enabled the researcher to
have a larger collection of ideas from the participants. Out of the five sub counties
two sub counties were picked where two schools i.e. one private and one public
were selected for the FDGs. The other criteria for inclusion of the school where the
FGDs were conducted was performing school with a mean of 300 marks and above
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and non performing school with a mean of 250 marks and below. A total of four
FGDs were conducted.
FGDs are commonly made of 6 to 8 individuals chosen with regard to particular
characteristics that are relevant to the research issue. The number of participants in
the focus group discussion were six teachers in each school making a total of
twenty-four respondents. Those involved in were teachers who had been involved
in CPD as well as those not involved in CPD of any form. The researcher put into
consideration the gender and age of the teachers involved the group. This group
must be in its natural setting where they meet for a common purpose. The FGDs
were conducted in the schools where teachers worked. The information gathered
through the FGDs was used for triangulation of the data generated through
questionnaires. The reliability and validity of the responses was therefore greatly
improved. Prior arrangements were made to ensure there was mutual agreement on
the time to conduct the discussions especially in the afternoon after the last lesson
at 3.30 pm. This was to ensure none interruption with the school daily schedule.
The challenge faced in planning for the focus group discussion is that it was time
consuming, some members did not attend even after prior arrangements. The
organization in terms of time and venues was also a challenge. This was overcome
by conducting a pilot study and making prior arrangements and bookings with the
head teachers and teachers in the school where the Focus group discussions were
conducted.
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iii. Head teacher semi structured interview guide
Interviews involve sharing of information between two or more people on a matter
that is of mutual interest to them. This study administered twenty semi-structured
interviews to the head teachers in performing and non performing public and
private primary schools. According to Patton (1990), semi structured interviews
guide the researcher on how to order the questions. This gives him/her flexibility to
change sequence and wording of the questions and allows opportunity for further
probing. They were appropriate for this study as they allowed for probing. The
researcher was therefore able to get a deep understanding of the problem under
investigation (teacher professional development) as they allowed flexibility with
both open and close-ended questions.
The questions concerned head teacher demographics, perceptions on professional
development, forms of professional development teachers were engaged in, head
teacher support for teacher development and impact on achievement. The
respondents were fully engaged and motivated to freely and voluntarily gave their
views of the problem under investigation. The researcher sought appointment with
the sampled head teachers on the convenient days and time as the schools were still
in session. The researcher faced the challenge of not being able to conduct the
interview even after booking because of other unforeseen circumstances like the
head teacher attending to official duties at the County offices. The missed
interviews were however rescheduled.

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3.6.1 Piloting
The teacher questionnaire, focus group discussion and head teacher interview
guide were piloted in one public school and one private school in two of the sub
counties. The rationale for the choice of the schools was their location in two
diverse sub counties in terms of performance, with one being the best performing.
The schools were also chosen depending on whether they were performing (300
and above) or non performing (250 and below). The pretest schools were not
involved in the actual study. The pilot study involved sixteen respondents i.e.
fourteen teachers and two head teachers. The purpose of this was to test
appropriateness of the items as well respondent interpretations of the same in the
different school categories. The pretest also helped to estimate the amount of time
it took to fill in the questionnaire and administer the interviews and therefore plan
well for actual data collection. The pilot revealed that some of the items in the
questionnaires were not well phrased and elicited yes/no responses without much
meaning. Such items were revised to fully capture the concepts sought.
The researcher also learnt from the pilot that organizing and conducting the focus
group discussions required prior arrangements with all the teachers to be involved
as well as prior organization for the discussion sites. This helped the researcher to
do mapping and prior contact with the head teachers and teachers in the schools
where the FDGs would be conducted. The pilot was also useful as it assisted in
giving an estimate of the time it took to administer each of the data collection
instruments. This helped in proper planning for the main study.

74
3.6.2 Validity
According to Gay (1992) validity refers to the degree to which a test measures
what it is supposed to measure. The researcher focused on content validity through
expert advice as it could not be quantitatively computed (Creswell, 2009;
Kerlinger, 2000). Experts from the field of education management, curriculum and
policy issues were provided with a validation tool to ascertain if the questionnaire
items were relevant to the study objectives. A content validation index was
computed and all items with 4 (relevant) indexes were included in the study. The
average validation index from the experts was 4.433 showing that majority of the
items in the questionnaire were relevant. The pilot study also enhanced content
validity as advocated by Creswell, (2009). Content validity was used to ensure
relevance, comprehensiveness and completeness of the instrument. Some items
that were deemed irrelevant were discarded altogether while others were revised
and included in the instruments. Validity was also determined by ensuring that the
study objectives were captured by items in all the data collection tools.
3.6.3 Reliability
This study used Cronbach Alpha to estimate internal consistency of the items in the
questionnaire. It is most commonly used when one has multiple Likert questions
in a survey or questionnaire that form a scale and one wishes to determine if the
scale is reliable. The questionnaires used in the study fitted this criterion as it had a
5 point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree to
strongly disagree.’ In order to establish reliability of the questions a Cronbach
alpha was run. The alpha coefficient value ranges between 0 and 1 and may be
used to describe reliability of factors from dichotomous (i.e. questions with two
75
possible answers) and/or multi point questionnaires or scales. A higher coefficient
value indicates that the questionnaire items are reliable. Gay (1992) recommends a
coefficient correlation of 0.7 as being reliable. The reliability table 3.3 shows that
the coefficient alpha was 0.740 indicating a high level of internal consistency of
the items.
Table 3.3: Reliability Statistics

Cronbach's Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized N of
Alpha Items Items
.740 .716 14
Reliability of the qualitative instruments i.e. interview schedules and the focus
group discussion guide was established through triangulation after the pilot study.
This involved the researcher searching for convergence from the different data
collection tools and forming themes as per the objectives of the study.
3.7 Data Collection Procedures
i. Stage one
This was the pre field logistics phase. It involved ensuring the research instruments
were complete and had clear instructions. The researcher had also sought letter of
approval from the university as well as a permit to collect data from the National
Commission for Science and Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI). A work
plan on how the research would be conducted was then drawn. Data enumerators
were also briefed on data collection and research ethics. A budget was then drawn
that would ensure successful completion of the research.

76
ii. Stage two
In this stage the research carried out fieldwork logistics. This involved making
contact with the respondents in the sampled schools. This helped the create rapport
and book appointments on when to fill in the questionnaires and conduct the
interviews. The researcher also did a pre visit to the sub counties to book
appointments for interviews and familiarize with the education officers and
teachers. This helped lay the foundation for the actual data collection.
iii. Stage three
This is the post field work logistics stage. This ensured all data was collected and
any missing gaps were identified and addressed. This stage also involved making
arrangements for data analysis after sorting data from the different research
instruments.
3.8 Data Analysis
Data were analyzed according to the objectives of the study.
Objective one: To determine effect of teacher perceptions of their professional
development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County.
The data generated from this objective was both qualitative and quantitative.
Quantitative data from the questionnaire was fed into SPSS computer package
(V21). Descriptive statistics like frequency, mean and standard deviation were
used to analyze the data particularly Likert scale items and KCPE achievement.
Qualitative data collected from the focus group discussion was analyzed
thematically. Inferential statistics i.e. multiple regressions were used to test the
hypothesis; there is no significant effect of teacher perception of professional

77
development on KCPE achievement. Multiple regressions were used as it was the
most appropriate statistics as there were three independent variables that is, reasons
for engaging in professional development programs, benefits of engaging in
professional development and its effect on improvement of subject mean score that
constituted teacher perception of Professional Development. Multiple regression is
appropriate when there are several independent variables and one dependent
variable. The independent variables were both continuous and dichotomous and
they were regressed against KCPE achievement which was a continuous variable
Objective two: To find out the effect of teacher participation in formal training
programs on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County.
The data generated from this objective was both quantitative and qualitative.
Quantitative data i.e. academic qualifications, the number, and duration of
attendance to in service courses was analyzed using descriptive statistics i.e.
frequency, mean and standard deviation. Qualitative data on teacher and head
teacher views of academic qualifications and in service course collected through
the focus group discussion and interview guides was analyzed using thematic
analysis. The sum of academic qualification and attendance to in service courses
was computed to form the variable ‘teacher formal training’ and t-test statistical
analysis was used to test the hypothesis; there is no significant effect of teacher
participation in formal training programs on KCPE achievement. This was the
most appropriate statistics because the formal training comprised dichotomous data
while KCPE achievement which was the dependent variable was a continuous
variable. The independent t-test was appropriate as it is used to compare the means
between two unrelated groups on the same continuous dependent variable.

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Objective three: To determine the effect of teacher participation in
collaborative activities on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
The objective also generated both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative
data on teacher participation in collaborative professional development activities
was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics while qualitative data
on the different forms of collaborative activities was analyses thematically.
Teacher collaborative activities comprised sharing professional development
information, peer coaching, lesson observation and team teaching. The
independent samples t-test was used to test the hypotheses; there is no significant
effect of teacher participation in collaborative activities on KCPE achievement.
Objective four: To establish the effect of head teacher support for teacher
The fourth objective also generated both quantitative and qualitative data.
Quantitative data from the teacher questionnaire was analyzed using descriptive
statistics i.e. frequency, percentages and mean. Qualitative data from the teacher
focus group discussions and head teacher interview schedules were transcribed and
then analyzed thematically. Simple linear regression was used to test the
hypothesis; there is no significant effect of head teacher professional development
leadership on KCPE achievement. This parametric statistic was appropriate
because this objective had two continuous variables i.e. head teacher support and
KCPE achievement. The hypotheses were tested at a confidence level of 0.05.

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Table 3.4: Summary of Data Analysis

Objective Data generated Statistical method Data presentation
Teacher perception Quantitative Mean, frequency Tables

of professional Multiple regression Pie charts
development Graphs
Qualitative Thematic analysis Quotes
Formal training Quantitative Mean, frequency Figures

programs T-test Graphs
Tables
Qualitative Thematic analysis Quotes
Collaborative Quantitative Mean, frequency Pie charts

professional t-test Tables
development Qualitative Thematic analysis Quotes
Head teacher Quantitative Mean Tables

professional Simple linear
development regression
support Qualitative Thematic analysis Quotes
3.9 Logistical and Ethical Considerations
3.9.1 Logistical Considerations
The researcher first sought permission to carry out the research from the Ministry
of Education and the National Commission for Science, Technology and
Innovation (NACOSTI) and was issued with the permit to carry out the research.
This was followed by a visit to the Kirinyaga County commissioner’s office to
seek consent to carry out research in the County. The researcher then visited the
office of the County Director of Education and the TSC County Director of
Education Kirinyaga to inform them of the intention to collect data in the schools
and was issued with authorization letter. Further permission was also sought from
the head teachers in the sampled schools to carry out interviews, administer
questionnaires and conduct FGDs.

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3.9.2 Ethical Considerations
The respondents were involved in the study out of their own free will without
being coerced. Confidentiality and privacy of the respondents was assured as the
respondents were not required to indicate their name. School programs went on
without interruption as there was prior planning to collect data during break time
and after classes. Acknowledgment and appreciation were accorded to all schools
and respondents for their time and willingness to participate in giving their views
concerning primary school teacher professional development.
Prior to administering the instruments respondents were made aware of the nature,
purpose and educational implications of the study. Their consent to participate in
the study was therefore out of their own volition. The confidentiality and
anonymity of the respondents and their responses were highly guarded by ensuring
that the data gathered in this study would be solely and strictly used for the purpose
of this study.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS, INTERPRETATION AND
DISCUSSION
4.0 Introduction
This section deals with presentation of the study findings, interpretation and
discussion of the study. The study aimed at assessing the effect of teacher
professional development on achievement in Kenya Certificate of Primary
Examination in Kirinyaga County, Kenya. The findings of the study are presented
as per the following study objectives as listed:
1. To establish the effect of teacher perceptions of their professional
development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
2. To find out the effect of teacher participation in formal training programs
3. To determine the effect of teacher participation in collaborative activities
4. To establish the effect of head teacher professional development support on
4.1 Demographic Information
This section deals with the background information of the respondents in terms of
age, gender and experience.
4.1.1 Gender and Age of teachers
The study had both male and female teacher respondents in public and private
primary schools as presented in table 4.1

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Table 4.1: Gender and school type

Gender Total
Male Female
n % n % n %
School Type Public 46 56.1 53 60.2 99 58.2
Private 36 43.9 35 39.7 71 41.8
Total 82 100 88 100 170 100
X2(1,n=170)=0.298 p=0.585>0.05
Table 4.1 shows that out of 170 teachers who participated in the study, 82(48.2%)
male and 88(51.8%) female. This implies there were more female teachers
teaching class eight in Kirinyaga County. Table 4.1 further shows that, male
teachers in public schools were 46(56.1%) while those in private were 36(43.9%).
while female teachers in public schools were 53 (60.2%) and those in private
schools were 35(39.7%). The findings therefore, reveal that the number of female
teachers in public schools was more than male teachers. On the other hand, male
teachers were more than females in private schools.
The finding clearly reflects back on the debate on the relationship between the
teaching profession and gender. Studies carried out among teachers and student
teachers have shown a striking underlining of gender perceptions regarding
teaching. Research seems to indicate that the teaching profession is a field
dominated by the female gender but private has more male. Drudy (2008) found
that male student teachers believed that primary teaching is better suited to a
woman’s ‘nature’ and that the perception of teaching as a woman’s job was one of
the top reasons why there were low levels of men going into the profession. This
is however, not reflected in the study as private schools had more male teachers.
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Mavrogeni (2005) had earlier indicated that in the19th century, teaching was
perceived as God given work meant for women that made her fit well in the
society. This argument is reflected at the statistical level, with similarity across
countries and regions with the number of female teacher being higher at the early
stages of schooling. The numbers then drop significantly in some instances, at the
secondary level and beyond.
A chi-square test of the school type and gender was run. The results in table 4.1
showed that the p value was 0.585 which was greater than 0.05. This means that
the gender of the teacher is not affected by the type of school whether public or
private in Kirinyaga County. The results indicate that both male and female
teachers taught in upper primary in both public and private schools regardless of
their gender.
Teacher gender is often investigated in relation to learner achievement. A study by
Thomas (2010) established that students taught by teachers of opposite gender
deteriorated in their academic progress and engagements in school. Kimani et al
(2013) study in Nyandarua County concluded that teachers’ gender did not have a
significant effect on learner achievement in secondary schools.
4.1.2 Distribution of Teachers by Age and School type
This study also sought to find out the age of teachers in both public and private
schools. The findings are presented in figure 4.1

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30
25
Number of Teachers
20
15
Public
10
Private
5
0
Below 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 Above
25 50
Age Category
Figure 4.1: Teachers’ Age and school type
The findings of the study reveal that 25(15.9%) of the teachers who were above 50
years were in public schools as shown in figure 4.1. Figure 4.1 further shows that
22(12.9%) of the teachers who were 46-50 years were also in public schools. On
the other hand, figure 4.1 shows that 61(85.9%) of teachers in private schools were
between 35years and below. The study findings therefore reveal that that majority
of the teachers who were above 40 years of age were in public primary schools
while those below the age of 40 were in private schools. The conclusion then is
that the younger generation of teachers is teaching in private schools while the
older ones are in public schools in Kirinyaga County. This may be due to the fact
that teacher recruitment depends on budgetary allocations to the TSC. Most often
the financial resources are inadequate to cater for the numbers of teachers that are
needed in public schools. The young teachers therefore seek employment in private
schools as they continue applying to be absorbed in the public schools once the
vacancies were announced.

85
Garibaldi, Martins and van Ours (2010) noted that it is not easy to establish the
relationship between age and productivity for a variety of reasons: Productivity is a
complex phenomenon, the age-productivity profile changes over time. The general
conclusion is that job performance often does decrease at older ages but not for all
work tasks and less so in occupations where abilities that don’t decline by age are
important. Age alone is found to be a poor predictor of individual performance.
It is difficult to establish how age itself affects labour productivity not only
because productivity is highly individual and sector-specific but also because other
factors need to be considered. Remery, Henkens, Schippers, & Ekamper, (2003)
found that older individuals are seen as less productive in particular firms with a
higher proportion of senior workers. The impact of age on job performance is
sometimes measured by the quality and quantity of a worker’s output and older
workers tend to have lower productivity levels. Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain (2005)
found no significant relationship between teachers’ age and academic achievement.
Kimani, Kara and Njagi (2013) also concur as they found no association between
teachers’ age and academic achievement in secondary schools in Nyandarua
County.
4.1.3 Teaching Experience and School type
The study sought to establish the teaching experience of teachers in public and
private primary schools and the findings are presented in table 4.2
86
Table 4.2: Teachers’ experience and school type

Experience
School Type Mean N Std. Deviation
Public 19.4157 99 9.63871
Private 7.3214 71 5.27122
Total 14.744 170 10.11447
F(1,170)=96.26, p<0.05
The findings in table 4.2 show that teachers in public schools had an average of 19
years teaching experience while those in private schools had an average of seven
years of experience in teaching. This shows that teachers in public schools had
more teaching experience than those in private schools. The analysis of variance
test on the variables, type of school (independent) and teacher experience
(dependent) was 0.000 which showed that teacher experience depends on type of
school in Kirinyaga County as the p value was below 0.05.
Cavaluzzo (2004) and Hanushek, Kain, O'Brien, & Rivkin, (2005) found that
experience especially during the first couple of years in the classroom is positively
associated with student achievement in Mathematics and reading at the elementary
and middle school levels. Other studies however do not detect meaningful
differences between more and less experienced teachers (Carr, 2006; Gallagher,
2004). As Darling-Hammond (2000) explains, could be that there is a tendency to
be complacent by teachers after some years of teaching and as a result teacher
effectiveness deteriorates. Another possible reason advanced by Darling-
Hammond is that for some reason teacher’s enthusiasm fizzles out and this leads to
low morale.
87
The workforce in many of the public schools had taught for more than ten years
while those in private schools ranged between 3-7 years. This may be due to the
long wait before teachers are employed by TSC as teacher recruitment is
dependent on availability of finances. Those teaching in private schools often cross
over to public schools with accumulated years of teaching.
4.2 Teachers’ perceptions of their Professional Development and KCPE
Achievement
The first objective of this study was to establish teacher perception of their
professional development and the effect on KCPE achievement. Perception
comprises the views, opinions or attitudes people have towards something or
somebody. This section deals with the perceptions teachers have toward their
professional development in terms of:
 the reasons for engaging in professional development
 the extent to which teachers had benefitted from professional development
 effect of professional development on improvement of subject mean score.
These three aspects were used to compute the variable ‘teacher perception.’
4.2.1 Teachers’ Reasons for Engaging in Professional Development
Using a questionnaire, teacher perception of the reasons for engaging in
professional development was measured using nine items in section B of the
teacher questionnaire. All the items were measured using a 5 point Likert scale
from strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. Items B1- B4
were coded as follows; strongly agree-1, agree-2, neutral-3, disagree-4, strongly
disagree-5 which were further transformed to a 3 Likert point scale i.e. 1-Agree: 2-
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Neutral and 3- Disagree while items B5-B9 were coded in the reverse. During the
analysis, for positively stated statements, a mean of 1.0-1.9 was interpreted as a
negative perception, a score of 2.1-3.0 was interpreted as a positive perception for
items B5-B9 and the reverse is true for items B1-B4. The findings are presented in
table 4.3
Table 4.3: Reasons for engaging in professional development

Reasons for TPD Disagree Neutral Agree Mean
n % n % n %
Salary increment 36 21.2 10 5.9 124 72.9 2.5
Promotion 42 25.0 7 4.2 119 70.8 2.4
Transfer to secondary school 87 51.5 16 9.5 66 39.1 1.8
Appointed to administrative post 45 26.6 12 7.1 112 66.3 2.3
Enhance subject knowledge 4 2.4 2 1.2 163 96.4 2.9
Enhance teaching methods 4 2.4 7 4.1 159 93.5 2.9
Enhance professional conduct 10 5.9 6 3.5 154 90.6 2.8
Improve learner achievement 4 2.4 0 0.0 166 97.6 3.0
Mean score improvement 9 5.4 4 2.4 155 92.3 2.9
2.6
The findings of the study as shown in table 4.3indicate that 124(72.9%) of the
teachers agreed with the statement that they engaged in professional development
in order to get salary increment with a mean of 2.5. This showed that most of the
teachers agreed that salary increment was the reason why they engaged in
professional development. This was interpreted to be a negative perception as the
goal of professional development should be foremost to improve professional
practice. Research on teacher professional development and salary increment
notes, that teachers need incentives for them to engage in professional

89
development. A quarter of countries that participated in an OECD (2005) study
offered their teachers promotions and salary increase after completion of
professional activities. To some however, it was normal advancement on the salary
scale. In Iceland, only additional qualifications such as masters’ degree and
doctorates lead to higher salaries. As earlier mentioned, teachers in Kenya get
salary increments after completion of masters’ degrees while those in primary
schools who pass the teacher proficiency test move to the next job group. This was
the same for those who acquired degrees and diplomas.
One of the identified themes from the qualitative data was that teachers perceived
professional development as important particular in helping them improve the
content knowledge of the subjects they were teaching as well as teaching skills.
However, the issue of salary increment and promotion were highly emphasized on
by teachers in both public and private schools during the focus group discussion.
This matter has been taken up seriously by the Kenya National Union of Teachers
(KNUT) asking TSC to promote all teachers who have acquired higher academic
qualifications. The challenge has however been inadequate funds to cater for the
same. It is however important to note that not all kinds of professional
development may result in a salary increase or a promotion. It is imperative that all
teachers be encouraged to be reflective practitioners and be autonomous learners
with a view to improving their own career. The emphasis should be on intrinsic
motivation first even as extrinsic motivation is addressed.
During the focus group discussions teachers emphasized on the importance of
salary increment and promotion after undergoing the professional development

90
programs. One female teacher said, “I don’t think the money and time I have used
to get my degree in 2015 course will ever be repaid as I have not been promoted
and my salary is the same.”
In fact, once probed teachers expressed the view that other ventures would bring in
more returns than engaging in professional development programs. This showed
that professional development was viewed as a venture where resources are used
and returns are expected. Teachers also reported they had other responsibilities that
affected their involvement in professional development programs. A teacher
commented:
Currently I am doing a Diploma in Early Childhood Education during the

holidays but I strain to get the money as I have two children in secondary
school and getting their school fees is also a challenge. I also have my
teaching duties as well as other responsibilities in school and at home.
The interviewed head teachers supported the view that a number of their teachers
were motivated to pursue these programs for material gain. One head teacher
responded as follows:
Once I inform a teacher that she or he is required to attend a course, most of

them ask if they will be paid anything. Other times the school can only
support the teacher with some little cash for transport and often the teachers
are reluctant to attend. They only do so because it is a requirement.
The development of teachers’ knowledge, understanding and skill is nourished by
personal and personality growth. Teachers therefore need to view professional
development as part and parcel of their everyday growth in their teaching career
even as they consider issues of pay. The European Union, commission in 2007
noted that incentives for teachers to carry an updating of their skills throughout
their lives were weak. They noted that the challenge of incentives for teacher
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professional development has been real in many countries, Kenya included. This is
evidenced by the exchanges between the teachers’ employer (TSC) and the
teachers’ union (KNUT) over the issue of salary increment and promotion of
teachers with higher qualifications.
On the same vein, table 4.3 shows that 119(70.8%) of the teachers agreed that they
engaged in professional development to get promotion with a mean of 2.4 which
was also interpreted as a negative perception. This view was common because
promotion was closely related to higher pay as was brought out during the focus
group discussion. Teachers felt that once one engaged in professional
development particularly advancing their academic qualification, promotion to the
next grade should be automatic. A male teacher commented, “I was hoping to be
promoted to the next grade after completing my diploma course but it is now two
years without any response from my employer.”
Sifuna and Kaime (2007) study found that teachers were demotivated in their
teaching career due to bad working conditions, remuneration and lack of
recognition through promotion or other forms of professional progress for teachers
who attended professional development programs.
It was observed that promotion of teachers after engaging in professional
development activities was emphasized on especially by the majority who had
acquired higher academic qualifications. It is however important to note that the
issue of choice and volition are critical in motivation for learning for adults. For
teachers to be fully effective, they must be well motivated both extrinsically and
intrinsically. However, Mckenzie and Santigo (2004) and Republic of

92
Kenya/UNESCO (2012) noted that the instruments to reward and motivate
teachers are often limited.
In response to the item on the reason for engaging in professional development to
get administrative positions it was established that majority 112(66.3%) of the
teachers agreed with the statement. The mean score of 2.3 from the responses was
interpreted as a negative perception. The appointment to administrative positions
was closely tied to promotion. Teachers who reported engaging in professional
development for administrative positions were of the opinion that leaders should be
role models. Majority referred to acquisition of higher academic qualifications
noting that it was odd for those in administrative positions like head teachers,
deputy head teachers and senior teachers to have lower academic qualifications
that the teachers they lead. During the focus group discussion teachers expressed
the view that though higher academic qualifications do not necessary equate to an
effective teacher, they are important for effective school management. The
Teachers’ Service Commission in 2018 revised the promotion guidelines on
teachers’ career progress requiring that those in administrative positions i.e. head
teachers should be degree holders.
This view was strongly supported by teachers during the focus group discussion
with teachers pointing out that they had acquired degrees and diplomas and they
were yet to be appointed to administrative positions. One female teacher in a
public school lamented, “Many teachers have gone back to school to get a degree
or diploma but they are not appointed as senior teachers or deputies yet the school
head teachers don’t have degrees.”

93
Some teacher reported that they had acquired higher academic qualifications than
their head teachers and they felt uncomfortable working under them. During the
interviews most head teachers were of the view that lack of higher academic
qualifications should not make one not be appointed to administrative position. In
fact, they noted that some teachers were uncooperative just because they had
higher academic qualifications. A public school head teacher noted:
I have four teachers in my school who have Bachelor of Education degree

and some look down upon me and other teachers because we have no
degrees. They feel they are the ones who should be the head teacher or
deputy in the school.
In 2018, the TSC issued guidelines on appointment to administrative positions with
primary school head teachers and their deputies expected to have a minimum
qualification of bachelor’s degree in education (TSC, 2018). Teachers were
therefore concerned that despite their efforts to acquire degrees they were not
given administrative duties. It should however be noted that the positions may be
fewer compared to those qualified and this poses a challenge to the employer.
Table 4.3 showed that 66(39%) of the teachers had the perception that they
engaged in professional development to get a transfer from primary school to
secondary school compared to 87(51.4%) who disagreed with this view. The mean
score on their responses on this statement was 1.8 which was interpreted as
positive perception. This finding revealed that majority of the teachers in the study
were content teaching at the primary school level and did not engage in
professional development to transfer from primary to secondary school. During the
focus group discussion those who wanted to move from primary to secondary
94
viewed it as a form of promotion. Majority were however content in teaching at the
primary school level.
The next set of questions that teachers expressed their perception on, dealt with the
major goal of professional development which is to enhance teacher subject
knowledge, teaching skill and learner achievement. Table 4.3 showed that majority
166(97.6%) of the teachers had the view that the reason why they engaged in PD to
improve learner achievement with a mean of 3.0 which was a positive perception.
This is in agreement with Darling-Hammond et al., (2005) notes, that teacher
quality through professional development is significantly and positively correlated
with pupil achievement. The logical view is that professional development
enhances teacher knowledge, skills and motivation; second, better knowledge,
skills and motivation improve classroom teaching. Third, improved teaching raises
student achievement. If any of the links is missing or weak, then better student
learning cannot be expected. There was need to address the issue of teacher
motivation both intrinsic and extrinsic as far as involvement in professional
development is concerned. The ultimate goal of professional development being to
positively influence learner outcomes through provision of quality education as
envisaged in EFA goal 6 (improve all aspects of quality education so that
recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved. Teacher quality is the
most important within school explanation of student performance and its effects
are much larger than the effect of school organization, leadership or financial
conditions (Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005).

95
Though the study established that teachers had a positive perception on engaging
in professional development to enhance their subject matter knowledge, some head
teachers were of a contrary. Some head teachers reported that learner achievement
was not considered by many teachers as main reason to engage in professional
development. One head teacher in a public school noted, “Some teachers were
excited about the seminars and the workshops so they could get a chance to be
away from school and it had nothing to do with the pupils.”
It is therefore necessary for the relationship between teacher professional
development programs and learner achievement be made explicit to the teachers
from the onset. This would help teachers to focus themselves as learners with a
purpose to improving themselves and also causing positive change on learner
achievement. However, a head teacher commented:
Most of my teachers especially in lower primary were very enthusiastic

about the professional development programs in order to see improvement
in their learners. For example, my class one teacher was pleased with
Tusome Early Literacy program as her pupil grades and reading skills had
improved.
The ultimate goal of teacher professional development is to have a positive impact
on learner outcomes (Darling-Hammond, 2009).
Table 4.3 further shows that 163(96.4%) of the teachers had the view that they
engaged in professional development to gain more subject matter knowledge with
a mean of 2.9 which was interpreted as a positive perception. This was particularly
so for those pursuing degree and diploma courses in education. They however,
expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that in the primary teacher course they did
Science or Arts and once they joined university they specialized in two teaching
96
subjects. Some of the subject content in some of subjects is not the primary level.
One teacher commented:
During my Bachelor of Education degree course, I did my teaching practice

in English and Christian Religious Education at a local secondary school. I
faced the challenge of teaching content in poetry and literature which is not
taught at primary school level. I was assisted by the teacher of English in
the school.
Once they complete the course, however, there was no opportunity in primary
school for them to teach the two subjects they covered during their bachelor’s
course. Teachers reported that this greatly affected their subject matter knowledge
as they did not have the opportunity to specialize in the two subjects. This is
further complicated by the fact that they do their teaching practice in public
secondary schools for only one term where they teach their two subjects, then
report to primary school in the next term.
For quality teaching to take place, teachers need to possess specialist knowledge of
their subject matter. Darling-Hammond (2005) refers to studies that correlated
teachers’ courses in subject matter areas and scores on subject matter tests with
student achievement. Darling-Hammond concluded that the former show positive
effects more frequently than the latter. Masterly of the subject matter is seen as a
basic requirement that is relatively uniformly addressed during initial teacher
training. To foster learners’ conceptual understanding, teachers must therefore
have rich and flexible knowledge of the subjects they teach. The researcher
therefore supports that since pre service training is not adequate to sustain a
teaching career in the fast changing teaching environment teachers find themselves
in, they need professional development that has explicit focus on subject matter.
97
This will help teachers develop powerful understanding of the content they teach at
the primary school level.
The study findings further established that majority 159(93.6%) of the teachers
reported that they engaged in professional development to enhance their teaching
skills with a mean of 2.9 which was a positive perception. Pedagogical content
knowledge is the knowledge needed for classroom teaching. This is confirmed by
Guskey (2000) who opines that professional development is often supported
through the belief that good teaching methods have a significant positive impact on
how and what students learn. Barber and Mourshed (2007) further support this by
indicating that the only way to improve outcomes is to improve instruction.
Classroom instruction can only be improved if teachers are able to select the topics
and employ useful forms of presentations appropriate for the learners they teach.
In the focus group discussions teachers reported that once they attended the
professional development programs, they learnt new ways of delivering the same
content. They referred to the SMASE program as having helped them to use the
ASEI-PDSI model to teach content in Mathematics and Science. One public school
teacher had this to say, “I attended SMASE training in 2013 and learnt how to
teach Science using the ASEI-PDSI method. The challenge was however, the fact
that the use of the learnt skills would only be employed for a short period of time.
This was due to lack of follow up. A substantial portion of difference in student
achievement is attributable to teachers and their teaching practices (Darling-
Hammond 2000; Rice 2003; Ingvarson, Beavis, Bishop, Peck, & Ellsworth,
(2005). The acquisition of requisite teaching skills for different content cannot be
98
overemphasized. There is need therefore to expose teachers to professional
development that sharpens their pedagogical content knowledge for quality
teaching and great impact on learners.
On the other hand, OECD (2005) noted that many European countries reported
shortfalls in teaching skills especially in the areas of individualized learning and
use of information communication technology. Bransford, Darling-Hammond, &
Le Page (2005) stress that the act of teaching is becoming complex and that highly
competent teachers need to continue to learn, be adaptive, build up a sophisticated
pedagogical repertoire and apply a range of teaching practices. The Teacher
Performance Appraisal and Development tool introduced in public schools in 2014
requires teachers to do a lesson observation at least once a term. This was a noble
endeavor in helping teachers to improve their teaching skills and improve relations
at the school level.
This study established that the overall teacher perception on the reasons why they
engage in professional development was positive with a mean of 2.6
4.2.2 Teachers’ perceptions of benefits of professional development
The study also aimed at finding out teacher perception of the benefits they gained
by engaging in professional development. Teachers were also asked about their
perceptions on the extent to which they had benefitted from professional
development in terms of improving their subject matter knowledge and their
teaching skills. Their responses are captured in table 4.4.

99
Table 4.4: Extent teachers benefitted from teacher professional development

Benefits of Not at all Very Little Great Very Mean
PD little extent extent great
extent extent
n % n % N % n % n %
Improving 2 1.5 6 4.5 0 0.0 88 66.2 37 27.8 4.14
subject(s)
knowledge
Enhancing 1 0.8 3 2.3 3 2.3 88 67.7 35 26.9 4.18
teaching
skills
As reported in Table 4.4 shows that 125(94%) of the teachers indicated that they
benefitted from professional development by improving their subject knowledge.
The mean score of their responses was 4.1 which was interpreted as a positive
perception. This in line with Darling-Hammond (2009), who opines that for quality
teaching to take place, teachers need to possess specialist knowledge of their
subject matter. Desimone (2009) also identified content focus as one of the
characteristics of teacher learning and should be a component of effective
professional development programs.
Table 4.4 further shows that majority 123(94.6%) were of the view that
professional development was beneficial in helping them enhance their teaching
skills. The mean score of their responses was 4.2 which was a positive perception.
This finding showed that teachers rated professional development highly in terms
of helping them enhance their teaching skills.
The study established that the overall teacher perception on benefits of PD in
improving teacher subject matter and teaching skills was positive with a mean of
100
2.6. The result is in agreement with Komba and Nkumbi (2008) study on teacher
professional development in Tanzania that established that teachers had a positive
perception toward professional development and viewed it as important in
improving their knowledge academically and technically. Dembélé and Lefoka
(2007) concur that professional development should make a difference in teachers’
pedagogical skills which in turn positively affects learner outcomes.
4.2.3 Teachers’ perception of impact of professional development and mean
Score improvement
Teachers were asked to indicate their views on the effect of professional
development and improvement in their subject mean scores.
30.6%
Yes
69.4% No
Figure 4.2: Professional development and improvement in mean score
This study established that 118(69.4%) of the teachers had the perception that their
subjects mean score improved after participation in professional development
activities. Figure 4.2 further shows that 52(30.6%) were of the view that their
subject mean score did not improve after professional development. Darling –
Hammond (2008) established that there is a positive relationship between teacher
professional development and achievement. The result is however contrary to the

101
revelation of Jacob and Lefgren (2004) who found no effects from professional
development programs on achievement in Chicago schools.
Table 4.5: Improvement in subject mean score and school type

Improvement in mean score after participation in PD
Yes No
N % N %
School Type Public 86 72.9 13 25
Private 32 27.1 39 75
Total 118 64.4 52 35.6
Table 4.5 further showed that majority 86(72.9%) of teachers in public schools
reported their mean scores improved as compared to 32(27.1%) of those in private
schools. On the other hand, 39(75%) of teachers in private schools indicated that
their mean scores did not improve compared to 13(25%) from public primary
schools. This finding implies that more public primary school teachers viewed
professional development as important in helping improve subject mean score
compared to their counterparts in private schools. Private school teachers seem not
to relate subject mean score improvement to participation in professional
development activities.
This was explored further during the focus group discussion. One public school
teachers said, “When you attend these programs you learn new knowledge and
teaching methods that help you in your teaching and this helps the pupils.”
Teachers reported that most of these improvements were noted in internal

102
examinations as compared to national examinations. Some of the private schools
however, reported that the professional development programs did not have much
impact on improvement in their subject mean scores. One teacher said, “We teach
and have more time with our pupils. We also give them many exams which we
mark and revise. This helps our pupils perform well.” Teachers in private schools
noted that their hard work and interaction with the learners contributed to their
improved means cores and not necessarily due to professional development. They
reported that they did not engage in as much professional development activities as
their colleagues in public schools:
Many of the programs are from the government and they are only meant for
teachers in public schools. The parents in our schools also provide all the
revision books we ask them to buy and this helps our pupils to perform
well.
There have been divergent findings on the effect of professional development on
achievement. Jacob and Lefgren (2004) found no effects from professional
development programs in Chicago schools. Harris and Sass (2011) on the other
hand, found positive effects of content-oriented teacher professional development
on student outcomes in Florida. Darling-Hammond (2008) also finds a positive
relationship between teacher effectiveness and student learning and achievement.
The role of effective professional development in enhancing teacher quality and
learner achievement cannot be over emphasized.
4.2.4 KCPE Achievement
The dependent variable in this study was KCPE achievement which was
conceptualized as teacher subject mean score. This was computed by getting the
103
average of the teacher subject mean score for three years that is 2015, 2016 and
2017 for both public and private schools.
Mean
56.04388
56.1 55.99935
56 Mean
55.9
Public Private
Figure 4.3: KCPE subject mean score by school type
Figure 4.3 shows the teacher subject mean scores for both public (55.9) and private
schools (56.0). There was a difference in mean between public and private school
teachers subject mean score. This confirms what data on KCPE achievement at the
Kirinyaga county education office shows that private schools perform better than
public schools.
Table 4.6: Summary of descriptive statistics of KCPE subject mean score

Report
KCPE achievement
School Type N Std. Deviation Mean Minimum Maximum
Public 99 6.473314 55.99935 42.675 69.433
Private 71 5.849518 56.04388 43.667 70.333
Total 170 6.202611 56.01795 42.675 68.378
Table 4.6 reveals the overall mean score as 56.01 with a standard deviation of 6.2.
The public schools had a standard deviation of 6.5 compared to that of private
schools which was 5.8. The high standard deviation in public schools indicates the
wide spread of the mean scores with majority being below the mean. On the other
104
hand, most of the public schools had mean scores close or above the mean. There
was however a slight skew in the distribution as shown in figure 4.4
Figure 4.4: Distribution of KCPE subject mean score
The distribution curve in Figure 4.4 reveals that the mean scores were slightly
skewed with no major outliers showing it was a normal distribution. There was
concentration of the scores at 50 where majority of the public schools lay.
4.2.5 Effect of Teachers’ Perception of professional development on KCPE
Achievement
To establish whether teacher perceptions of professional development had effect
on KCPE achievement, teacher perception on PD was computed using summation
of the nine Likert items on the reasons why teachers engage in professional
development, teacher views on the benefits of teacher professional development in
terms of improvement in subject knowledge and teaching skills as well as views on
the effect of PD on subject mean score. The average teacher KCPE subject mean
105
score was then computed. To test the effect of teacher perception on KCPE
achievement, multiple regression analysis was carried out. The results are
presented in table 4.8.
Ho1There is no statistical significant effect of teacher perceptions on their
Before carrying out multiple regressions analysis to test whether teacher perception
of their PD had an effect on KCPE achievement, the researcher first checked the
assumption of the data. The tests for independence, multicollinearity were carried
out. One of the assumptions of regression is that the observations are independent.
If observations are made over time, it is likely that successive observations are
related. If there is no auto correlation (where subsequent observations are related)
the Durbin-Watson statistic should be between 1.5 and 2.5. In this study the
Durbin-Watson statistic was 1.817 which is between 1.5 and 2.5 and the
conclusion is therefore that the data is not auto correlated. Multicollinearity is an
unacceptably high level of inter correlation among the independents, such that the
effects of the independents cannot be separated. Since the variance inflation factor
(VIF=1.011<5.0) for reasons for engaging in PD, (VIF=1.014<5.0) for benefits of
PD and effect on mean score (VIF=1.023<5.0) then we conclude multicollinearity
was not a problem. Further tests showed that normality, linearity and
homoscedacity showed normal distribution of the data were not violated.
The study findings on the model summary of teacher perceptions of professional
development on KCPE achievement are presented in table 4.7

106
Table 4.7: Model summary for teachers’ perceptions of PD and KCPE

achievement
Model Summaryb
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Durbin-Watson
Square Estimate
1 .065a .004 -.019 6.668115 1.817
a. Predictors: (Constant), B12: My subject mean score improved after participation in professional
development, teacher perception of PD, teacher perception on benefits of PD
b. Dependent Variable: KCPE achievement
The results of the model summary showed that only 0.4% of KCPE achievement
could be explained by teacher perception (reasons for engaging in PD, benefits of
PD and improvement in subject mean score). This result shows that KCPE
achievement in Kirinyaga County could be explained by other factors not included
in the model. These factors may include school type, policy on PD as brought out
in this study as intervening variables. The type of school that is public or private
affects the achievement as private schools perform better. The relationship between
teacher perception and KCPE achievement as shown by R=0.065 showed a
positive but weak relationship. This is interpreted as a very small effect since
according to Cohen an R of 0.1 is a small effect size. To test whether this effect
was statistically significant an analysis of variance was carried out as shown in the
ANOVA table 4.8.
Darling-Hammond (2006) notes that teachers’ views and perceptions are rarely
considered in as far as their professional development is concerned. She observes
that the few occasions when such data is collected teachers are not given adequate
time to express themselves. Darling-Hammond, Chung and Frelow (2002) research

107
suggests there is a relationship between teacher perceptions of staff development
and student learning.
Table 4.8: Analysis of variance for teachers’ perceptions of professional

development and KCPE achievement
Analysis of Variancea
Model Sum of Df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
1 Regression 24.163 3 8.054 .181 .909b
Residual 5735.825 129 44.464
Total 5759.987 132
a. Dependent Variable: KCPE achievement
b. Predictors: (Constant), : My subject mean score improved after participation in
professional development, teacher perception of PD, teacher perception on benefits of PD
The analysis of variance gave an F=0.181 and p value of 0.909>0.05 as shown in
table 4.8. It was therefore concluded that there was statistically insignificant
relationship between teacher perceptions and KCPE achievement. This implies that
teacher perception in terms of reasons for engagement in PD; benefits of PD and
effect on improvement in subject mean score does not have an effect on KCPE
achievement. This study therefore failed to reject the null hypothesis, there is no
statistically significant effect of teacher perceptions on their professional
development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County. The study therefore
adopted the null hypotheses.
Findings from the qualitative data indicated that most teachers in public schools
related professional development with improvement in their teaching subjects
mean scores. This view was contrary with the teachers from private schools who
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reported that they did not have as many opportunities to engaged in such activities
yet they posted high mean scores in the subjects they taught. They related this to
their commitment to work and having close contact with their learners. One private
school teacher said, ‘we report to school very early and teach up to late evening
and this helps were pupils to perform well.’
4.3 Formal Teacher Professional Development Programs and KCPE
Achievement
The second objective of the study was to find out the effect of teacher formal
training (academic progress and attendance to in service courses) on KCPE
achievement. This section began by establishing the level teacher participation in
professional development activities. Teachers were therefore asked to indicate if
they had been engaged in any form of teacher professional development activities.
Figure 4.5 captures the findings. The section then captured teacher academic
progress since joining the profession as well as teacher participation in different in
service courses. The forms of in service courses teachers engaged in, the frequency
of attendance and the duration of these courses is also covered in this section.
109
4.3.1 Teacher participation in professional development activities and school
type
100.00% 81.10%
80.00%
54.60%
Percent
60.00% 45.40%
Public
40.00% 18.90% Private
20.00%
0.00%
Yes No
Participation in professional development
Figure 4.5: Teacher participation in professional development activities
Figure 4.5 shows that majority 81(81.1%) of the teachers in public schools had
been engaged in some form of professional development in their teaching career
compared to 38(54%) of those from private schools indicated the same. On the
other hand, figure 4.5 further shows that 33(46.4%) of teachers in private schools
indicated they had not been engaged in professional development activities in their
career compared to 18(18.9%) were from public schools. This study therefore
established that more teachers in public schools had engaged in professional
development activities compared to their counterparts in private schools. This
finding confirms what the TALIS (2013) study found that on average teachers in
public schools had 1 day more professional development than their private school
counterparts, a difference that is not statistically significant. OECD (2005) survey
also reported that 89% of lower secondary teachers had engaged in professional
development.
110
Findings from the qualitative data generated from the teacher focus group
discussions showed that teachers in private schools were of the view that most of
the professional development programs were government sponsored. They
therefore felt that these programs were meant for teachers in public schools. ‘The
seminars and workshops are usually organized by the government for teachers in
public schools’ commented a private school teacher.
Teachers viewed professional development as attendance to in service courses and
acquisition of higher academic qualifications. Though teachers reported that they
were engaged in other activities like lesson observation, they did not perceive it as
a form of professional development. One female teacher from a public school said,
I think professional development is where a teacher goes to a seminar or

workshop and is trained and then given a certificate or when one goes to do
a diploma or a degree. These certificates are important for promotion.
Teachers who reported that they did not engage in any form of professional
development cited lack of information on professional development opportunities,
limited resources and time as factors that hindered them from engaging in these
activities. This study found that majority of the teachers who did not engage in
professional development activities were from private schools. One teacher form a
private school noted, “Many of the programs are from the government and they are
only meant for teachers in public schools.”
Another teacher form a private school had this to say, “Most of us do not attend
professional development programs because our teaching programs are tight and it
is not easy to get permission from the school managers.” They expressed optimistic
that with the ban on holiday tuition they would consider acquiring higher academic
111
qualifications. Some respondents reported experiencing financial constraints to
finance their professional development. One private school teacher lamented:
My job depends on the mean scores I get in the subjects I am teaching. I am

therefore not employed permanently and I cannot therefore use my little
salary to go back to college for further education.
The interviewed private school head teachers however reported that they informed
their teachers of any professional development activities when required to do so by
the education one private school head teacher commented, “I always inform the
school manager of any circular on teacher training opportunities form the
education office but sometimes the information is not given to the teachers.” This
view was further supported by some teachers during the focus group discussion
who reported that some school managers did not allow teachers to attend such
programs and expected them to teach even during weekends and school holidays.
All teachers regardless of the school they in which they teach, need to engage in
different forms of professional development activities. This is because professional
development has direct benefits to the teacher and indirect benefits to the learners.
The need for teacher professional development for all teachers cannot be
overemphasized as pre-service teacher training alone is not capable of preparing
teachers for lifelong teaching and learning challenges, which lie ahead in this
rapidly changing 21st century society and therefore the need for continuous
professional development. World Bank (2010), educators, researchers and policy
makers are convinced that pre-service education is not yielding the expected results
and that, resources would be better utilized if directed to effective professional
development programs. it is therefore of great importance to ensure that all
teachers regardless of their school type engage in various forms of professional

112
development activities to keep abreast with the changing 21st century teaching and
learning world.
4.3.2 Distribution of Teachers by their Academic Qualifications
In this study, formal training comprised teacher academic achievement and
attendance to in service training courses. Teachers were asked to indicate their
academic qualifications when joining the teaching profession and the results are
shown in figure 4.6
Public Private
84.8%
84.5%
100.0%
80.0%
Percent
60.0%
11.3%
8.1%
40.0%
6.1%
2.8%
1.4%
1.0%
20.0%
0.0%
Certificate Certificate Diploma(Ed) Bacelors(Ed)
(others) (P1)
Academic Qualification
Figure 4.6: Teachers’ academic qualifications when joining teaching

profession
Figure 4.6 indicates that majority of the teachers i.e. 144(84.7%) in both public and
private schools entered the teaching profession with certificate level qualification
which was the basic qualifications to join the teaching profession in Kenya then.
Figure 4.6 further shows that 16(9.4%) got in at the diploma level while only
2(1.2%) had a bachelor’s degree. None of the teachers had a Master degree when
they joined the teaching profession. It is also important to note that 8(4.7%) of
teachers had entered the teaching profession with other certificates not P1
113
certificate. The study therefore concluded that majority of the primary school
teachers in Kirinyaga County had attained the basic minimum qualifications to
teach at the time. In a move to improve the quality of teaching in our schools the
TSC has moved to scrap the P1 certificate and all primary school teachers will be
expected to have a diploma as the minimum qualification (TSC, 2018).
Teachers from both public and private primary schools in Kirinyaga County had
met the minimum qualification to enter the teaching profession in Kenya at the
time the study was being carried out. This finding concurs with Musau and Migosi
(2015) study on secondary school teachers’ qualifications and students’
performance in Kenya that found the respondents had met the minimum
qualifications as they were graduate and diploma teachers with only 6.9 having
joined the teaching profession as untrained graduates. On the other hand, according
to Zhang (2011), only 66 per cent of migrant school teachers in China, have formal
teacher certificates.
On the relationship between pre service teacher training and achievement, Boyd,
Grossman, Lankford, Loeb and Wyckoff (2009) found that pre-service teacher
education programs in New York City had positive effects on achievement growth.
On the other hand, Harris and Sass (2007) had found no significant relationship
between pre service training and student outcomes in Florida. The Report of the
Republic of Kenya (2010) observed that two years of teacher training is not
adequate for the trainee to acquire mastery of the subject matter and pedagogical
skills in all the subjects taught at primary school level.

114
Distribution of Teachers by Their Academic Qualifications Progress
Teachers were further asked to indicate their current academic qualifications as
shown in figure 4.7. This information would be used to gauge if the teachers had
improved their academic qualifications since joining the teaching profession.
Teachers' Academic Qualifications Progress

90
80
70
60
Percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
academic qualification at entry current academic qualification
Figure 4.7: Teachers’ academic qualifications progress
The study established that 76(44.7%) of the teachers had attained higher academic
qualifications by acquiring certificate (others). These were certificates like
guidance and counseling and other courses. Figure 4.7 shows that 34(20%) had
diploma in education as their current academic and 30(17.6%) had a bachelor’s
degree. The finding also showed that more 58(58.6%) teachers in public schools
had acquired bachelor’s degree and diploma compared to 35(49.8%) teachers in
private schools. The number of those who had acquired a master’s degree was
minimal. This finding concurs with Miller & Roza (2012) who found that the
number of teachers in the United States who had acquired advanced degrees had
115
doubled over the last 50 years and the government was spending billions of dollars
to compensate teachers with advanced degrees. Kimani et al. (2013) established
that teachers in Nyandarua County had acquired higher academic qualification but
the additional professional qualifications above the first degree did not lead to
improved competence of teaching at the secondary school level. Rivkin et al.,
(2005) had earlier found no evidence that a master’s degree improves achievement
at secondary school level. On the other hand, the finding is contrary to Buddin and
Gema (2009) study in Los Angeles elementary schools that found a relationship
between teacher academic qualifications and achievement. Clotfelter, Ladd, and
Vigdor (2008) concluded that teachers in early grades who got a master’s degree
after five years of teaching had a negative effect on learner achievement. There
seems to be consensus that teachers should acquire advanced degrees and diplomas
in the subjects in which they teach.
The study further sought to find out the effect of teacher academic qualifications
after pre service training and attendance to in service courses on KCPE
achievement. Teacher academic progress was computed by having two groups of
teachers, i.e. those who had improved their academic qualifications and those who
had not.
4.3.3 Teachers’ Attendance to in Service Courses
Teachers were asked to indicate the forms of in-service training they had attended,
the duration and the frequency of attendance to these courses.

116
Table 4.9: Teachers’ attendance to in service courses and school type

Attendance Yes No
N % N %
School Type Public 83 80.5 20 19.4
Private 32 47.7 35 52.4
Total 115 67.7 55 32.3
Table 4.9 shows majority i.e.115(67.7%) of the teachers in Kirinyaga County had
attended in service training compared to 55(32.3%) who indicated that they had not
attended any in service courses. Table 4.9 further reveals that majority 83(80.5%)
of the teachers who had attended in service courses were from public schools
compared to 32(47.7%) were from private schools. This showed that more public
school teachers had attended in service training compared to those in private
schools. The result showed that majority of the respondents had attended in service
training. This finding is contrary to Essel, Badu-Boateng, & Saah (2009) study on
in service training in Ghana who found that only 40% of their respondents had
attended in service training in the last three years. They also found out that 24% of
the respondents had not attended in service training 12 years prior to their research.
The quantitative findings were validated by the qualitative findings as teachers in
public schools were found to have attended more in service courses compared to
their counterparts in private schools. During the focus group discussion, teachers in
private schools who had not attended in service courses indicated that it was
difficult to be granted permission by the school managers to attend to trainings
during the school hours. Others reported that the schools were not willing to
117
commit resources to facilitate them to attend these in service training courses. This
study found a negative relationship -0.023 between teacher in-service training and
KCPE achievement. A study by Feng and Sass (2010) found that teacher in service
professional development has little effect on teacher ability to increase learner
achievement. On the contrary, a study carried out in Pakistan found a positive
impact of in service training programs on the performance of teachers (Junejo,
Sarwar & Ahmed, 2017).
4.3.4 Forms of in Service Training Attended
Teachers were asked to indicate the forms of in service course that they had
attended. The findings are shown in figure 4.8
56.50%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
Percent
30.00% 18.20% 16.20% 13.50%

20.00%
4.10% 3.60%
10.00%
0.00%
Forms of in sevice courses
Figure 4.8: Forms of in service courses attended by teachers
The findings in figure 4.8 indicate that teachers had participated in different forms
of in service courses. Figure 4.8 further shows that majority 96(56.5%) of the
teachers had participated mainly in workshops and seminar Teachers who had been
engaged in Kenya Education Management Institute (KEMI) courses were minimal

118
yet this is an educational institution that offers training opportunities to teachers
and school managers.
One off seminars and workshops often attempt to change teachers’ beliefs and
attitudes. The expectations were that once teachers changed their beliefs and
practices, their classroom practices and behaviors would also change (Clarke &
Hollingsworth, 2002). According to Fullan (2009), only 10% to 20% of American
teachers engage in meaningful professional development while 90% of them
participate in professional development consisting mainly of one day short-term
workshops and conferences. Fullan (1991) had earlier noted that nothing has
promised so much and has been so frustrating and wasteful as the thousands of
workshops and conferences that lead to no significant change in practice when the
teachers return to their classroom. Hunzincker (2011) further asserts that
professional development through workshop is often ineffective in meeting teacher
needs.
The qualitative finding confirmed that the main form of professional development
that most teachers attended were workshops and seminars conducted outside the
school. Most of these workshops were organized by the County Education office
and information to attend is relayed to the teachers by the head teacher. One
teacher from a public schools noted, ‘We are told by the head teacher when they
receive information from the education office about a certain training or workshop.
Once informed you are expected to attend without fail.’ This was further
collaborated by the head teachers who reported that the curriculum support officers
often informed them of any training and the teachers expected to attend. The head
119
teachers also noted that these workshops are also organized by book publishers but
they must inform the county education office so that teachers are allowed to attend.
On the other hand, teachers from private schools reported that they were not
obligated to attend the workshops and most often their school managers were
reluctant to allow them to attend. Most teachers reported they did not engage in
forms of professional development like KEMI courses due to financial constraints.
4.3.5 Duration of the in Service Courses
The study sought to establish the duration of the different in service training
programs that the teachers indicated they had attended. The findings are presented
in table 4.10.
Table 4.10: Duration of in service courses attended by teachers

Duration 1 day 2-5 days 1-3 weeks 1-2 More than 2
month months
n % n % n % n % N %
SMASE 12 28.6 3 7.1 9 21.4 2 4.8 16 38.1
KEMI 0 0.0 3 37.5 0 0.0 1 12.5 4 50.0
TPC 0 0.0 13 44.8 15 51.7 1 3.4 0 0.0
EGMA 0 0.0 5 83.3 1 16.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
Workshops 87 76.3 17 14.9 6 5.3 1 0.9 3 2.6
Others 0 0.0 1 7.7 2 15.4 1 7.7 9 69.2
The findings in table 4.10 showed that majority i.e. 87(76.3%) of the teachers were
involved in workshops and seminars, which had duration of one day. Table 4.10
further shows that most of the form of professional development programs that
120
teachers engaged in ranged between duration of one day to three weeks. Penuel,
Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, (2007) opine that workshops continue to be the
common form of professional development but they are often short term and
removed in time from everyday practice of the teachers.
Duration is defined as “both the number of contact hours of professional
development, and the length of time over which engagement in the activity spans
(Hochberg & Desimone, 2010). Supovitz and Turner (2000) determined that the
total number of contact hours of professional development had a positive
association with teachers’ outcomes, such as attitude, preparedness, and teaching
practice. Yoon et al., (2007) found that studies that provided sufficient contact
hours of professional development ranging between 30 to 100 hours with an
average of 49 hours showed a statistically significant and positive effect on student
achievement gains. On the other hand, professional development with duration of 5
to 14 hours had no effect on student learning.
This study found that majority of the teachers had attended professional
development courses that were less than 30 hours. This was an indication that the
courses were short term and likely to have minimal impact as supported by
literature. This finding concurs with Birman, Le Floch, Klekotka, Ludwig, Taylor,
Walters, Yoon, (2007) who established that only 7% of elementary school teachers
participated in Mathematics professional development for more than one day in a
year. For professional development to be effective it should be continuous and
long term. In Kenya, a report by TSC highlighted that the long term accredited
programs that teachers were pursuing were having little impact on their
121
professional development (Otieno, 2009). Frank (2002) found that professional
development had positive effects on students’ achievement when it was sustained
and long term. Activities that extend over time are more likely to allow teachers
more time to try out new practices in the classroom and obtain feedback on their
teaching (Girvan, Conneeley, & Tangney, 2016). Effective professional
development should be sustained, on-going, in-depth and with active engagement
by the professional. Short-term, one-short programs are said to be ineffective.
Desimone and Garet (2015) established that 20-100 hours of professional
development over a period of six months would change teachers’ practice.
The findings from the qualitative data revealed that teachers attended workshops
that were mainly conducted for one to two days in church or other school halls.
Those who indicated that they had attended a course for two weeks were those who
had attended the SMASE programs. Teachers were of the view that the short
period they were engaged in these programs was not adequate and they need more
time and follow up for them to benefit. One public school teacher noted, ‘Most of
the times the seminars we attend at the catholic hall are usually one day. Those
who attend for long period are the mathematics and science teachers since they are
trained during the holiday’
The head teachers collaborated this by noting that even after teachers attended a
one-day workshop not much effect was felt in the school. Most teachers they said
attended for purposes of getting certificates of attendance for use during promotion
interviews
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4.3.6 Frequency of Teacher Attendance to in Service Courses
Teachers were asked to indicate the number of in service courses they had attended
in given periods of time. The results are shown in table 4.11
Table 4.11: Number of in service courses teachers attended

Number of 2017 2016 2015
In service courses
N % N % N %
1 38 22.4 53 31.2 38 22.4
2 52 30.6 32 18.8 29 17.1
3 23 13.5 21 12.4 24 14.1
4 2 1.4 3 1.8 6 3.5
Mean 1.97 1.79 2.00
Table 4.11 shows that the frequency of teachers’ attendance to in service courses
was on average twice per year. The finding reveals that the average attendance in
2017 was 1.97; in 2016 1.79 and in 2015 it was 2. It is however important to note
that there is an improvement in frequency of attendance to in service courses in
2017 compared to 2016. For example, those who attended at least two courses in
2017 increased to 52(30.6%) compared to 32(18.8%) in 2016. Those who had
attended four in service per year were minimal across the years i.e. 2(1.4%) in
2017, 3(1.4%) in 2016 and 6(3.5%) in 2015. The number of in service training that
a teacher attended per year was low as it shows majority attended a course after six
to four months. A study by Ampofo (2017) on teachers in senior high schools in
central region, Ghana, found that teacher in service training programs were
organized at least once every academic year.

123
Hochberg and Desimone (2010) concluded that duration of professional
development comprises the number of contact hours as well as the frequency of
attendance. According to Desimone (2009) for any professional development
program to be effective, it must be continuous and long term (Desimone, 2009).
Vonk (1995) had earlier asserted that professional development is not an automatic
process. It is the outcome of a complex learning process that is based on
continuous reflection on teachers’ everyday experiences in a given context. This
shows that the frequency of teacher professional experiences was critical if the
program was going to have meaningful impact. Teachers’ learning takes place over
time rather than in isolated moments in time. Active learning requires opportunities
to link previous knowledge with new knowledge. This was not possible with low
frequency of training. This means that teachers required frequent opportunities to
focus on improving their practice especially in their everyday life and activities in
school. There is need therefore for teacher to continuously engage in professional
development activities.
The findings show low frequency of teacher attendance to in service courses.
During the focus group discussion, teachers indicated that there were few in
service training opportunities particularly for teachers handling upper classes. They
observed that most of the programs were for teachers in lower primary. One
teacher commented,
Training for upper primary teachers are rarely organized especially those
teaching Social Studies, English, CRE. At least those who teach
Mathematics have SMASE. Most training is for lower primary teachers like
Tusome, Digital literacy training. Surely, the government should consider
upper primary teachers especially those teaching candidate classes.
124
The head teachers also were in agreement that the number of times teachers in
upper primary attended in service courses was low as most of the programs were
focused in the lower primary. One public school head teacher noted that upper
primary school teachers used to attend SMASE courses but these have taken quite
some time before being offered.
4.3.7 Effect of Teacher participation in Formal Training on KCPE
Achievement
This study also sought to find out the effect the formal training (academic progress
and attendance to in service courses) on KCPE achievement. Formal training was
computed by getting information on teacher academic progress since joining the
teaching profession and attendance to in service courses. The independent sample
t-test was used to test the effect of teacher formal training on KCPE achievement.
Table 4.12: Group statistics for teachers’ formal training and KCPE
achievement
Group Statistics
formal N Mean Std. Std. Error
training Deviation Mean
KCPE Yes 109 56.07384 6.135878 .587711
achievement
No 60 56.31109 6.833626 .882217
The statistic in table 4.12 gave a mean score of 56.07 with a standard deviation of
6.13 for a total n of 109 teachers who had formal training. Further, the teachers
with no formal training had a mean score of 56.31 with a standard deviation of
6.83 for a total n of 60 teachers. It was observed that there was a slight difference
125
in mean for teachers with formal training and those with no formal training. To test
whether the observed difference in mean was statistically significant an
independent sample t-test was carried out. The results are presented in table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Independent Samples Test on effect of teachers’ formal training

on KCPE achievement
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means
for Equality of
Variances
F Sig. T Df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence
tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the
Difference
Lower Upper
KCPE Equal 1.773 .185 .215 167 .830 -.221590 1.032394 2.259816 1.816636
achievement variances
assumed
Equal .208 111.677 .835 -.221590 1.063140 2.328133 1.884952
variances
not
assumed
This study established that the effect of formal training on KCPE achievement was
statistically insignificant since the p value (0.830) was greater than 0.05. This
implies that formal training (academic qualifications and attendance to in service
courses) was not a factor affecting KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County. This
means that the study fails to reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant
effect of teacher formal training on KCPE achievement and therefore adopts the
hypothesis. The calculated Cohen’s d was 0.03 which was a very small effect size
as it was below 0.2 which is a small effect size.
This study combined teacher academic progress and attendance to in service
training and found no significant effect on KCPE achievement. The study also
126
established that the in service courses especially workshop and seminar which
majority of the teachers attended was short term (one day) which may not have any
effect on achievement. Wei et al., (2009) & Penuel et al., (2007) noted that
effective professional development programs provide job-embedded opportunities
for teachers to collaborate on issues that are very close to the classroom as opposed
to academic qualifications and workshops. Fraser (2010) notes the limitations of
traditional, formally organized training activities and the need for informal learning
opportunities.
The qualitative findings showed that majority of the teachers in public schools
agreed that when teachers attained higher academic qualifications and also
attended in service courses it helped them to improve their teaching methods as
well gained more knowledge in their teaching subjects. One public school teacher
had this to say,
The diploma and degree courses really assist on to know more about the
subject they teach and also how to deal with different learners. One also is
able to use different methods when teaching. This helps learners perform
well in exams.
They supported that this helped them teach better and also improve their mean
scores. This view was also supported by some teachers from private schools. There
were however, those who felt that higher academic qualifications were not linked
to improved mean scores citing cases of teachers who were P1 holders but whose
teaching subjects were always being performed well.
The head teacher supported the importance of formal training i.e. acquisition of
higher academic qualifications and attendance to in service courses as they helped

127
expose teachers to new ways of teaching. They were however concerned with the
motive of most teachers when they engage in these formal trainings. A head
teacher from a public school noted
Many teachers go back to school so that they can get promoted or their
salary can increase. They do not do this with the intention to improve their
mean score. I have a P1 teacher whose subject is among the best but I do
not mean the degrees are not important.
Formal training in terms of higher academic qualifications and attendance to in
service courses play a critical role in grounding teachers in their teaching subjects
in terms of content and teaching methods. They however need to be closely related
to the curriculum and geared towards improvising learner outcomes.
4.4 Teacher Participation in Collaborative activities and KCPE
Achievement
This study sought to find out the level of teacher engagement in collaborative
activities and its effect on KCPE achievement. Teacher collaborative activities
comprised teacher sharing PD knowledge, teacher being assisted and assisting
others in difficult subject areas, teacher being observed and observing others as
well as teacher participation in team teaching.
4.4.1 Sharing of Professional Development Information
Teachers were required to indicate the forum through which they shared
knowledge or information acquired from professional development activities with
their colleagues. The findings are presented in figure 4.9.

128
0.60% 0.60%
14.70%
15.30%
56.50%
Did not share During assembly During staff meeting

Informal discussions Departmental meetings
Figure 4.9: Forums for sharing professional development knowledge
The findings in figure 4.9 show that teachers shared information acquired from
professional development using different forums. Figure 4.9 further shows that the
main means through which teachers shared professional development knowledge
was during staff meetings as reported by 96(56.5%) of the respondents. There
were also 26(15.3%) who reported that they shared the information in informal
discussions. Another 25(14.7%) indicated they shared this information during a
formal departmental meeting. This finding confirms that there was interaction
among the teachers as far as professional knowledge was concerned. On the
contrary, Little, Gearhart, Curry, & Kafka, (2003) noted that schools may not yet
have utilized the potential of knowledge sharing among teachers. Darling-
Hammond et al., (2005) opine that when teachers share on what good teaching
entails they help set conducive learning environment and apply the learnt
strategies. Slovberg and Rismak (2011) also found that when teachers participated
in knowledge sharing activities, they developed their teaching practices and
expanded their knowledge.

129
This study established that the knowledge teacher acquired from professional
development activities was cascading to those who did not attend the courses as
well as among those who attended. During the focus group discussion teachers
confirmed seeking information from those in lower primary on digital literacy and
other professional development courses. This was because the lower primary
teachers had more PD activities than those in upper primary. This was a comment
as reported by one teacher:
Through constant sharing a teacher is able to retain and understand better

the knowledge acquired from the professional programs therefore
improving performance of pupils through discussion outside the learning
environment, in the staffroom or during our free time.
Teachers however reported that the mode and period of sharing the information
was not sufficient as it was either done during assembly or break time. Many
indicated that they used break time or while in the staffroom as they waited to
attend the next lesson to share new knowledge. One teacher commented, “We face
the challenge of sharing the written notes as our school does not have a
photocopying machine and the papers. Sometimes we use our own money.”
Teachers reported using their personal resources to get the notes.
The study also established that there was inadequate follow up activities after the
professional development activities and forums for sharing were not adequately
provided at the school level. One head teacher had this to say,
I give teachers a chance to share on anything new they have learnt from the
courses but we do not have specific times or programs for sharing. The
time to follow up on the time and how the information is shared is not set in
our school.
130
The study observed that teachers interacted as far as their professional
development is concerned and this needed to be encouraged in all educational
institutions. The interviewed head teachers indicated that they provided
opportunities for teachers to brief others on information they had acquired in PD
programs. They however, reported that time was not enough and some teachers
were also not willing to freely share with others.
4.4.2 Teacher Peer Coaching Activities
Peer coaching activities in this study comprised teachers being assisted and
assisting others in areas they found difficulties as far as their teaching subjects
were concerned.
4.4.2.1 Teachers being assisted by others
The study sought to find out if teachers were assisted by their colleagues in
difficult aspects of their teaching subjects. The findings are presented in table 4.14
Table 4.14: Teacher being assisted by other teachers and school type
Teacher being assisted by other teachers
Yes No
N % N %
Private 64 41.2 7 46.7
Total 155 91.1 15 8.8
Table 4.14 showed majority 155(91.1%) of teachers in both public and private
schools reported that they were assisted by their colleagues in areas they
encountered difficulties in their teaching. The results indicate that it was only
15(8.8%) who indicated they were not assisted. Table 4.14 further shows that more
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teachers 91(58.7%) in public schools reported they were assisted by their
colleagues compared to 64(42.2%) teachers in private schools. It is evident from
these results that teachers in both public and private schools received assistance
from their colleague in areas they found difficulties in their teaching subjects.
In senior high schools in central region, Ghana, peer coaching is not regularly
practised and it is not institutionalized (Ampofo, 2017). Britton and Anderson
(2010) observed that peer coaching models that support teacher practices in the
field are underutilisedBritton & Anderson (2010) study further established that
teachers who practiced peer coaching changed their classroom practices. Tesfaw
and Hofman (2014) opine that peer coaching that is school based helps enhance
teachers’ ability to adopt and use new teaching skills. However, Murray, Xin Ma,
& Mazur (2009) found no association between peer coaching and student
improvement in mathematics. On the other hand, Green (2004) found that teachers
who engaged in peer coaching were more effective in the use of new instructional
strategies compared to those who did not.
Teachers were further also asked to indicate areas in which they were assisted by
their colleagues. The results are presented as shown in table 4.15
Table 4.15: Areas in which teachers were assisted by other teachers

Areas assisted by others N %
Subject knowledge 106 62.4%
Teaching skills 83 48.8%
Learner assessment 44 25.9%
Technology integration 32 18.8%
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Table 4.15 shows that majority 106(62.4%) of the teachers were assisted to
improve their subject content knowledge followed by 83(48.8%) to apply new
teaching skills, Table 4.15 further shows that 44(25.9%) of the teachers indicated
they were assisted to improve learner assessment while 32(18.8%) were assisted to
use technology in teaching. The study established that teachers assisted each other
on content knowledge and teaching skills but there was limited assistance in use of
technology in teaching. We are in the digital era and teachers are expected to
integrate technology in the teaching/learning process.
The qualitative findings on teacher peer coaching activities supported the
quantitative findings. Teachers reported helping one another in areas where they
encountered difficulties in their teaching subjects especially in content knowledge
and teaching methods. They however, highlighted challenges that include limited
time, heavy teaching workload and limited technology infrastructure in schools.
During the focus group discussions teachers reported that lack of computers and
other digital devices in their schools except class one tablets affected their use of
technology in their teaching. They also indicated that they were not fully
developed in the use of technology in teaching and learning. One public school
teacher commented, “My school does not have a computer so we don’t share
knowledge on how to use computer in teaching.”
The interviewed head teachers reported that teachers assisted one another in their
teaching subjects but the use of technology in teaching was a challenge. A head
teacher from a public school had this to say:
Teachers do not help one another to use technology in the class because
like in my school we don’t have a computer and electricity is only
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connected to the office. We also do not have other devices to use with the
computers in class.
The interviewed head teachers noted that teachers helped one another in their
teaching areas but the biggest challenge was in integration of technology in
teaching. In public schools, they noted that the lower primary teachers were trained
in digital literacy but those in upper primary did not have the capacity. Most
schools had electricity but this was only connected to the office due to limited
finances. One public school head teacher noted:
In my school we have connected electricity to my office, the secretary and

the staffroom. This is because we do not have money to connect to the
classrooms. We are also struggle to pay the electricity bills. Teacher do not
therefore use technology a lot in teaching.
The use of technology in teaching and learning processes in this digital era is
critical for all teachers. The Ministry of Education through the quality education
dialogues (2018) reported that teachers in primary schools lack requisite skills
hence the low ICT integration in learning.
4.4.2.2 Teacher assisting others
Teachers were asked to indicate whether they had assisted other teachers in areas
they found difficult in their teaching subjects. The results are shown in table 4.16
Table 4.16: Teacher assisting others and school type

teacher assisting other teachers
Yes No
N % N %
Private 57 40.1 14 51.9
Total 142 83.5 27 4.1
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The findings in table 4.16 show that 142(83.5%) of teachers assisted others in areas
of difficulty with only 27(4.1) indicating they had not assisted others. Table 4.16
further shows more 86(59.9%) teachers in public schools reported to have assisted
their colleagues compared to 57(40.7%) of their counterparts in private schools.
The study established that more 155(91.1%) of teachers reported they received
assistance from their colleagues compared to 142(83.5) who reported they assisted
others in areas of difficulty. There is need therefore to enhance the capacity of all
teachers so that they seek assistance from other teachers and also offer assistance
depending on their expertise as this enhance effective collaboration.
The qualitative findings validated the quantitative findings that majority of the
teachers assisted their colleagues in areas of difficulty in their teaching subjects.
However, challenges of time limitations and heavy teaching workloads were
pointed out.
Table 4.17: Areas in which teachers assisted others

Areas assisted others N %
Subject knowledge 94 55.3%
Teaching skills 79 46.5%
Learner assessment 61 35.9%
Technology integration 34 20.0%
Table 4.17 shows that 94(55.3%) of the teachers indicated they assisted their
colleagues to enhance their subject matter while 79(46.5%) reported they assisted
in the area of teaching skills. The findings further revealed that assistance in the
areas of learners’ assessment and use of technology in teaching was low. Those
who reported to have assisted others in the area of learner achievement were
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61(35.9%) while those who assisted in the use of technology were 34(20.0%).
According to OECD (2005) teachers reported a need to be trained in ICT skills in
teaching.
Peer coaching is built upon trusting relationships that develop between teachers. It
was clear during the focus group discussions that teachers reported that they helped
one another in their area of expertise. This is especially in subject matter content
knowledge and application new teaching skills. Peer coaching is based on mutually
working together to improve teaching skills in order to improve student learning.
Findings from a study done with pre-service teachers, in 2007, indicated that peer
coaching fostered the exchange of teaching skills and encouraged participants to
reflect upon their own teaching methods and styles (Vacilotto & Cunnings, 2007)
As earlier noted, the qualitative finding validated that teachers assisting others in
the area of technology integration was limited. This point to the fact that majority
of the teachers in upper primary were limited in their capacity to integrate
technology in the classroom. The head teachers collaborated this and noted that
even in private schools that had computers, technology integration in teaching was
still lacking. One private school head teacher reported, ‘we have a computer room
here in the school but I don’t see the class eight teachers using it to teach or help
each other in teaching using the computers.’
Technology plays a critical role in teaching and learning in this 21st century and
teachers require to be well versed in integration of technology in the classroom.
The Ministry of Education (2016) revealed that only 31.9% of pupils in class 3 had
reported to have been exposed to computers.

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4.4.3 Lesson Observation
The study sought to find out the number of times teachers had been observed by
their colleague teachers while teaching in the last two terms.
4.4.3.1 Teacher being observed by others
Table 4.18: Number of times teachers have been observed teaching

Number of times Frequency Percent
None 13 7.6
Once 18 10.6
Twice 85 50.0
Thrice 54 31.8
Total 170 100
The findings in table 4.18 indicate that 157(98.4%) of the respondents reported to
have been observed while teaching by their colleague teachers. Table 4.18 further
shows that those that teachers that indicated they were observed three times were
54(31.8%) while those observed twice were 85(50%). The teachers that reported
that they were not observed during teaching were only 13(7.6%). This study
therefore established that teachers were observed during their teaching. This
finding indicates that teachers in Kirinyaga County were adhering to the TSC
requirement for teachers to undertake at least one lesson observation per term. This
study finding concurs with Piper & Mugenda (2012) who established that Kenyan
teachers reported being observed at least once a term. Whitehurst, Chingos, &
Lindquist (2014) established that the more frequent the observations, the more the
observed effects, as they provide reliable data. Zwart et al., (2009) in a study of
secondary school teachers showed that the greatest number of changes in teaching
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practice is achieved when the teachers observe each other and give feedback on the
observed practice.
Lesson observation is a professional development technique that allows teachers to
identify an area of concern and appoint one colleague to teach. During this time,
they observe the strengths and the challenges then meet and discuss on how to
improve lesson delivery of that area of concern. Qualitative findings supported that
teachers lesson observation was taking place in schools with teachers being
observed at least once a term. Teachers in public schools reported that they were
observed while teaching by either the deputy head teacher or the senior teacher.
This they said was emphasized by the requirement by TSC to have at least one
lesson study per term as per the TPAD tool. Private school teachers reported that
the were most often observed by the school principal or the manager who is mostly
the proprietor of the school. Private school teachers reported that the were most
often observed by the school principal or the manager who is mostly the proprietor
of the school. They however noted that in their case no appraisal tool was used and
the observation was done without prior knowledge. They were therefore always
prepared that the principal can get into their classrooms and observe them teaching.
The interviewed head teachers indicated that lesson observation was often
practiced especially in public schools. Head teachers from private schools however
noted that this was done in their schools but in most cases it is the proprietor or
school managers who observed those teachers they had engaged.

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4.4.3.2 Teachers observing others teaching
Teachers were asked to indicate the number of times they had observed their
colleague teachers in the classroom in the last two terms. Table 4.19 captured the
number of times a teacher had observed others while they were teaching.
Table 4.19: Number of times teacher observed other teachers’ lessons

Number of times Frequency Percent
None 83 48.8
Once 23 13.5
Twice 34 20.0
Thrice 30 17.1
Total 170 100.0
The findings in table 4.19 indicate that majority 83(48.8%) of the respondents that
had not observed their colleagues teaching. Table 4.19 further shows that 34(20%)
of the teachers reported they had observed others twice while 30(17.1%) had
observed others once. The teachers who indicated that they had observed others
thrice were 30(17.1%). This study established that respondents had been observed
more times than they themselves had observed their colleagues while teaching.
This is an area of concern as all teachers in the team or subject area are supposed to
observe as well as be observed by their colleagues while teaching. This helps
improve practice for those being observed and those observing others. This study
finding may notes that teachers in schools were observed by those in
administrative positions e.g. deputy head teachers and senior teachers as outlined
in the TPAD tool. It is however imperative to note that teachers at the same level
need to plan a lesson together and observe each other while teaching.
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The positive effects of lesson observation can only be realized if teachers are
observed while teaching and also observe their colleague teachers teaching. The
capacity of teachers therefore needs to be enhanced for them to observe others
while teaching even as they are observed. Meirink et al., (2009) study found that
teachers learn at their workplace by testing out different teaching methods after
having observed how a colleague teaches or after reflection on teaching together
with colleagues improve. The National Centre for Literacy Education () found that
only 10% of teachers had the opportunity to observe another teacher teaching.
According to Wayne, Garet, Brown, Rickles, Song, Manzeske, (2016) frequent
collaborative classroom observations and feedback can lead to teacher efficacy and
leaner achievement. However, Dynarski (2016) notes that too often observers pay
more attention on the teacher instead of evaluating teacher performance and its
impact on student learning. A study in Uganda by Malunda, Onen, Musaazi &
Oony (2016) established that, both formal and in formal lesson observation had
statistically significant effect on teaching skills.
The findings from the qualitative strand supported the quantitative finding that
more teachers in both public and private schools were observed while teaching but
they themselves did not observe their colleagues while teaching. This shows that
peer observation was limited. During the focus group discussion, teachers from
public schools had the view the lesson observation was the work of the principal,
deputy principal and the senior teachers.
They had the view that this was a formality expected of them by their employer. In
fact, many of the respondents did neither view it as a form of professional

140
development nor link it to learner achievement. Data generated from the head
teacher interviews also corroborated the finding that teachers rarely practiced peer
coaching.
Reports from a baseline study by Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology
in Africa (CEMASTEA) in 2016 showed that teachers in secondary schools
participated in lesson study and schools even invited teachers from other schools to
share experiences. Trilling and Fadel (2009) propose that professional
development programs must meet the needs of the 21st century learner, which
includes collaboration with other teachers and a connection to real practice.
4.4.4 Team Teaching
This study set to establish the number of times teachers had engaged in team
teaching with colleagues in the last two terms. The findings are presented in figure
4.10.
Team Teaching
NO
11%
YES
89%
YES NO
Figure 4.10: Teacher engagement in team teaching

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The results shown in figure 4.10 reveal that majority 152(89.4%) of the teachers
indicted that they engaged in team teaching. This clearly indicates that teachers
shared responsibilities in teaching a class. Team teaching has been practices as
teaching strategy in US high schools since 1960s and the practice is now part of the
university curriculum (Anderson & Landy, 2006). Yellowley and Farmer (2006)
found that teachers practiced team teaching which helped learners improve in
problem solving activities. Wadkins, Miller and Wozniak (2006) found no
improvement in student learning and attitudes for teachers who practiced team
teaching. According to Spraker (2003) team teaching has positive effects on
students because it fosters better achievements and positive attitude towards
schooling. The head teacher indicated they supported this collaborative activity in
their schools as it helped to ensure that all classes were taught even when a teacher
was officially absent. According to Wadkins, Miller and Wozniak (2006) team
teaching increases the interactions between teachers and learners.
Findings from the qualitative strand supported that teachers in both public and
private schools practised team teaching in the form of attending each other’s class
when one was absent as well at sharing teaching topics depending on one’s
expertise. The head teachers supported that teachers were engaged in team
teaching. They however quick to note that it required close monitoring as some
teachers used it as an excuse to exchange lessons interfering with the scheduled
teaching time table. Teachers were also reluctant to inform the head teacher when
engaging in team teaching and this created confusion.

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Teachers were asked to indicate the number of times they had engaged in team
teaching in the last two terms.
Table 4.20: Frequency of team teaching in the last two terms

Engagement in team teaching
None Once Twice Thrice
N % N % N % N %
School Public 11 11.1 12 12.1 45 45.5 31 31.3
Type Private 7 9.9 7 9.9 35 49.3 22 31.0
Total 18 10.6 19 11.2 80 47.1 53 31.2
The findings in table 4.20 showed that majority 80(47.1%) of teachers reported
they had engaged in team teaching twice in the last two terms. Table 4.20 further
shows that 53(31.2% indicated they had engage in team teaching thrice. The results
indicate 18(10.6%) of teachers reported that they had not engaged in team teaching
at all in the last two terms while 19(11.2%) had done it only once in a period of
two terms. This study therefore, established that teachers in both public and private
schools in Kirinyaga County were engaged in team teaching.
Penuel et al., (2007) found that teachers reported more change when participants in
the professional activities engaged all teachers in the department or grade
groupings. Madhuri and Meghna (2016) in their study on the effect of team
teaching on academic achievement of 9th grade learners in science found a
significant positive effect. Similarly, Nkechi, Akudolu, & Ezenwosu, (2015) study
showed that students taught English language comprehension by teachers who
used team teaching approach, had significantly higher achievement than those in
the control group who were taught by a single teacher.

143
The qualitative data showed that the frequency of teacher engagement in team
teaching was low. Teacher reported the challenge of interfering with the scheduled
teaching time table. One teacher from a public school said, ‘teaching with
colleagues requires you to plan well to ensure they do not have another class at the
time you want them to teach a topic for you’ Others also reported that their
colleagues were uncooperative and were not willing to share teaching classes.
Some in public schools observed that their colleagues were possessive of their
class eight as they wanted to be associated with the KCPE results. They were
therefore not willing to engage in team teaching.
4.4.5 Effect of Teacher Collaborative activities on KCPE Achievement
The study sought to find out the effect of teacher collaborative activities on
achievement in KCPE. Collaborative activities comprised teacher participation in
sharing PD knowledge, peer coaching, lesson observation and team teaching
activities. The independent sample t-test was used to test the effect of teacher
participation in collaborative activities on KCPE achievement. This was the most
appropriate statistics as the aspects that comprises collaborative activities were
dichotomous i.e. those teachers who participated in these collaborative activities
and those who did not and its effect on KCPE achievement which was a
continuous variable.
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Table 4.21: Group statistics for teacher participation in collaborative

activities and KCPE achievement
Group Statistics
Participation in N Mean Std. Std. Error
collaborative Deviation Mean
activities
KCPE Yes 87 57.51416 6.833644 .732644
achievement No 83 54.72839 5.590229 .613607
The statistic in table 4.21 gave a mean score of 57.51 with a standard deviation of
6.83 for a total n of 87 teachers who had participated in collaborative PD activities.
Teachers who had not participated in collaborative PD activities had a mean score
of 54.73 with a standard deviation of 5.59 for a total n of 83 teachers. It was
observed that there was a difference in mean for teachers who had participated in
collaborative PD activities and those who had not.
The qualitative findings showed that teachers believed when they shared with
others, engaged in peer coaching and team teaching it helped them to improve their
teaching and their mean scores. One male teacher from a private school reported, ‘I
assist my colleague in teaching the topic ‘proportion and scale drawing’ in class
8X and this helps our all pupils perform very well in Mathematics’
However, the qualitative finding showed a contrary view when it came to lesson
observation. Teachers in public schools reported that they did not think the lesson
observation as done by the school administrators helped them improve their
teaching and their mean scores. One teacher noted,
Sometimes the senior teacher just sits at the back of the class for a short
time then leaves. The lesson observation marks are filled in the sheet and
145
we never meet to discuss on the weaknesses observed and how I can

improve. In fact, some times the marks are filled in the staffroom without
going to the classroom for observation.
They noted that marks were filled in a sheet after the lesson observation and
thereafter no discussions or follow up was not for improvement. They therefore did
it as a formality.
Head teachers reported that these activities were useful in improving the mean
scores as teachers helped one another. In some private schools, the head teachers
reported making arrangements in the teaching time table to include other teachers
in order to help the learners achieve higher grades.
To test whether this difference in mean was statistically significant an independent
sample t-test was carried out. The results are presented in table 4.22
Table 4.22: t-test for collaborative activities and KCPE achievement

Independent Samples Test
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F Sig. T df Sig.(2ta Mean
iled) Difference
KCPE Equal variances 7.394 .007 2.901 168 .004 2.785764
achievement assumed
Equal variances 2.915 164.221 .004 2.785764
not assumed
This study found that the effect of teacher participation in collaborative activities
on KCPE achievement was statistically significant since the p value (0.004) was
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less than 0.05. This implies that participation in collaborative PD activities was a
good predictor affecting KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County. The study
therefore rejected the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant effect
of teacher participation in collaborative professional development programs on
KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County. The calculated Cohen’s d for teacher
participation in collaborative activities and KCPE achievement was 0.447 which
was a moderate effect size. Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin (2011) opine that
the teaching profession can be solitary as schools often fail to promote
collaboration.
The study findings established that 87(51.17%) of teachers were engaged in all the
different forms of collaborative activities while 81(48.8%) were in involved in
some and not the other. The need for teachers to collaborate on matters concerning
their teaching practice cannot be over emphasised. The world has become a global
village and with the advance in technology all teachers need to embrace
collaborative professional development. It is also important to note that these
activities take place in everyday life of the teacher at the school. They are cost
effective and offer in real time help to both teachers and learners as teachers do not
have to leave their work stations. Countries like Finland that have high quality
teachers provide everyday opportunities for teachers to engage in collaborative
professional development activities.
Qualitative findings validated the quantitative finding that teacher engagement in
collaborative activities helped in improved achievement of KCPE subject mean
scores. One teacher in a private school reported, ‘we teach together across all the
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class eight classes to ensure that the pupils have gained knowledge from the
different teachers’. Teachers supported these activities despite the challenges of
time and resources as they found them useful in helping them share and engage
with their colleagues. Head teachers also supported the view that teachers engaging
in collaborative activities helped to boost the mean score. Majority however, noted
that these activities need to be well organised and embraced by teachers for the
benefit of the learners. One public school teacher observed, ‘if we can be given
enough time to consult with other teachers and also share classes, our pupils would
benefit more’
4.5 Head Teacher Support for Teacher Professional Development and
Achievement
The fourth objective of this study was to find out the effect of head teacher
leadership in teacher professional development on KCPE achievement
4.5.1 Head Teacher Support for Teacher Professional Development
Teachers were asked to give their views of the type of support they received from
their head teachers as far as their professional development was concerned. Head
teacher leadership comprised statements on the different type of support head
teachers provided for teacher professional development as presented in table 4.23.

148
Table 4.23: Head teacher support for teacher professional development

Statements Disagree Neutral Agree Mean
n % N % n %
Provides 22 12.9 14 8.2 134 78.8 2.7
information
Recommends teachers 27 15.9 16 9.4 127 74.7 2.6
Releases teachers 11 6.5 25 14.7 134 78.8 2.7
Financial support 38 22.4 30 17.6 102 60.0 2.3
Sets time for PD 18 10.6 26 15.3 126 74.1 2.6
Provides resources 9 5.3 12 7.1 149 87.6 2.8
Invites resource 60 35.3 4 2.4 106 62.4 2.3
persons
2.6
The findings in table 4.23 indicate that majority149 (87.6%) of the teachers
reported that the head teacher supported teacher professional development by
providing teaching/learning resources. The interviewed head teachers indicated
that they ensured the required materials were provided though the challenge of
inadequate funds was highlighted. This finding is in tandem with Ampofo (2017)
research that found that the main assistance teachers in senior high schools in
central region, Ghana received from head teachers was provision of
teaching/learning material.
The qualitative finding also showed that head teachers provided the
teaching/learning materials. However, the challenge highlighted by the teachers in
public schools was that there were often delays in provision of these materials.
This affected the maximum utilization of the said materials in teaching and
learning. Head teachers concurred that they supported teacher professional

149
development by providing the required teaching and learning materials. In most
public schools the challenge was in adequate finances and the delay in
disbursement of the Free Primary Education (FPE) money.
Table 4.23 also showed that 134(78.8%) of the respondents reported that the head
teacher provides information for teachers to engage in professional development
activities with a mean of 2.6. These findings were supported during the focus
group discussion where most of the teachers who supported this statement were
from public schools. The teachers indicated that most of the programs were
government sponsored and were meant for specific teachers. They were therefore
informed by the head teachers and they attended.
Teachers in private schools reported that their head teachers did not provide
information to them on professional development opportunities. A private school
teacher observed that:
We are expected to be in school all through even on weekends. My school

manager does not recommend teachers to attend professional development
programs. In fact, he may not want you to know of such opportunities as he
expects you to be teaching and produce good results.
The private school head teachers however reported that once they received a
circular from the education office concerning training they always informed the
teachers. Some were however quick to note that it was the responsibility of the
school manager to grant teachers permission to attend to professional development
activities outside the school. Other reported that such information was
communicated to the school mangers directly and most of the times they informed
the concerned teachers. The other challenge faced by teachers in private schools
150
was permission to go for further training during the holiday as the schools often
had holiday tuition. This has since been banned.
Table 4.23 further shows that 134(78.8%) of the teachers indicated that head
teachers released them to attend professional development programs outside the
school. The findings from the qualitative strand supported this finding. This view
was also however, skewed towards teachers in public schools as they reported they
were expected by the education officials at the county to attend these programs
without fail. Private school teachers however reported that most of these programs
were not compulsory for them. Other teachers in public schools, observed that
teachers who were pursuing their degree and diploma courses during the school
holiday did not require to be released by the head teacher. This view was however
contrary to the expectations of the teacher employer TSC as one of the head
teachers in a public school observed:
All teachers are required by the TSC to be on duty even during the school
holidays. Teachers who attend courses or pursue further education during
the holidays are therefore expected to inform the head teacher and seek
official permission.
The interviewed head teachers indicated their commitment to support teacher
professional development. They however pointed out that it was not always easy
especially with the teacher shortage in public schools as releasing teachers to go
for workshops left some classes unattended. In Tanzania, teachers were granted 21
days’ leave twice in a year to attend professional development programs (Mosha,
2006).
The findings showed in table 4.23 further that showed that 102(60%) of the teacher
agreed with the statement that the head teacher provides finances for PD with a
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mean of 2.3 which was a positively interpreted. The study also established that
68(40%) of the respondents were of a contrary view.
The qualitative finding established the financial support given was in the form of
lunch and transport allowances. Teachers reported that the form of financial
support provided was mainly fare and lunch to attend workshops and seminars
outside the school. One teacher commented:
Schools were often not in a position to give the fare or lunch and we have
to wait for the free primary money to be sent to the schools. In most cases
we use our own money to be refunded at a later date.
Teachers indicated that they understood the circumstances their head teachers were
faced with and most of them paid up once money was available. It is however
important to note that 40% of the respondents disagreed with the statement that the
head teacher provided finances for teacher professional development. In the focus
group discussion, majority reported that they financed their own professional
development which was mainly academic advancement in form of degrees and
diplomas. In their study Komba and Nkumbi (2015) reported that in Tanzania, the
ministry of education and vocational training is responsible for providing finances
for teacher professional development however, majority (67%) of teacher
respondents reported that professional development was rarely budgeted for. The
interviewed public school head teachers noted that limited financial resources was
major challenge in their support for teacher professional development. This was
because the money allocated for training was minimal and there were delays in the
disbursement.
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The other support area of the head teacher was the invitation of resource persons to
assist teachers in new knowledge and skills. The findings in table 4.23 show that
106(62.4%) of the teachers reported that the head teacher invited resource persons
while 64(37.7%) who said that the head teacher did not invite resource persons to
assist teachers in areas of difficulty. The findings from the qualitative data showed
that head teachers invited experts in the schools. The head teacher reported that the
curriculum support officers visited the schools often and assisted the teachers.
They however observed that most of these visits were for teachers in lower
primary.
The interviewed head teachers reported they invited resource persons especially
the curriculum support officers. They however reported challenges as far as this
support area is concerned. One head teacher lamented, “In many cases, we have to
give a token of appreciation to the resource person and we do not have sufficient
money to do this so we don’t invite them often.” Lawrence and Chong (2010)
study found that tips from the expert teacher were found to be useful and allowed
teachers to learn new knowledge about the subject and education practice, thus
gaining more understanding of pupil needs and classroom management.
The qualitative finding showed that expert teachers were also invited in private
schools to address the class eight pupils. Teachers noted that these experts were
rarely invited to their classes to assist them or observe them as they teach and offer
guidance. A teacher from a public school noted, ‘I have only been observed by the
deputy head teacher and the senior teacher. I have not seen a CRE expert come to
my class’
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This study established that head teachers supported teacher professional
development with a mean of 2.6. This finding is contrary to Ludtke and Baumer
(2011) who reported that though teachers expected to attend professional
development activities like workshops, little support is given for teacher learning
in the workplace. In Tanzania, Komba and Nkumbi (2015) established that
teachers reported being inadequately supported in their professional development.
Teacher in public schools appreciated the support they received from their head
teachers in as far as their professional development is concerned.
4.5.2 Effect of Head Teacher Professional Development Support on KCPE
Achievement
This study sought to find out the effect of head teacher professional development
support on KCPE achievement. The seven Likert scale statement on the head
teacher support for teacher professional development were computed. Simple
linear regression was used to test the effect of head teacher professional
development support on KCPE achievement. The findings are presented in table.
Simple linear regression analysis
Ho1There is no statistical significant effect of head teacher professional
development support on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
Before carrying out linear regression analysis to test whether head teacher support
for teacher professional development had an effect on KCPE achievement, the
researcher first checked the assumption of the data. One of the assumptions of
regression is that the observations are independent. If observations are made over
time, it is likely that successive observations are related. If there is no auto

154
correlation (where subsequent observations are related) the Durbin-Watson statistic
should be between 1.5 and 2.5. In this study the Durbin-Watson statistic was 1.615
which is between 1.5 and 2.5 and the conclusion is therefore that the data is not
auto correlated. Test for normality, linearity and Homoscedasticity was also carried
out. The residuals were approximately normally distributed hence the assumption
was met while the scatter plot showed that there was a strong linear relationship
between the two variables. As for Homoscedasticity, there was no pattern in the
scatter plot and width of the scatter as predicted values increased was roughly the
same,
Table 4.24: Head teacher support for teacher professional development on

KCPE achievement
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
KCPE achievement 56.0181 6.393543 170
Head teacher support for teacher 27.1588 5.49702 170
PD
The table showed a KCPE achievement mean score of 56.15 with a standard
deviation of 6.39. Head teacher support for teacher professional development had a
mean of 27.13 with a standard deviation of 5.49 for a total n of 170. To test
whether this difference in the mean was statistically significant simple linear
regression test was run and the findings are captured in table 4.25.
155
Table 4.25: Model summary on head teacher support and KCPE achievement
Model Summaryb
Model R R Adjusted R Std. Error of Durbin-
Square Square the Estimate Watson
1 .295a .087 .082 6.126893 1.615
a. Predictors: (Constant), head teacher support for teacher PD
b. Dependent Variable: KCPE achievement
The results of the model summary showed that only 8.7% of KCPE achievement
could be explained by head teacher support for teacher professional development
in Kirinyaga County. To test whether this effect was statistically significant an
analysis of variance was carried out as shown in the ANOVA table 4.26. The
relationship between head teacher support for teacher professional development
and KCPE achievement was positive as shown by R=0.295. This is interpreted as
moderate effect since according to Cohen an R of 0.3 is a medium effect size. A
study by Enueme and Egwunyenga (2010) in Nigeria established that head teachers
actively promoted teacher professional development in government owned schools.
Day et al (2009) also concurs that when head teachers provide leadership and
support teachers teacher aspirations are raised and this is likely to lead to improved
learner achievement. Gaziel (2007) however claim that the evidence to show direct
link between school leadership support and learner achievement is not adequate.
156
Table 4.26: Analysis of Variance on head teacher support for teacher PD and
KCPE achievement
ANOVAa
Model Sum of df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
1 Regression 601.757 1 601.757 16.030 .000b
Residual 6306.522 168 37.539
Total 6908.279 169
b. Predictors: (Constant), head teacher support for teacher PD
The analysis of variance gave an F=16.03 and p value of 0.000<0.05 and it was
therefore concluded that there was statistically significant relationship between
head teacher support for teacher PD and KCPE achievement. This implies that
head teacher support for teacher professional development affected KCPE
achievement. The head teacher as shown by the findings supported teacher
professional development. The R=.295 showing a positive but weak relationship
between head teacher support for teacher professional development and KCPE
achievement.
Regression coefficient
A regression coefficient of the variable head teacher leadership on teacher
professional development that comprised the six Likert items was run and the
findings are captured in table 4.27

157
Table 4.27: Regression coefficient on head teacher support for teacher PD and
KCPE achievement
Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig. Collinearity
Coefficients Coefficients Statistics
B Std. Beta Tolerance VIF
Error
1 (Constant) 46.831 2.375 19.715 .000
Head .343 .086 .295 4.004 .000 1.000 1.000
teacher
support for
teacher PD
Table 4.27 shows the results of the regression coefficient which revealed that there
was statistically significant relationship between head teacher support for teacher
PD and KCPE achievement. This is shown by the following results, i.e. Head
teacher support for teacher PD was statistically significant and a unit change in
head teacher support for teacher PD had a positive effect on KCPE achievement by
.295, (β=-.142, t=4.004, p value=0.000. This showed that head teachers supported
teacher professional development and there was statistically significant
relationship between head teacher support for teacher PD and KCPE achievement.
The study therefore rejected the null hypothesis that there is no significant effect of
school head teacher on teacher leadership on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga
County.
Regression equation
KCPE=46.831+ 0.343(head teacher support for teacher professional development)

158
The findings from the qualitative strand indicated that head teachers supported
teacher professional development by providing information, teaching/ learning
resources, releasing teachers and inviting experts. Teachers were however of the
view that head teachers can play a greater role in supporting their professional
development. This by for example setting aside money for their training and
inviting experts on a regular basis. Head teachers were however of the view that
they could play a greater role in supporting teacher professional development if
they are trained and well equipped with the needed resources. The Ministry of
education through it education quality dialogues noted that most head teachers had
not received training in institutional management. This is critical because teacher
professional development is part of the role of the head teacher in school
management.
159
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
The chapter summarizes the basic concerns of the study from the major research
findings and the recommendations that emerge from the collected data. Areas for
further research are also identified. The purpose of this study was to assess the
effect of teacher professional development on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga
County. The study findings are presented according to the stated objectives of the
study which were
1. To establish teacher perceptions of their professional development and the
effect on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
2. To find out the effect of teacher participation in formal training
professional development programs on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga
County
3. To determine the effect of teacher participation in collaborative
professional development programs on KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga
County
4. To establish the effect of head teacher support for teacher professional
development and KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County
The study respondents were 194 class eight teachers in public and private primary
schools in Kirinyaga County as well as 20 head teachers. Questionnaires, focus
group discussion guide and semi structured interview schedule were used to collect
data. The rationale for use of a variety of research instrument was to enable the
researcher collect both quantitative and qualitative data. This enabled the
160
researcher to validate and corroborate data and therefore provided a deep
understanding of teacher professional development and achievement. The data
were analyzed using descriptive statistics i.e. mean, frequency, standard deviation
and inferential statistics i.e. regression and t-test in order to address the research
objectives and test the hypotheses. Qualitative data was analyzed thematically as
per the study objectives.
5.1 Summary
5.1.1 Teacher Perceptions of Professional Development and KCPE
achievement
The first objective of the study was to establish teacher perceptions of their
professional development and the effect on KCPE achievement. Teacher
perception comprised the reasons why they engaged in professional development,
benefits of professional development and its effect on improvement in subject
mean score. The study established majority of the teachers had a positive
perception of professional development and engaged in it mainly to improve
subject knowledge, teaching skills and professional conduct. However, the study
also established that a significant number of the teachers also engaged in
professional development for salary increase and promotion as well as to be
appointed to administrative positions. The study established that teacher did not
engage in professional development so as to move from primary school to
secondary school. Multiple regression coefficient showed there was insignificant
effect of teacher perception and KCPE achievement but there was a positive but
weak (R=0.065) relationship between teacher perception of their professional
development and KCPE achievement.

161
5.1.2 Formal Professional Development Programs and KCPE Achievement
In relation to the second objective of the study, teachers were found to engage in
formal training opportunities that comprised advancement in academic
qualifications and attendance to in service courses. The study found that majority
of teachers in public and private schools had joined the teaching profession with a
P1 certificate. Most teachers in public schools had advanced their academic
qualifications since joining the teaching profession compared to those in private
schools. The major form of in-service course attended by teachers in both public
and private schools were workshops and seminars with duration of one day to one
week. The frequency of attendance to in-service training was twice in a year.
However, statistical analysis revealed that the effect of teacher formal training
(academic progress and attendance to in-service courses) on KCPE achievement
was statistically insignificant with p>0.05 and the effect size was small
5.1.3 Collaborative Professional Development Activities and KCPE
Achievement
With regard to the third objective which was to determine the effect of teacher
participation in collaborative professional development programs on KCPE
achievement in Kirinyaga County. The study established that teachers were
engaged in collaborative activities such as sharing professional development
knowledge, being assisted and assisting others, lesson observation and team
teaching.
This study found that teachers were assisted by their colleagues in areas they had
difficulties and those who were assisted also helped others. The main areas in
162
which teachers assisted others were to improve subject matter knowledge and to
use new teaching skills. It was however; found out that teachers did not assist each
other much in the areas of learner assessment and use of technology in teaching
and learning due to inadequate technology infrastructure in schools and lack of
skills technology integration in the classroom. The study also established that
teachers in both public and private schools engaged in lesson observation.
However, majority of the respondents did not observe their colleagues. In addition,
majority of the teachers were engaged in team teaching. The study further
established that the effect of teacher participation in collaborative activities on
KCPE achievement was statistically significant as the p value was less than 0.05.
The effect size was moderate.
5.1.4 Head Teacher Support for Teacher Professional Development and
KCPE Achievement
The study established that head teacher professional development support was
critical to teacher professional development and achievement. This study found
that head teachers provided information on professional to teachers and also
recommended them for professional development programs. These programs were
mainly the ones under government sponsorship and those outside the school. They
also made decisions on release of teachers to attend professional development
programs and reimbursed their transport and lunch expenses. The study however;
found that the support on finances and invitation of subject experts were limited
compared to other support areas. This study established that head teacher
professional development support had a statistically significant effect on KCPE

163
achievement as the p value was less than 0.05. The effect size of head teacher
professional development leadership on KCPE achievement was moderate.
5.2 Conclusions
The study therefore arrived at the following conclusions;
Teacher perceptions of their professional development did not have a statistically
significant effect on KCPE achievement. The study found a positive but weak
relationship between the teacher perceptions of professional development and
KCPE achievement.
The study observed that teachers had advanced their academic qualifications
mainly through short term in service training courses in form of workshops and
seminars. The in service courses were short term and infrequent. With regard to
effect of formal professional development programs on KCPE achievement, the
study concludes there is a statistically insignificant effect between the two
variables.
In addition, teachers were engaged in collaborative professional development
activities. However, more were assisted but did not assist others while others were
observed but did not observe their peers. The study concludes that there was a
statistically significant effect of teacher participation in collaborative professional
development activities and KCPE achievement in Kirinyaga County.
Further, head teachers supported teacher professional development by providing
information, resources and released teachers to attend professional development
programs. The areas with least support were in provision of finances and invitation
164
of resource persons. The study concludes that the effect of head teacher leadership
on teacher professional development on KCPE achievement was statistically
significant.
5.3 Recommendations
The following recommendations were made:
5.3.1 Recommendations
Policy
i. The study recommends that the Teachers’ Service Commission needs to
develop comprehensive guidelines on teacher professional development
activities that incorporate both formal and informal professional
development activities in and out of school.
Practice
i. The study recommends that the Teachers Service Commission organizes
forums to sensitize teachers to focus more on engaging in teacher
professional development to improve their practice and have impact on
learner achievement. This can be done by assisting teachers draft a personal
professional development strategy/portfolio in order to improve their
professional growth as well as learner performance
ii. The Teachers’ Service Commission to build head teacher capacity on their
role in teacher professional development to strengthen collaborative
professional development activities at the school level. This can be done by
having frequent forums with head teachers on their role in teacher
professional development
165
iii. The Teachers’ Service Commission to institute continuous monitoring and
evaluation and create a database to inform decision making on teacher
iv. This study also recommends that teachers should participate in varied teacher
collaborative professional development activities at the school level. The
teacher employer can enhance this by frequent visits to schools and also
building the capacity of teachers on best teacher professional development
collaborative practices. The TSC can also provide guidelines on set times
within the school time table for teachers to share and engage in professional
development activities on a daily basis.
v. The Ministry of Education and school Board of Management could also
provide the necessary infrastructure at the school level to enhance teacher
collaborative activities. For example, provision of digital devices for teachers
to assist each other in integrating technology in teaching and learning. The
Ministry of Education could allocate more resources to upgrade infrastructure
in primary schools to enhance professional development activities at the
school level.
vi. The Kenya National Union of Teachers should also sensitize and support
teachers in embracing and engaging in collaborative professional
development activities based on best practices with a view to improving
teacher professional growth and learner outcomes

166
5.3.2 Recommendations for Further Research
This research recommends further research in the following areas.
i. This study recommends a study to be done on a wider scale in Kenya to
establish the effect of professional development programs on learner
achievement.
ii. Another recommendation is for a study to be carried out on effect of primary
teacher professional development on other learner outcomes besides
academic achievement.
.
167
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APPENDICES
Appendix I:
Cover Letter
P O BOX 107 – 10300

KERUGOYA
5TH MAY 2017
THE HEAD TEACHERS

KIRINYAGA COUNTY
Dear Sir/Madam
RE: RESEARCH
This is to inform you that I am a student at Kenyatta University and will be
conducting a research in both public and private primary schools in Kirinyaga
County. The purpose of the research is to find out the influence of teachers’
professional development on pupils’ achievement. The exercise will involve
conducting interviews, focus group discussions and filling in of questionnaires.
This research is important as it will explore status of primary teacher professional
development and add insights into use of best practice in order to improve teacher
performance and pupil achievement.
Your participation and cooperation will be highly appreciated.
Yours faithfully
DAMARIS KARIUKI
188
Appendix II:
Questionnaire for Teachers
Introduction
This questionnaire is designed to gather information on the effect of teacher
professional development on KCPE achievement. All responses will be
confidential and used only for the purposes of this study. There are no correct or
wrong responses.
Instructions
You are kindly requested to respond honestly to each of the items.
DO NOT WRITE YOUR NAME

Code:
ID for the interviewer
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC
A1 Gender Male [ ] Female [ ]
A2 School Type Private [ ] Public [ ]
A3 Age in years: below 25 [ ] 26-30 [ ]
31-35 [ ] 36-40 [ ] 41-45 [ ]
46-50 [ ] above 50 [ ]
A4 In which year did you join the teaching profession?
A5 Sub county where the school you are currently teaching is located:
SECTION B: PERCEPTIONS
Have you been engaged in any form of professional development?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
If yes proceed to answer question 1; if no

189
B1
I would like to ask you about some reasons why teachers engage in
professional development. Please tick the one that is appropriate to you.
1-Strongly agree; 2-Agree; 3-Neutral; 4-Disagree; 5-Strongly Disagree
The following are some of the reasons why teachers engage in professional
development. Tick the one that is appropriate to you
Reason 1 2 3 4 5
Salary increment
Promotion
To transfer service from primary to secondary
To be appointed to administrative positions
To gain more knowledge in my teaching subjects
To enhance my teaching methods
To improve my professional conduct
To improve learner achievement
To improve my subject mean score
I would like to ask you the extent to which you have benefitted in the given aspects
as a result of professional development
Please indicate the extent to which you have benefited in the given aspects as a
result of professional development
0- not at all; 1-very little extent; 2-little extent; 3-great extent; 4-very great extent
1. To what extent has professional development contributed in improving
your knowledge in your teaching subject(s)
0 [ ] 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] 4 [ ]
B11: To what extent has professional development helped you enhance your
teaching skills?
0 [ ] 1 [ ] 2 [ ] 3 [ ] 4 [ ]
B12: My subject mean score improved after participation in professional

development
Yes…... No…...
190
B13: If the answer to a) above is yes indicate the range by which subject mean
score increased
Below 0 [ ] 0-5 [ ] 10-15 [ ]
15-20 [ ] above 20 [ ]
SECTION 3: PARTICIPATION IN FORMAL TRAINING

2. What was your academic qualification when you joined the teaching
profession?
Masters (Ed) [ ] Masters (others) [ ]
Bachelor (Ed) [ ] Bachelors (others) [ ]
Diploma (Ed) [ ] Diploma (others) [ ]
Certificate (P1) [ ] certificate (others) [ ]
3. What is your current highest academic qualification?

Masters (Ed) [ ] Masters (others) [ ]
Diploma(Ed) [ ] Diploma (ECD) [ ]
Diploma (SNE) [ ] Certificate [ ]
Others (specify)
4. Using a tick (√ ) indicate which other training opportunities you have

attended in the last 5 years and its duration
Course Duration
SMASE
EGMA/PRIEDE
KEMI course
Teacher Proficiency Course
Workshop/seminar
Any other( please specify)

191
5. Indicate the frequency of the in service courses you have attended.

Period 2017 2016 2015
Term 1 2 3 Term 1 2 3 Term 1 2 3
No. of trainings
SECTION 4: PARTICIPATION IN COLLABORATIVE ACTIVITIES

Using a scale of 0 (lowest) to 4(highest) answer the questions on the level of your
participation in collaborative professional development by ticking appropriately
0-not at all; 1-not frequently; 2-frequently; 3-very frequently
6. How did you share knowledge/skills gained from professional development
with other teachers?
0 1 2 3 4
I did not share
During assembly
During a staff meeting
During informal discussion
During a formal professional/departmental

meeting
7. In what areas have you been assisted by other teachers in your teaching
subjects
0 1 2 3 4
To Improve subject content knowledge
To Apply new teaching skills
To Improve in learner assessment
To Use technology in teaching

192
8. Indicate the areas in which you have assisted other teachers in their
teaching subjects
0 1 2 3 4
To Improve subject content knowledge
To Apply new teaching skills
To Improve in learner assessment
To Use technology in teaching
9. How many times have you been observed by your colleague teachers while
teaching in the last two terms?
Once [ ] twice [ ] thrice [ ]
none [ ]
10. How many times have you observed other teachers teaching in the last two
terms?
none [ ]
11. How many times have you engaged in team teaching with your colleague
teachers in the last 2 terms?
none [ ]
193
SECTION 5: HEADTEACHER LEADERSHIP IN TEACHER

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
12. Please indicate the support you receive from your head teacher using a
five point scale by ticking appropriately on the given statements.
1-Strongly agree; 2-Agree; 3- Not sure; 4-Disagree; 5- Strongly Disagree
Aspects of support 1 2 3 4 5
In my school the head teacher provides information on

professional development opportunities to teachers
The head teacher recommends teachers for professional

development programs
The head teacher releases teachers to attend professional

development activities
The head teacher provides finances to teachers to attend

professional development courses outside the school
The head teacher sets time for teachers to engage in

professional learning activities
The head teacher provides teaching learning materials to

implement new skills
The head teacher invites resource persons to assist the teachers

in areas of difficulties
SECTION 6: KCPE PERFORMANCE

13. Please indicate the KCPE mean score of your teaching subject(s) in the
given years
2017 2016 2015
English
Math
Science
Kiswahili
Social Studies
194
Appendix III:
Focus Group Discussion Guide for Teachers
1. What is your view of teacher continuous professional development? (Probe

for reasons for engaging in PD, relationship with teacher and pupil
performance and benefits of PD
2. What forms of CPD do teachers engage in your school, county? (probe for
formal training, in service course, peer coaching, lesson observation and
team teaching) Is there a difference in private and public primary schools?
3. What effect do you think these CPD programs have on i) teacher
performance ii) pupil achievement (probe for professional conduct, content
knowledge, teaching methods, pupil grades)
4. Are teachers in your school, county provided with information and support
by the head teacher on CPD programs? (Probe for the different types of
support.
5. In your view what challenges do primary school teachers in your
school/county experience with regard to their continuous professional
development? (institutional, individual, time, resources)
6. Give suggestions on how continuous professional development can be
improved to have greater impact on teacher performance and pupils’
achievement.
195
Appendix IV:
Head Teacher’s Interview Guide
Type of school public…………… private…………….

Gender of Head teacher …………………………
Number of years as a teacher …… Number of years as Head teacher ………
Period of stay in current station …………………
1. What is your view of teacher professional development?
2. What forms of continuous teacher professional development are teachers
engaged in, in this school, county?
3. What factors would you attribute to teachers’ choice of these forms of
continuous professional development?
4. What in your view is the impact of these continuous professional
development programs on i) teachers’ performance ii) pupils’ achievement
in this school, county?
5. Are teachers given information and support as far as their continuous
professional development is concerned? What form of support?
6. Are you satisfied with the current state of teacher PD? How, in your view
can primary teachers’ continuous professional development be improved in
order to have great impact on teacher performance and pupils’
achievement?
196
Appendix V
Questionnaire Validation Tool
The purpose of this tool is to kindly ask you to validate the items that are
going to be used to collect data on ‘Effect of teacher professional development
on KCPE achievement’ by indicating against each item if it is relevant or
irrelevant.
Objective one: Teacher Perceptions on professional development
Perceptions in the study will be gauged based on teacher reasons for engaging in
professional development, their perceived benefits of professional development
and its effect on academic achievement.
Opinion on reasons for engaging in professional development
Reason Very Relevant Irrelevant Very

relevant Irrelevant
Salary increment
Promotion
Transfer service from primary to
secondary
To be given administrative
positions
To gain more knowledge in my
teaching subjects
To enhance my teaching methods
To improve my professional
conduct
To improve learner achievement
Opinion on benefit/relevance of professional development to the teacher
Very Relevant Irrelevant Very

Relevant Irrelevant
Extent to which professional
development has contributed in
improving knowledge in their
teaching subject(s)
Extent to which professional
development has helped enhance
teaching skills
Responsibilities given at school
after professional development
197
Opinion on effect of professional development on achievement

relevant irrelevant
Range of increase in mean
score after professional
development
Objective two: Teacher participation in formal training

In the study, teacher participation in formal training comprises teacher academic
qualifications and attendance to other in service training opportunities
Very Relevant irrelevant Very

relevant irrelevant
Teacher academic
qualification when joining
profession
Teacher current highest
academic qualification
Other training opportunities
attended in the last 5 years
Number of other training
opportunities attended
Duration of the courses
attended
Objective 3: Teacher participation in collaborative professional development

programs
In the study, collaborative activities are teachers engaged in professional activities
with other teachers at the school level i.e. lesson observation, mentoring/peer
coaching
relevant irrelevant
How teachers share knowledge
from professional development
with other teachers
Areas in which the teacher has
been assisted by other teachers
in their teaching
Areas in which the teacher has
assisted other teachers in their
teaching
Number of times one has been
observed by other teachers
while teaching
Number of times one has
observed other teachers while
teaching
198
Objective 4: school head teacher leadership
The study views school head teacher leadership as the support head teachers
provide for teacher professional development

relevant irrelevant
Head teacher provision of
information on
to teachers
Head teacher
recommendation of
teachers for professional
development
financial resources for PD
teaching/learning
resources for
implementation of PD
knowledge and skills
program for teachers to
engage each other in
at school
Head teacher invitation of
experts/guests to assist
teachers professionally
199
Appendix VI:
Letter of Research Authorization

200
Appendix VII:
Research Permit

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EFFECT OF TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON

ACHIEVEMENT IN KENYA CERTIFICATE OF PRIMARY

EXAMINATION IN KIRINYAGA COUNTY, KENYA

DAMARIS WAGIKONDI KARIUKI

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR

OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, KENYATTA

other university/institution for consideration of any certification. This research

proposal has been complemented by referenced sources duly acknowledged

according to anti-plagiarism regulations.

DAMARIS WAGIKONDI KARIUKI Date

under our supervision as university supervisors.

DR. NORBERT OGETA Date

DR. FLORENCE ITEGI Date

I acknowledge the invaluable support and guidance I received from my

inspire my academic career. I am also indebted to Prof. Fatuma Chege, DVC

(Administration) Kenyatta University for her guidance especially in the field of

educational research have shaped my outlook of research instruments, research

me an opportunity to be introduced to participatory visual methodologies. I also

Policy and Curriculum Studies, Kenyatta University. My sincere thanks also go to

shaping this work. I acknowledge the encouragement I received from my study

mates Dr. Mary Gaturu and Dr. Christopher Mugambi.

God bless you all.

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................. 27

2.2 Teacher Perceptions on Continuing Professional Development and

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................... 81

4.4.2.2 Teacher assisting others ................................................... 133

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................... 159

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 167

Figure 1.2: A model of Teacher professional development and KPCE

Table 3.1: Target population........................................................................... 66

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ATS Approved Teacher Status

CPD Continuing professional Development

EFA Education for All

ICT Information Communication Technology

INSET In-Service Education and Training

KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Program

KIE Kenya Institute of Education

KNEC Kenya National Examination Council

KNUT Kenya National Union of Teachers

MOEST Ministry of Education Science and Technology

NGO Non-Government Organization

SMASE Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in Education

SbTD School Based Teacher Development

TAC Teacher Advisory Centre

TPC Teacher Proficiency Course

TPD Teacher Professional Development

TSC Teachers Service Commission

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Teacher professional development is a critical component of educational reforms

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

purpose, significance of the study as well as the theoretical and conceptual

frameworks and operational definition of terms.

1.1 Background of the Study

instructional activity and curriculum delivery. Therefore, he or she is an important

an issue of great concern. This is because quality professional development